CHAPTER 2 -SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

FLOWER – A FASCINATING ORGAN OF ANGIOSPERM

Pre fertilization: structure and events:

• Hormonal and structural changes in plants leads to development of flower

• Androecium consists of a whorl of stamens represents male sex organ.
• Gynoecium represents the female reproductive organ.
Stamen, Microsporangium and Pollen grain:
• Typical stamen consists of two parts, long and slender stalk called filament and terminal bilobed structure
called anther.
• A typical angiosperm anther is bilobed.
• Each lobe has two theca i.e. dithecous
. • Each anther contains four microsporangia located at the corners, two in each lobe
. • Microsporangia become pollen sacs and are packed with pollen grains.
Structure of microsporangium:
• Each microsporangium surrounded by four wall layers Epidermis, Endothecium, Middle layer and Tapetum.
• The innermost layer is tapetum which is multinucleated, with dense cytoplasm; it nourishes the developing
pollen grain.
• The centre of each microsporangium contains homogenous cells called sporogenous tissue.
T.S of a young anther of an angiosperm:

Microsporogenesis:
• The process of formation of microspores from pollen mother cell through meiosis is called
microsporogenesis.
• The sporogenous tissue of microsporangium differentiated into microspore mother cell or pollen mother
cell.
• Each microspore mother cell undergoes meiosis and gives rise to haploid microspore tetrad.
• On dehydration microspore tetrad dissociated to form four microspores.
• Each microspore developed into a pollen grain.
Pollen grain:
• Pollen grain represents the male gametophytes.
• It is spherical and measuring about 25-50 micrometre in diameter

• It is covered by two layers. The hard-outer layer called the exine is made up of sporopollenin, which is one of
the most resistant organic materials known. It can withstand high temperature and strong acids and alkali. No
enzyme can degrade sporopollenin is so far kno wn.
• The exine has prominent apertures called germ pore where sporopollenin is absent

• The inner wall of pollen grain is called intine. It is thin and continuous layer made of cellulose and pectin.
• On maturity the pollen grain contains two cells, the vegetative cell and generative cell.
• The vegetative cell is bigger, has abundant food reserve and a large irregularly shaped nucleus.
• The generative cell is small and floats in the cytoplasm of vegetative cell.
• In 60% of angiosperms, pollen grains are shed at this 2-celled stage.
• In others the generative cell divides mitotically to form two male gametes before pollen grain are shed (3-
celled stage).
Importance Of pollen grains
Pollen grains are rich in nutrients hence used as pollen tablets for food supplements, Pollen consumptions
increase performance of athletes and race horses.
In wheat and rice the pollen grain lose viability within 30 min. of their release.
• In Rosaceae, Leguminosae and Solanaceae they remain viable for months.
Harmful effects of Pollen Grains
Pollen grain may cause severe allergies and bronchial afflictions.
• It may cause chronic respiratory disorders – asthma, bronchitis, etc.
• Pollen grain of Parthenium or carrot grass causes pollen allergy.
The Pistil, Megasporangium (ovule) and Embryo Sac:
• The Gynoecium represents the female reproductive part of the flower. The Gynoecium may contain single
pistil (monocarpellary) or may have more than one pistil (multicarpellary). Fused pistils are called syncarpous
and free pistils are called apocarpous. Each pistil has three parts the stigma, style and ovary. Inside the ovary
is the ovarian cavity (locule). The placenta located inside the ovarian cavity.
• Megasporongia or ovules arise from the placenta. The number of ovules inside the ovary may be single or
many.
The Megasporangium (Ovule):
• Ovule is a small structure attached to the placenta of locule with a stalk called funicle
. • The body of the ovule fused with the funicle in the region called hilum.
• Hilum is the junction between the funicle and ovule.
• Each ovule has one or two protective envelops called integuments.
• Integument covered the ovule except an opening at the top called micropyle.
• Opposite of the micropylar end, is the chalaza, representing the basal part of the ovule?

Megasporogenesis: • The process of formation of megaspores from the megaspore mother cell is called
Megasporogenesis
India has only 2.4 percent of the world’s land area; its share of global species diversity is impressive
8.1 percent.
India is considered one of the mega diversity countries of the world. • In the centre of the ovule there is a
mass of tissue called nucellus.
• Cells of nucellus have abundant reserve food materials.
• One cell of the nucellus towards micropylar end differentiated into megaspore mother cell (MMC).
• It is a large diploid cell, dense cytoplasm with prominent nucleus.
• The MMC undergo meiotic division resulting four haploid megaspores.
Female gametophyte:
The typical angiosperm female gametophyte at maturity consist of 7 celled and 8 nucleate stage.
•The nucleus of the functional megaspore divided by mitotic division to form two nuclei which move to the
opposite pole, 2-nucleated embryo sac.
• Two successive mitotic division leads to formation of 4-nucleate and later 8-nucleate stages of embryo sac.

Pollination: Transfer of Pollen grains from anther of a flower to stigma of the flower

Agents of pollination
Anemophily: Pollinating agent is wind.
Hydrophily: Pollination by abiotic agent like water.
Outbreeding Devices:
• Majority of the flowering plants produce hermaphrodite flower and undergo autogamy.
• Continuous autogamy or self-pollination results inbreeding depression.
• Flowering plants have developed many devices to avoid self-pollination and to encourage crosspollination.
Such devices are called Outbreeding devices. For example-
Pollen released and stigma receptivity is not synchronized.
Spatial separation of anthers and stigmas
Anther and stigma are placed at different positions.
Double fertilization:
• After entering one of the synergids, the pollen tube releases two male gametes into the cytoplasm of the
synergids.
• Syngamy: one of the male gametes fused with egg cell, to form a diploid zygote.
• Two polar nuclei of central cell fused to form a diploid secondary nucleus.
• Triple fusion: The second male gamete fused with the secondary nucleus to form a triploid primary
endosperm nucleus.
• Since two type of fusion, syngamy and triple fusion take place in the embryo sac the phenomenon is termed
as double fertilization.
• The central cell after triple fusion becomes primary endosperm cell and developed into the endosperm.
• The zygote developed into an embryo.

POST- FERTILIZATION : STRUCTURE AND EVENTS

Events of endosperm and embryo development, maturation of ovule into seed and ovary into fruit, are
collectively termed as post-fertilization events.
Endosperm:
• Development of endosperm takes place before the embryo development.
• Primary endosperm cell divides repeatedly to form a triploid endosperm.
• Cells are filled with reserve food material and are used for the nutrition of the developing embryo.
• PEN undergoes successive nuclear division to give rise to free nuclei. This is called free-nuclear endosperm.
• Subsequently cell wall formation takes place and become cellular endosperm.
• The coconut water is free nuclear endosperm and the white kernel is the cellular endosperm.
• Endosperm may be consumed completely during embryo developed or it may be consumed during
germination of seeds
Embryo:
• Zygote formed and placed at the micropylar end of the embryo sac.
• Zygote starts its development only after some amount of endosperm formed.
• Embryo development takes place in following stages: Proembryo, Globular stage, Heart shaped and
Matured embryo.

Dicot embryo:
• A typical dicotyledonous embryo consists of an embryonal axis and two cotyledons.
• Embryonal axis above the cotyledon is the epicotyls.
• Terminal part of the epicotyls is the plumule (gives rise to the shoot).
• Embryonal axis below the cotyledon is the hypocotyl.
• The terminal part of the hypocotyl is called the radicle (root tip).
• The root tip is covered by the root cap.
Monocot embryo:
• Possesses only one cotyledon
• In grass family the cotyledon is called scutellum.
• Scutellum situated towards one side of the embryonal axis.
• Radicle and the root cap enclosed by a sheath called coleorhiza.
• The portion of the embryonal axis above level of attachment of scutellum is called epicotyls.
• Epicotyl has the shoot apex or plumule enclosed by hollow foliar structure called coleoptile.
APOMIXIS AND POLYEMBRYONY.
• Apomixis is very common in Asteraceae and grasses.
• Seeds are produced without fertilization.
• Apomixis is a type of asexual reproduction which mimics the sexual reproduction.
• Diploid egg cell is formed without meiosis and develops into seed without fertilization.
• In Citrus and Mango, the nucellar cells starts dividing, protrude into the embryo sac and develop into
embryo.
• Ovule having more than one embryo is termed as polyembryony.
• Hybrid plants are developed by apomixis to maintain the genetic identity. CHAPTER 3 -HUMAN

CH.3-HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Scrotum It is a pouch-like structure outside the abdominal cavity in which the testers are
situated. It helps in maintaining the low temperature of the testes (2–2.5o C lower than
the normal internal body temperature) necessary for spermatogenesis

Seminiferous tubule In each testicular lobule 1- 3 highly coiled seminiferous tubules in which sperms are
produced.
Sertoli cell Sertoli cells provide nutrition to the male germ cells
Leydig cell Present in interstitial space (regions outside the seminiferous tubules). It secretes
testicular hormones called androgens
Urethral meatus It is the external opening of the penis.
Seminal plasma Secretion of the male accessory glands (seminal vesicles, prostate and bulbourethral
gland) constitute the seminal plasma.
Male accessory Paired seminal vesicles, prostate and paired bulbourethral glands
glands
Spermatogonia Immature diploid male germ cells (Spermatogonia) produce sperms by
spermatogenesis. These are present on the inside wall of the seminiferous tubule.
Acrosome Cap-like structure on sperm head. it is enzymes that help fertilization of the ovum.
Semen The seminal plasma along with the sperms constitutes the semen.
Oogonia Gamete mother cells (oogonia) are formed within each fetal ovary which later develops
into the egg.

Graafian follicle Mature follicles formed during oogenesis. When it own ruptures releases the secondary
oocyte (ovum) and reaming part forms the corpus luteum.

Corpus luteum
After ovulation remaining parts of the Graafian follicle transform in the corpus luteum.
It secretes progesterone hormone, which is essential for the maintenance of the
endometrium.

Polar body It is a small haploid cell that is formed during oogenesis. It can’t be fertilized.

Cleavage The mitotic division in the zygote is called cleavage.

Placenta The chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigitated with each other and jointly
form a structural and functional unit called the placenta

Chorionic villi After implantation, finger-like projections appear on the trophoblast called chorionic
villi which are surrounded by the uterine tissue and maternal blood

Stem cell
Inner cell mass contains certain cells called stem cells which have the potency to give
rise to all the tissues and organs.

Implantation
Implantation is the process in which the mammalian embryo (blastocyst) becomes
attached to the endometrium of the uterus.

Foetus ejection
reflex Mild uterine contractions are generated by the placenta when the foetus is fully
developed, at the time of parturition

SPER MATOGENESIS
The fusion of sperm and ovum is called fertilization. It leads to the formation of Zygote.
• Site- ampulla-isthmic junction.
• Zona-pellucida layer of the ovum block the entry of the additional sperms thus only one sperm fertilizes the
ovum
IMPLANTATION:
It is anchoring or embedding of the blastocyst in to endometrium of the uterus. Implantation begins about
seventh day after fertilisation of ovum.
PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

PARTURITION ( L. Parturitio -Child Birth) It is the process of giving birth to a baby

The physical activities involved in in Parturition like uterine and abdominal contraction, dilation of cervix and
passage of baby are collectively called as labour.
Parturition is controlled by complex neuroendocrine mechanism. Signal originates from the fully developed
foetus and placenta. They cause mild uterine contraction called as foetal ejection reflex .
Lactation : The Fluid secreted by mammary glands soon after child birth is called colostrum . Its volume is so
small. Colostrum has proteins, lactose and antibodies but fat content is very little. Normal milk production is
controlled by hormone Prolactin .
CHAPTER- 4 REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
WHO: reproductive health means total Well-being in all aspects of reproduction i.e. physical, emotional,
behavioural and social
Amniocentesis –
• Amniocentesis is a procedure used to take out a small sample of the amniotic fluid for testing of
chromosomal abnormalities in a developing embryo.
• Misuse- It is also misused to check foetal sex determination based on the chromosomal pattern in the
amniotic fluid surrounding the developing embryo.
POPULATION EXPLOSION AND BIRTH CONTROL
The tremendous increase in size and growth rate of population is called population explosion .
Reasons for high population growth
a) Decline in death rate . There has been a decline in death rate due to improved health care facilities
,reduced maternal mortality rate (MMR) and reduced infant mortality rate (IMR)
b) Slower decline in birth rate
c) Longer life span and lack of education
An ideal contraceptive should be-
User friendly , easily available , effective , reversible, no side effect, and in no way interfere with sexual act
MEDICAL TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY (MTP)
• Voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term is called MTP or induced abortion.
• In India, MTP is legalized in 1971 with some strict conditions to avoid its misuse like female foeticide.
• MTP is used to get rides of unwanted pregnancy due to unprotected intercourse or failure of contraceptives
used during coitus or rapes.
• It is relatively safe during the first trimester or up to 12 weeks of pregnancy.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDS)
• Diseases or infections which are transmitted through sexual intercourse are collectively called sexually
transmitted diseases (STD) or venereal diseases (VD) or reproductive tract infections (RTI).
• Examples- HIV- AIDS, Genital warts, Hepatitis, Gonorrhoea, syphilis, genital herpes, chlamydiosis,
trichomoniasis etc.
• Some infections like Hepatitis-B and HIV are also transmitted by sharing injection needles, surgical
instruments with the infected person, transfusion of blood, or from infected mother to foetus.
One could be free of these infections by following the simple principles given below:
(i) Avoid sex with unknown partners/multiple partners.
(ii) Always use condoms during coitus.
(iii) In case of doubt, one should go to a qualified doctor for early detection and get complete
treatment if diagnosed with the disease.
INFERTILITY it is the failure to conceive even after 1-2 years of regular unprotected sex.
ART (assisted reproductive technologies)- Infertile couples can be assisted to have children through certain
special techniques commonly called (ART).
IVF or in vitro fertilisation is the technique of fertilisation carried out in glass container outside the body of
mother. this is also known as test tube baby
GIFT (Gamete intra fallopian transfer) and ZIFT (Zygote intrafallopian transfer) techniques were also used.
 UNIT-VII GENETICS AND EVOLUTION
CHAPTER NO-5
PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION
Mendel’s Experiments
● Gregor Johann Mendel known as the father of genetics proposed the laws of inheritance.
● He used garden pea as his sample.
Monohybrid Cross
● Cross that considers only a single character (e.g., height of the part)
● Studying the cross:
○ TT, tt, and Tt are genotypes while the traits, tall and dwarf, are phenotypes.
○ T stands for tall trait while t stands for dwarf trait.
○ Even if a single ‘T’ is present in the genotype, phenotype is ‘tall’.When ‘T’ and ‘t’ are present together, ‘T’
dominates and suppresses the expression of ‘t’. Therefore, T (for tallness) is dominant trait while t (for
dwarfness) is recessive trait.
○ TT and tt are homozygous while Tt is heterozygous.
○ From the cross, it can be found that alleles of parental pair separate or segregate from each other and only
one allele is transmitted to the gamete.
○ Gametes of TT will have only T alleles; gametes of tt will have only t alleles, but gametes of Tt will have both
T and t alleles. Genotypic ratio in F2 generation can be found. TT: Tt: tt is 1:2:1.
○ The ratio 1:2:1 or of TT: Tt: tt
○ Gamete bearing genes are in equal frequency .
○ Hence, the expression can be expanded as

Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance

● Based on his experiments, Mendel proposed three laws or principles of inheritance:
○ Law of Dominance
○ Law of Segregation
○ Law of Independent Assortment
Test Cross
● Cross between F2progeny and its homozygous recessive parent
● This cross determines whether the dominant character is coming from homozygous dominant genotype or
heterozygous genotype. (e.g., tallness coming from TT or Tt)
Incomplete Dominance
● In incomplete dominance, F 1generation has a phenotype that does not resemble either of the two parents,
but is a mixture of the two.
● Example - Flower colour in dog flower (snapdragon), where:
○ RR - Red flowers
○ rr - White flowers
○ Rr - Pink flowers
● Here, genotypic ratio remains same as in Mendelian crosses, but phenotypic ratio changes since complete
dominance is not shown by R (hence, incomplete dominance).
● Phenotypic Ratio - 1:2:1 that denotes Red: Pink: White
● Genotypic Ratio - 1:2:1 that denotes RR: Rr: rr

Inheritance of Two Genes (Dihybrid Cross)

● In dihybrid cross, we consider two characters. (e.g., seed colour and seed shape)
● Yellow colour and round shape is dominant over green colour and wrinkled shape.
● Phenotypic ratio - 9:3:3:1 Round yellow - 9 Round green - 3 Wrinkled yellow - 3 Wrinkled green -1

○ Linkage - Physical association of genes on a chromosome

○ Recombination - Nonparental gene combination

Sex Determination
● Chromosomes involved in sex determination are called sex chromosomes, while the other chromosomes are
called autosomes.
● XO type of sex determination
○ Other than autosomes, at least one X chromosome is present in all insects.
Females have XX chromosomes.
Males have XO chromosome.
○ Example -Insects
● XY type of sex determination
males are XY.
females are XX.
○ Example -Humans and Drosophila
● Male heterogamety - XO and XY types of sex determination are
examples of male heterogamety.
○ In XO type,
○ In XY type,
● Female heterogamety -
○ In ZW type,
Mutation
● Alteration of DNA sequence resulting in changes in genotype and phenotype of organisms
● DNA helix runs in a chromatid, hence any change (insertion or deletion) in the DNA sequence affects the
chromosome.
● Point Mutation - Mutation arising due to change in single base pair of DNA as in sickle cell anaemia
● Frameshift Mutation - Mutations arising due to deletion or insertion in DNA sequence
● Mutagens - Chemical or physical agents that lead to mutations Example - UV radiations
Genetic Disorders
● Include Mendelian disorders and chromosomal disorders
Mendelian Disorders
○ autosomal dominant (muscular dystrophy)
○ autosomal recessive (sickle cell anaemia)
○ sex linked (haemophilia)
● Haemophilia
○ Sexlinked recessive disease
○ Transmission - From unaffected female (carrier) to maleprogeny
○ Females act as carriers of disease, but rarely suffer from haemophilia since for a female to become
haemophilic, the mother should be carrier and father should be haemophilic.
○ In this disease, protein involved in blood clotting is affected.Therefore, even a simple cut results in
uncontrolled bleeding.
● Sickle cell anaemia
○ Autosomal recessive disease
○ Cause of the disease - Change in gene causes the replacement of GAG by GUG leading to the substitution of
Glu by Val at sixthposition of beta globin chain of haemoglobin.
○ The mutant haemoglobin so formed polymerises at low oxygen tension, resulting in change in shape of RBC
to sicklelike.
● Phenylketonuria
○ Autosomal recessive disease
○ Phenylalanine Tyrosine,The enzyme responsible for this conversion gets mutated.
○ Phenylalanine accumulates. Then,Phenylalanine →Phenylpyruvic acid →Accumulates in brain → Mental
retardation
○ Phenylpyruvic acid also gets excreted through urine since kidneys poorly reabsorb it.
Chromosomal Disorders
● Down’s Syndrome
○ Cause: Presence of an additional copy of chromosome 21(Trisomy of 21)
○ Affected individual has short stature, small, round head,furrowed tongue, partially opened mouth, palm
crease,congenital heart disease and mental retardation.
● Klinefelter Syndrome
○ Cause: Additional copy of X chromosome, i.e., 47 chromosomes(XXY)
○ Affected individual has an overall masculine development with gynaecomastia; individual is sterile
● Turner’s Syndrome
○ Cause: Absence of one X chromosome, i.e., 45 chromosomes (XO).
○ Affected females are sterile; have rudimentary ovaries;secondary sexual characters are absent MOLECULAR
BASIS OF INHERITANCE
● DNA - Polymer of deoxy ribonucleotides
● Nucleoside = Nitrogenous base + Pentose sugar (linked throughN -glycosidic bond )
Example - adenosine, deoxyadenosine, cytidine, etc.
● Nucleotide = Nucleoside + Phosphate group (linked throughphosphodiester bond )
● Many nucleotides link together through 3′ - 5′ phosphodiester bond to form polynucleotide chain (as in
DNA and RNA).
● In course of formation of polynucleotide chain, a phosphate moiety remains free at 5′ end of ribose sugar (5′
end of polymer chain) and one OH group remains free at 3′ end of ribose (3′ end of polymer chain).
Double Helix Model for the Structure of DNA ●
○ Watson and Crick- Proposed double helix structure model for DNA based on Xray diffraction data
○ Erwin Chargaff- Proposed that in ds DNA, ratios A:T and C:G remain same and are equal to one
Features of double helix structure of DNA:
● In a DNA, two polynucleotide chains are coiled to form a helix. Sugarphosphate forms backbone of this helix
while bases project in wards to each other.
● Complementary bases pair with each other through hydrogen bond. Purines always pair with their
corresponding pyrimidines. Adenine pairs with thymine through two hydrogen bonds while guanine pairs with
cytosine through three hydrogen bonds.
○ The helix is right handed. Pitch - 3.4 nm 10 bp in each turn
○ The plane of one base pair stacks over the other in a double helix. This provides stability to the helix along
with hydrogen bonding.
● Organisation of DNA in eukaryotes:
○ They have positively charged basic proteins called histones(positive and basic due to presence of positive
and basic amino acid residues, lysine and arginine).
○ Histone octamer - Unit of eight molecules of histone ,DNA (negatively charged) winds around histone
octamer (positively charged) to form nucleosome. 1 nucleosome has approx. 200 bp of DNA.
○ Nonhistone chromosomal proteins - Additional set of proteins required for packaging of chromatin at higher
level

Discovery of DNA as a Genetic Material

Transforming Principle
● Griffith performed experiments with the bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae . This bacterium has two
strains - S strain and R strain.
S strain Bacteria R strain Bacteria
○ Produce smooth colonies on culture plate ○ Produce rough colonies on culture plate
○ Have a polysaccharide coat ○ Do not have a polysaccharide coat
○ Virulent (causes pneumonia) ○ Non virulent (does not cause pneumonia)

● Griffith’s experiment
● Live R strain in the presence of heat killed S strain produce virulence because somehow R strain bacteria is
transformed by heat killed S strain bacteria. Hence, it was concluded that there must be transfer of genetic
material. .
Hershey and Chase Experiment to Confirm DNA as the Genetic Material
● Hershey and Chase worked on bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria). When a bacteriophage infects a
bacterium, the viral genetic material gets attached with the bacterial genetic material and bacteria then treats
the viral genetic material as its own to synthesise more viral particles. Hershey and Chase worked to discover
whether it was a protein or DNA that entered the bacteria from virus.They labelled some phages with
radioactive sulphur and the others with radioactive phosphorus.These radioactive phages were used to infect
E. coli .
● E.coli was then blended and centrifuged to remove viral particles. It was observed that bacteria with
radioactive DNA were radioactive while those with radioactive proteins lost their radioactivity.
● This showed that it is the DNA that enters the bacteria from viruses and not proteins. Hence, it was
concluded that DNA is the genetic material.
Properties of the Genetic Material
● It should be able to replicate (duplicate to produce its identical copy).
● It should be chemically and structurally stable.
● It should have scope for changes that are essential for evolution.
● It should follow the Mendelian principles of inheritance.
● Difference between DNA and RNA:
DNA RNA
○ Has deoxy ribosesugar ○ Has ribose sugar
○ 5methyl uracil (thymine) is present. ○ Uracil is present in place of thymine.
○ Mostly DNA acts as the genetic ○ RNA acts as a messenger and adaptor. It acts as a genetic
material. material in some viruses.
○ Presence of 2′ OH group at every nucleotide makes RNA
○ DNA is stable.
labile and easily biodegradable.
○ Chemically less reactive, mutates slowly ○ Mutation in RNA is faster.
○ DNA requires RNA for protein synthesis.
○ RNA directly codes for proteins.
DNA →RNA →Protein
Why DNA is more stable than RNA?
● In RNA, a 2′ OH group is present at every nucleotide. This makes RNA unstable and degradable.
● Presence of thymine in place of uracil confers additional stability to DNA.
● RNA being a biocatalyst is more reactive.
● DNA is double stranded having complementary strand, which resists the changes by repair mechanism.
What is DNA Replication?
● DNA replication is the phenomenon in which a duplicate copy of DNA is synthesised.
● In replication, two strands of the DNA helix separate and each strand acts as a template for synthesing new
complementary strands.

● After completion of replication, the two copies so produced will have one parental and one newly
synthesised strand. This scheme of replication is called semiconservative replication.
Experiment to Prove That DNA Replicates Semi Conservatively

● Performed by - Messelson and Stahl

● E.coliwas grown in a medium containing heavy isotope 15N as the nitrogen source.
● 15 N was incorporated into newly synthesised DNA as well and the DNA became heavy DNA.
● Heavy DNA molecule can be differentiated from normal DNA by density gradient centrifugation using cesium
chloride as the gradient.
● Then, cells were again transferred into a medium with 14N as nitrogen source. Samples were taken from
this media and their DNA was extracted.
● E .colidivides every 20 minutes. Therefore, the DNA extracted after 20minutes had a hybrid density.
● DNA extracted after 40 minutes had equal amount of hybrid and light intensities.
● This implies that the newly synthesised DNA obtained one of its strands from the parent. Thus, replication is
semiconservative.
Transcription
● Transcription is the process of formation of RNA molecules from the DNA.
Transcriptional Unit
● A transcriptional unit has primarily three regions:
○ Promoter - Marks the beginning of transcription; RNApolymerase binds here
○ Structural gene - Part of the DNA that is actually transcribed
○ Terminator - Marks the end of transcription Template Strand and Coding Strand
● Enzyme involved in transcription, RNA polymerase (DNA dependent RNA polymerase), catalyses in only one
direction i.e., 5′ to 3′.
● Therefore, the strand with polarity 3′ →5′ acts as a template(Template Strand).
● The strand with polarity 5′ →3′ acts as coding strand (which is a monomer since it does not code for
anything). Coding strand has sequence similar to RNA formed after transcription except for the change that
thymine is present instead of uracil.

Types of RNA
● mRNA (messenger RNA) - It serves as a template for protein synthesis. DNA is transcribed to form an mRNA,
which in turn is translated to form protein. [Central dogma of molecular biology]
● tRNA (transfer RNA) - It brings amino acids during translation and reads the genetic code.
● rRNA (ribosomal RNA) - These are the work benches of translation.They play a structural and catalytic role
during translation.
Transcription Process
● Transcription has three steps - initiation, elongation, and termination.
● Initiation:
○ RNA polymerase binds with the promoter to initiate the process of transcription.
○ Association with initiation factor (σ) alters the specificity of RNA polymerase to initiate the transcription.
● Elongation :
○ RNA polymerase uses nucleotide triphosphate as substrate, and polymerisation occurs according to
complementarity.
● Termination:
○ Termination occurs when termination factor (P) alters the specificity of RNA polymerase to terminate the
transcription.
Genetic Code
● Salient features of genetic code:
○ Codon is triplet. 4 3= 64 (61 codons code for amino acids while 3 are stop codons)
○ One codon codes for a single specific amino acid. Codons are unambiguous.
○ Codons are degenerate since some amino acids are coded by more than one codon.
○ Genetic code is universal. 1 codon codes for same amino acid in all species.
○ Codons are read continuous. They lack punctuations.
○ AUG has dual functions - Codes for Methionine and acts as a start codon
LacOperon
● Operon - An arrangement where a polycistronic gene is regulated by a common promoter and regulatory
genes
● Lacoperon, trpoperon, hisoperon, valoperon are the examples of such systems.
● The elucidation of lacoperon as a transcriptionally active system was first done by geneticist Jacob and
biochemist Monod.
● Genes constituting lac operon:
Gene Nature Function
igene Inhibitor It codes for repressor of lac operon.
zgene Structural It codes for βgalactosidase.Lactose Galactose + Glucose
 It codes for permease, which increases the permeability of cell to β-
ygene Structural
galactosidase.

agene Structural It codes for transacetylase.

● All genes involved in lacoperon are required for metabolism of lactose.
● Inducer- Lactose acts as an inducer forlacoperon since it regulates the switching on and off of the operon.
● If lactose is provided to the growth media of bacteria in absence of any other carbon source, then it is
transported inside the cells by permease.
● For permease to be present and lactose to enter inside the cells, low level of expression of lacoperon must
be present all the time.
Regulation in Absence of Inducer
● In absence of inducer, igene transcribes to synthesise repressor mRNA, which translates to form repressor.
● This repressor binds with the operator region of operon and prevents RNA polymerase to transcribe genes -
z , y , and a(negative regulation).
● Therefore, in absence of the products of these genes, metabolism of lactose ceases.

Regulation in Presence of Inducer

● Inducer binds with the protein product of gene i(repressor) and inactivates it.
● This inactivated repressor is unable to inactivate RNA polymerase enzyme and z , y , and a genes
synthesise their respective mRNA, which in turn gets translated to form βgalactosidase, permease, and
transacetylase.
● In presence of all these enzymes, the metabolism of lactose proceeds in a normal manner.

.
DNA Fingerprinting
Methodology of DNA fingerprinting
● VNTR (variable number of tandem repeats) are satellite DNAs that show high degree of polymorphism.
● VNTRs are used as probes in DNA fingerprinting.
● First of all, DNA from an individual is isolated and cut with restriction endonucleases.
● Fragments are separated according to their size and molecular weight on gel electrophoresis.
● Fragments separated on electrophoresis gel are blotted (immobilised) on a synthetic membrane such as
nylon or nitrocellulose.
● Immobilised fragments are hybridised with a VNTR probe.
● Hybridised DNA fragments can be detected by autoradiography.
● VNTRs vary in size from 0.1 to 20 kb.
● Hence, in the autoradiogram, band of different sizes will be obtained.
● These bands are characteristic for an individual. They are different in each individual, except identical twins
 Evolution
Origin of Life
Urey and Miller experiment
● Primitive atmosphere had high temperature, volcanic storms, and reducing atmosphere, containing CH 4,
NH 3, H 2, etc.
● Urey and Miller took the same compounds in a closed flask along with water vapour at 800 º C and created
an electric discharge.
● Formation of biomolecules such as amino acids, simple sugars, fats, etc. was observed in the flask.

Evidences of Evolution
● Fossils- They represent plants and animals that lived millions of years ago and are now extinct. Different
aged rock sediments contain fossils of different life-forms, which probably died during the formation of the
particular sediment.
● Comparative anatomy and morphology- It shows evidences of the similarities and differences between
living forms of today and that of the prehistoric times. Some of the examples of comparative anatomy and
morphology are:
● Homologous organs- All mammals share the same pattern of forelimbs. Though they perform different
functions, they are anatomically similar. This is called divergent evolution and the structures are called
homologous structures (common ancestors).
● Analogous organs- The pair of organs is not anatomically similar, but performs the same function (e.g., the
wings of butterflies and birds). This is called convergent evolution .
● Adaptive melanism- In England, it was noted that before industrial revolution, the number of white winged
moths was more than that of dark melanised moth. However, after industrialisation, there were more of dark
melanised moths. The explanation was that after industrialization, the tree trunks became darker with
deposits of soot and smoke and hence, the number of dark moths increased in order to protect themselves
from predators while the white winged ones were easily picked up by the predators.
● Similarly, the herbicide and pesticide resistant plants and animals and antibiotic resistant bacteria are some
of the evidences that point towards evolution.
Adaptive Radiation
● During his exploration of the Galapagos Islands, Darwin noticed that there were many varieties of finches in
the same island.
● They varied from normal seed eating varieties to those that ate insects.
● This process of evolution starting from a single point and radiating in different directions is called adaptive
radiation.
● The other example for this is the evolution of the Australian marsupials from a single ancestor. Placental
mammals also exhibit similarities to their corresponding marsupial. Example: placental wolf and the Tasmanian
wolf
● When more than one adaptive radiation occurs in an isolated geographical area, the phenomenon is called
convergent evolution.

Hardy Weinberg Principle

● The frequency of occurrence of alleles of a gene in a population remains constant through generations
unless
disturbances such as mutations, non-random mating, etc. are introduced.
● Genetic equilibrium (gene pool remains constant) is a state which provides a baseline to measure genetic
change.
● Sum total of all allelic frequencies is 1.
● Individual frequencies are represented as p and q such as in a diploid, where p and q represent the
frequency of allele Aand a .
The frequency of AAis p 2 , that of aais q 2 , and that of Aais 2pq.
 ● Hence, p 2+ 2pq + q 2= 1, which is the expansion of (p + q) 2 .
● When the frequency measured is different from that expected, it is indicative of evolutionary change.
● Hardy Weinberg equilibrium is affected by
● gene flow or gene migration
● genetic drift (changes occurring by chance)
● mutation
● genetic recombination
● natural selection
● Sometimes, the change in allele frequency is so prominent in the new sample of population that they
become a different species and the original drifted population becomes the founder. This effect is called
founder effect.
● The advantageous mutations that help in natural selection over the generations give rise to new phenotypes
and result in speciation.
Evolution of Plants and Animals
Evolution of Plants
● Cellular life forms occurred on earth about 2000 million years ago.
● Some of these cells had the ability to produce oxygen through reactions similar to photosynthesis.
● Slowly, singlecelled organisms became multicellular.
● Seaweeds and some plants probably existed around 320 million years ago.
Evolution of Animals
● Animals evolved about 500 million years ago. The first of them to evolve were invertebrates.
● Jawless fishes evolved around 350 million years ago.
● Some of the fishes could go on land, and then come back to water. These were the first amphibians. In 1938,
a fish Coelacanth, which was thought to be extinct, was caught in South Africa. This variety of fish, called
lobefins, is believed to have evolved into the first amphibians.
● Amphibians evolved into reptiles. In the next 200 million years, reptiles of different sizes dominated the
earth. However, about 65million years ago, some of them such as dinosaurs disappeared.
● The first among the mammals were small shrew like mammals.
● During continental drift when North America joined South America,primitive mammals suffered, but
pouched mammals of Australia survived the same drift because of lack of competition from other mammals.

UNIT – VIII – BIOLOGY IN HUMAN WELFARE

HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE- IMPORTANT DIFFERENCES/COMPARISIONS
INNATE IMMUNITY ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
1 It is present since birth , it is inherited . This is acquired by an organism during his life due to
encounter with pathogen .
2 It is not pathogen specific . It is highly pathogen specific and has memory too .
3 It includes physical and physiological barriers It involves action of antibodies .

ACTIVE IMMUNITY PASSIVE IMMUNITY

1 Produced by active participation of host’s immune This immunity is not produced by participation of
system . host’s immune system.
2 It occurs due to production of antibodies by the It is produced due to introduction of antibodies from
host due to contact with pathogen . outside source .
3 Immunological memory is present . Immunological memory is not present .
4 Slow in action but effectiveness is high and produces Fast in action and produces short term protection .
long term protection.
Ex – Due to natural infection , due to vaccination ( BCG Ex- anti tetanus serum , rabies vaccine , anti venom
, DPT etc.) against snake bite ,antibodies received by baby
through colostrum or foetus through placenta .
B CELLS T CELLS

1 They are formed in bone marrow and mature in bone They are formed in bone marrow but mature in
marrow itself . thymus
2 They provide humoral immunity - outside They provide cell mediated immunity – inside infected
infected cells through antibodies present in blood cells . They reach sites of infection .
3 They have two components – plasma cells and memory They have three components – helper cells ,
cells . cytotoxic/killer cells , suppressor cells .
4 They constitute 20% of the lymphocytes . They constitute 80% of the lymphocytes .

5 They do not respond against cancer cells, tumor and They respond against cancer cells , tumour and
transplants . transplants ( Killer T cells)

NORMAL CELLS CANCEROUS CELLS

1 Normal cells divide in a controlled manner . cancerous cells divide in an uncontrolled manner
.
2 They grow and differentiate They do not grow and differentiate but only
divide .
3 Cells have definite shape and boundary . Cells do not have definite shape and boundary .
4 They show property of contact inhibition . They do not show property of contact inhibition .
5 They do not starve neighbouring cells off nutrients They starve neighbouring cells off nutrients .
6 They tend to stick together and do not show metastasis They do not form clusters and show metastasis .

DETAILS OF INFECTIOUS DISEASE IN TABULAR FORM-

DISEASE PATHOGEN MODE OF INFECTION TARGET ORGAN SYMPTOMS

TYPHOID Salmonella typhi contaminated food and small intestine a)sustained high
water fever(39-40C)
bacteria b)weakness
stomach pain and
constipation
loss of appetite .
PNEUMONIA Streptococcus through air ( droplet alveoli of lungs fever b)cough
pneumonia infection) chills and headache
bacteria Haemophilus influenzae using articles of patient finger nails and lips may
turn gray to bluish .

COMMON COLD Rhino virus through air ( droplet nasal chamber nasal congestion and
virus infection) respiratory tract
discharge
using articles of patient sore throat with
hoarseness c)cough
d)headache
AIDS Human immuno i)sexual contact with macrophages and Fever
deficiency virus (HIV) patient. ii)transfusion of T lymphocytes unexplained weight loss
virus infected blood . c)diarrhea
using infected needles , swelling in lymph nodes
razor etc patient becomes prone
from infected mother to to simple infections .
fetus/baby loss of memory and
speech .
it may even cause death.

Plasmodium vivax P bite of female liver RBC chills and high fever that
ALARIA falciparum Anopheles mosquito repeat after specific
P ovale pattern .
protozoa P malariae lackof appetite ,
jaundice
anaemia , weakness .
 AMOEBIASIS Entamoeba histolytica contaminated food and large intestine constipation
water houseflies behave abdominal pain and
protozoa as cramps .
carrier stool with mucus and
blood clots
ASCARIASIS Ascaris lumbrocoides unwashed fruits and intestine fever
vegetables muscular pain in
helminth soil abdomen
internal bleeding and
anaemia
blockage of intestine .
ELEPHATIASIS Wuchereria bancrofti W bite of female Culex lymphatic vessels chronic inflammation of
malayi mosquito of lower limb lower limbs and genitals
helminth leading to deformity.
Ringworm Microsporum through soil using articles skin scalp nails scaly lesions on various
fungus Trichophyton of parts of body .
Epidermophyton infected person like intense itching in the
towel,comb. lesions.
DRUGS , DRUG ABUSE , DRUG ADDICTION

Class of drug Source Available as Taken as Organ affected Effects

Opioids latex of plant Papaver smack – obtained from injection or by Binds to receptors It is a
somniferum (poppy) acetylation of morphine snorting present in central depressan
extracted from latex . nervous system t and
also available as heroine . and gastro- slows
intestinal down
tract body
function .
Cannabinoids Leaves ,resin and Marijuana , hashish , orally or by Binds to receptors Effects
inflorescence of charas , ganja . inhalation present in brain cardio-
Cannabis sativa vascular
( bhang) system .
Cocaine Coca Seeds of coke , crack by snorting It interferes with Stimiulate
alkaloid Erythroxylum coca transmission of s central
neurotransmitter nervous
dopamine system ,
produces
a sense of
euphoria
and
hallucinati
ons .
Other drugs Datura --- ---- --- hallucinog
Atropa belladona enic

MICROBES IN HUMAN WELFARE-

IN THE FIELD OF FOOD INDUSTRY –

NAME OF MICROBE USE

1 Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) Used for making curd from milk . Lactobacillus acts on lactose present in
Lactobacillus milk

and forms lactic acid that causes coagulation of milk proteins . Thus
curd is formed .
 2 Saccharomyces cerevisiae Baker’s Extensively used in bakery items for making it soft and fluffy .
yeast or Brewer’s yeast
Extensively used in making wine and other beverages from plant juices

Also used for making dishes like dhokla , bhatura

3 Propionibacterium sharmanii Used for making Swiss cheese which has large holes due to production
of large amount of CO2 .

4 Penicillium roqueforti Used for ripening a special Roquefort cheese that has specific flavour .

IN THE FIELD OF MEDICINE AND OTHER BIOMOLECULES –

NAME OF THE MICROBE SOURCE OF USE

1 Penicillium notatum antibiotic Penicillin Used for curing bacterial infection .

2 Monascus purpureus Statins Used for lowering blood cholesterol .

Statin inhibits action of enzyme that
synthesizes cholesterol thus lowers
cholesterol level .

3 Trichoderma polysporum Cyclosporin -A Used as immuno-suppressant in

patients with organ transplant . This
prevents rejection of

organ by body .

4 Streptococcus Streptokinase Used as a clot buster for removing

clots from blood vessels of patients
who are suffering from myocardial
infarction .

5 Aspergillus niger Citric acid Used for large scale production of

citric acid

6 Acetobacter aceti Acetic acid Used for large scale production of

vinegar .

7 Lactobacillus lactic acid Used for large scale production of

lactic acid

8 Clostridium butyricum Butyric acid Used for large scale production of

butyric acid

IN THE FIELD OF AGRICULTURE –

S NAME OF THE MOICROBE NATURE ROLE

NO

1 Rhizobium symbiotic bacteria lives in root nodules of leguminous plants

and fixes nitrogen thus enriching

soil .

2 Nostoc , Anabena , Oscillatoria blue green algae / cyanobacteria fixes nitrogen and grows well in water
logged soil like paddy field .

3. Azotobacter , freeliving , nitrogen fixing fixes nitrogen . spores are mixed with

Azospirillum,Clostridium bacteria water and sprayed .

4 Glomus fungus that forms mycorrhizal This association improves the resistance
association with roots of higher towards salinity , drought and root borne
plants pathogens . It also increases the

absorption of phosphorus by plants .

5 Bacillus thuringiensis bacteria with insecticidal property spores of bacteria are mixed with soil and
sprayed on leaves of crops . On eating
such leaves , the insect larvae die

6 Baculovirus they belong to the genus they are excellent candidates for species
specific , narrow spectrum insecticidal
Nucleopolyhedrovirus
application .

7 Trichoderma Free living fungi They are effective biocontrol agents of

root borne pathogens .

Chapter-11 BIOTECHNOLOGY: PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES

Principles Of Biotechnology
• Genetic engineering
• Bioprocess engineering
Tools Of Biotechnology ---
• Restriction enzymes- -
FIRST – Hind II
• Types- Two – exonuclease and endonuclease
• Recognition sites – Palindromic nucleotide sequence
• Sticky ends and Blunt ends
• Separation and isolation of DNA fragments
• Gel electrophoresis
Vectors – Characterictics –
1. Origin of replication
2.Selectable marker – (a) inactivation of antibiotic resistance gene (b) insertional inactivation
3. Cloning sites
4.Vectors for cloning in plants and animals (a) Agrobacterium tumifaciens – Ti plasmid – In plants (b)
Retroviruses – disarmed - In animal cell
3. Competent host –
1. Heat shock methods – Bacteria 2. Micro-injection - Animal cell 3. Gene gun /bioplastics – Plant cell .
Processes of Recombinant DNA Technology
1.Isolation of genetic material(DNA)
2.Cutting of DNA at specific locations
3.Amplification of gene of interest using PCR
4.Insertion of recombinant DNA into the host cell/ organism
5.Obtaining the foreign gene product
6.Downstream process
Introduction - Biotechnology is the technique of using living organisms or enzymes from organisms to produce
products and processes useful to humans.
In vitro fertilization leading to test tube baby, synthesizing a gene and using it , developing a DNA vaccine or
correcting a defective gene , all are part of biotechnology.
The European Federation of Biotechnology (EFB) has given a definition of biotechnology as the integration of
natural science and organisms, cell, parts thereof and molecular analogues for products and services.
Principles of Biotechnology
1.Genetic Engineering – - Alteration of A genetic material(DNA/RNA) - Altered DNA is called r-DNA
(recombinant DNA). - This altered DNA is then introduced into host organisms to change their phenotype.
2. Bioprocess engineering – Maintenance of sterile condition
Technique of genetic engineering includes construction of–
1. r DNA 2. GENE CLONING 3. GENE TRANSFER
Origin of replication (Ori site ) is a specific DNA sequence in the chromosome which can start DNA replication .
Stanley cohen and Herbert boyer (1972) –First recombinant DNA.
• There are three steps involved in genetically modifying an organism
1. Identification of DNA with desirable gene
2. Introduction of the identified DNA into the host.
3. Maintenance of introduced DNA in the host and transfer of the DNA to its property.
Tools of Biotechnology
Restriction endonuclease (RE) – -
special type of enzymes which are to cut DNA at a specific location – also called molecular scissor. RE are the
part of defense mechanism against bacteriophage infection.
Nomenclature – EcoRI First letter comes from genus – Escherichia - Second two letter comes from species –
co – coli Fourth letter comes from strain – R Roman numbers following the name indicate the order In which
the enzyme were isolated.
Types – two 1. Exonuclease – Remove nucleotides from the ends of the DNA. 2. Endonuclease–Make cuts at
specific position within the DNA.

Each RE recognizes a specific nucleotide sequence – Palindromic nucleotide sequence -

Separation and isolation of DNA fragments –
Gel electrophoresis – The cutting of DNA by RE results in the fragments of DNA.
DNA is negatively charged molecule --- move toward anode (positive end) according to their size through
sieving effect provided by the agarose gel (extracted from sea weeds).

Separated DNA strands stained by Ethidium bromide – Bright orange color appearance of DNA strands.
Elution – Separated DNA strands cut out and extracted from agarose gel.
Cloning Vectors –
-Plasmids and bacteriophages are used as cloning vectors.
- Bacteriophages have very high numbers of their genome in bacterial cell but in case of plasmids some may
have only one or two copies per cell whereas others may have 15-100 copies per cell.
-All vectors have four special features that are required to facilitate cloning into a vector
1. Origin of replication(Ori)- A special sequence from where replication starts. It also responsible for controlling
the copy number of the linked DNA.
2. Selectable marker -Selectable marker is used to identify the cells that take up the foreign DNA or gene
(Selection of transformants) - The genes encoding resistance to antibiotics Such as - ampicillin,
chloramphenicol, tetracycline or kanamycin etc. are considered useful selectable markers for E coli.
3. Cloning sites – These sites are required to link the foreign DNA. In a plasmid at least one cloning site should
be present.
There are two ways for selection of recombinants and non-recombinants.
1. Inactivation of antibiotic resistance gene – tetracycline/ampicillin
2. Insertional inactivation
-.Vectors for cloning in plants and animals- (a)Agrobacterium tumifaciens – Ti plasmid – In plants – - The
tumor inducing (Ti) plasmid of Agrobacterium tumifaciens modified into a cloning vector which is able to use
the mechanisms to deliver genes of our interest into a vector of plants. (b) Retroviruses – - In animal cell -
Similarly, retroviruses can be disarmed (removal of pathogenic characters) and used to deliver desirable genes
into animal cells.
Competent host –
Heat shock methods– Bacteria
DNA is hydrophilic molecule so that it cannot pass through cell membrane …. treated with specific
concentration of bivalent cation (Ca ion). Recombinant DNA --- ice ---42°C --- ice
Micro-injection - Animal cell - Recombinant DNA is directly injected into the nucleus of animal cell
Gene gun /biolistics –In Plant cell - Cells are bombarded with high velocity micro particles of gold or tungsten
coated with DNA

Processes of Recombinant DNA Technology

Isolation of genetic material (DNA)-
For r DNA technology DNA must be present in pure form.
DNA is enclosed with membranes, so we have to break the cell open to release
DNA.
Enzymes such as -Lysozyme (Bacteria), cellulase (plant cell), chitinase (fungus) are used for this purpose. RNA
with ribonuclease and protein with protease can be removed.
DNA Ultimately precipitates out after addition of chilled ethanol – fine thread like suspension.
Cutting of DNA at specific locations -
-Restriction enzymes are used for cutting of DNA.
- Same restriction endonuclease is used for gene of interest and plasmid to
- construct r DNA. Gel electrophoresis is used for separation of DNA fragments.
Amplification of gene of interest using PCR
Optional step. Used only when DNA sample in not available in adequate amount.
PCR stands for polymerase chain reaction.

Multiple copies of the gene of interest (DNA) is synthesized in vitro using primers and oligonucleotides.
Taq polymerase (from Thermus aquaticus) enzyme used in PCR, has a property to remain active during high
temperature
Insertion of recombinant DNA into the host cell/ organism - Recipient cells after making them competent (by
heat shock – bacterial cell /gene gun – plant cell /microinjection method) to receive, take up DNA present in
the surrounding.
Transformed cells can be select with the help of selectable marker.
Obtaining the foreign gene product –
The cells harboring cloned genes of interest are grown on a small scale in the laboratory (in appropriate
nutrient medium at optimal conditions).
These cell cultures are used for extracting the desired protein (recombinant• protein) using various separation
techniques.
Bioreactor – Large volumes (100-1000litres•) of cultures can be processed. - A bioreactor provides- optimal
growth condition (temperature, pH, substrate , salts, vitamins and oxygen ).
6. Downstream process –
These processes include separation and purification of r DNA product.
After clinical trial and strict quality control testing – marketing.
Separation of r DNA protein/Product --> Purification --> Adding suitable preservatives --> Quality control/
testing --> Clinical trials

Chapter 12 - Biotechnology and its applications

Biotechnology may target following area-
1. Making crops resistant for abiotic stress.
2. Reducing reliance on chemical pesticides. (Pest-resistant crop)
3. Help to reduce post-harvest loss
4. Making crops more efficient for mineral usage.
5. Enhanced nutritional value.

Use of Bt- cotton in agriculture –

Bt stands for Bacillus thuringiensis.
- This bacterium produces a toxin protein called Cry Protein.
-This cry protein produced in form of inactivated crystal so not harmful for bacteria.
-When insect ingest these crystals, they get dissolve in gut of insect and activated due to alkaline pH of insect
gut. It causes pore formation in gut eventually death of insect.
Bt-gene is utilized in two ways.
A. Spores of bacteria sprayed on crop.
B. Incorporation of Bt-gene with crop genome.
Cry- proteins are specific for various species of insects. - CryI Ac and CryIIAb is effective against cotton
ballworms. –
CryIAb is effective against corn borer.
HUMULIN :
Genetically engineered Insulin How Humulin production is different from normal insulin production?
Formation of Insulin in Human Body Production of recombinant Insulin –
1. Humulin was produced by Ali-lily, A US based company.
2. Initially Ali-lily company made two different recombinant strains for gene A and gene B separately.

Both recombinants made poly peptides A and B separately. These Chain A & B were joined artificially to form
mature insulin.
Steps –
1. Isolation of gene for peptide A and B
2. Joining of above desire gene with separate plasmid vectors.
3. Introduction of rDNA for peptide A and B in separate bacteria.
4. Expression of gene A and B to obtain A and B peptides.
5. Joining the both peptide A & B to get recombinant insulin.
Application of transgenic animal
A. Normal physiology and Development
B. study of disease
C. Biological Medicines
D. Vaccine safety
m-RNA silencing . RNA interference (RNAi) –
Pest Resistant Plants Nematodes like Meloidegyne incognitia infects the roots of tobacco plants
The infestation of these nematodes can be prevented by the process of RNA• interference (RNAi).
RNAi is present in all eukaryotic organisms as cellular defence by silencing of• specific mRNA due to
complementary dsRNA molecules that bind to and prevents translation of the mRNA.
The source of complementary dsRNA may be from an infection by viruses having• RNA genomes or mobile
genetic elements that replicate through RNA intermediate.
Nematode specific genes were introduced into host plant using Agrobacterium• vectors. The parasite could
not survive in a transgenic host expressing specific interfering RNA.
Gene therapy:
1 Gene therapy is a corrective measure to treat faulty gene.
2 First successful trial for gene therapy was made to treat Adenosine Deaminase deficiency (ADA) Disease.
3 ADA deficiency is caused due to deletion of gene for adenosine deaminase enzyme.
4 It can be cured by bone marrow transplantation and enzyme replacement therapy but not fully curative.
5 lymphocytes isolated from patient and made recombinant for normal ADA gene using retro-viral vector.
These treated lymphocytes were eventually reintroduced into patient’s body.
6 For permanent cure, gene isolated from the bone marrow cells producing ADA at early embryonic stage can
be a permanent cure.
Molecular Diagnosis-
1. Molecular diagnosis is done using DNA fingerprinting but probes are used according to normal gene. So
normal fingerprint does not show any radioactivity and mutant gene show radioactivity. A probe is allowed to
hybridise to its complimentary DNA in the clone of cells which are detected by autoradiography.
2. It helps in disease diagnosis by various techniques such as ELISA, PCR, and recombinant DNA technology.
3.ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) is based on antigen and antibody reactions to detect
different diseases.
4.PCR (polymerase chain reaction) is a technique to amplify specific DNA segments. This technique helps in
detecting HIV in AIDS patients.
Stem cells technology
Stem cells are undifferentiated biological cells. these can differentiate into specialised cells or tissues. Stem
cells are used in medical therapies like bone marrow transplantation, diabetes, heart disease, spinal cord
injury, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis, cancer,etc.
Ethical Issues: The manipulation of living organisms by man is similar to man “playing with nature, It is a tool
bearing great power and therefore gets immense responsibility. The impact of the introduction of a GMO into
an ecosystem is not completely known. It could have unpredictable results.
GEAC: Genetic Engineering Approval Committee is a committee set up by the• Indian Government to oversee
all decisions regarding GM research and the safety of GMOs for public use.
Biopiracy: unauthorized access of biological resources without proper compensation and without making the
compensatory payment is biopiracy.
 CHAPTER 11
ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS
POPULATION:
Population attributes:
• Population: A group of individual living in a well defined geographical area, share or compete
for similar resources, potentially interbreed.
• Birth rate and death rate refers to per capita births and deaths respectively.
• Another attribute is sex ratio. The ratio between male and female in a population.

Figure 11.1 Representation of age pyramids for human population

• If the age distribution is plotted for a population the resulting structure is called age pyramid.
• The shape of the pyramids reflects the growth status of the population like growing, stable or declining.
• The population size is more technically called as population density.
Methods for measurement of population density:
• Counting the number ,Percent cover,Biomass,Pug marks and fecal pellets for tiger
census
Population growth:

• Natality: number of birth during given period in the population that are added to the initial density.
• Mortality: number of deaths in the population during a given period .
• Immigration: is the number of individuals of same species that have come into the habitat from
elsewhere during the time period under consideration.
• Emigration: number of individuals of the population who left the habitat and gone during the time
period under consideration
• Where B = the number of births I =the number of immigrants
• D = the number of deaths
• E = the number of Emigrants.
• N = Population Density
• r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase t = Time period
• K = Carrying capacity (The maximum population size that an environment can sustain)

•
•
 • Exponential growth:
• The Exponential growth equation is Nt = N0ert
• Nt = Population density after time t
• N0 = Population density at time zero
• r = intrinsic rate of natural increase
• e = the base of natural logarithms (2.71828)
• Exponential growth (‘J’ shape curve is obtained).
• When resources are not limiting the growth.
• Any species growth exponentially under unlimited resources conditions can reach enormous
population densities in a short time.
• Growth is not so realistic.
• Logistic growth model
• Verhulst-Pearl Logistic Growth is described by the following equations dN/dt = rN (K–N / K)
• Where N = Population density at time t
• r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase
• K = Carrying capacity
• When responses are limiting the Growth.
• Resources for growth for most animal populations are finite and become limiting.
• The logistic growth model is a more realistic one.
• Logistic Growth (Sigmoid curve is obtained)

• POPULATION INTERACTIONS:

Predation:
• Organism of higher trophic level (predator) feeds on organism of lower trophic level (prey) is called the
predation.
• Even the herbivores are not very different from predator.
• Predator acts as a passage for transfer of energy across trophic level.
• Predators keep prey populations under control.
• Exotic species have no natural predator hence they grow very rapidly. (prickly pear cactus introduced in
Australia created problem)
• Predators also help in maintaining species diversity in a community, by reducing the intensity of
competition among competing prey species. (Pisaster starfish field experiment)
Defense developed by prey against predators:
Animals:
• Insects and frogs are cryptically coloured (camouflaged) to avoid being detected by the predator.
• Some are poisonous and therefore avoided by the predators.
• Monarch butterfly is highly distasteful to its predator (bird) due to presence of special chemical it its body.
The chemical acquired by feeding a poisonous weed during caterpillar stage.
Plants:
• Thorns in Acacia, Cactus are morphological means of defense.
• . Many plants produce and store some chemical which make the herbivore sick if eaten, inhibit feeding,
digestion disrupt reproduction, even kill the predators.
• Calotropis produces poisonous cardiac glycosides against herbivores
 Nicotine, caffeine, quinine, strychnine, opium etc. are produced by plant actually as defenses
against the grazers and browsers Competition:
• Interspecific competition is a potent force in organic evolution.
• Competition generally occurs when closely related species compete for the same resources that are
limiting, but this not entirely true:
• Firstly: totally unrelated species could also compete for the same resources.
• American lakes visiting flamingoes and resident fishes have their common food, zooplanktons.
• .Abingdon tortoise in Galapagos Islands became extinct within a decade after goats were introduced on
the island, due to greater browsing ability.
• Competitive release: A species, whose distribution is restricted to a small geographical
• Secondly: resources need not be limiting for competition to occur.
• area because of the presence of a competitively superior species, is found to expand its distributional
range dramatically when the competing species is experimentally removed.
• Connell’s elegant field experiment showed that superior barnacle Balanus dominates the intertidal area
and excludes the smaller barnacle Chathamalus from that zone.
• Gause’s ‘competitive Exclusion Principle’: two closely related species competing for the same resources
cannot co-exist indefinitely and the competitively inferior will be eliminated eventually.
• Resource partitioning: If two species compete for the same resource, they could avoid competition by
choosing, for instance, different times for feeding or different foraging pattern.
• MacArthur showed five closely related species of warblers living on the same tree were able to avoid
competition and co-exist due to behavioral differences in their foraging activities.
Parasitism:
• Parasitic mode of life ensures free lodging and meals.
• Some parasites are host-specific (one parasite has a single host) in such a way that both host and parasite
tend to co-evolve.
Parasitic adaptation
• Loss of unnecessary sense organs.
• Presence of adhesive organs or suckers to cling on to the host.
• Loss of digestive system.
• High reproductive capacity
• Parasites having one or more intermediate host or vectors to facilitate parasitisation of its primary host.
• Liver fluke has two intermediate hosts (snail and a fish) to complete its live cycle.
Effects on the host:
• Parasite always harms the host.
• They reduce the survival, growth and reproduction of the host.
• Reduce its population density.
• They make the host more vulnerable to the predators, by making it physically weak
• Ectoparasite: feeds on the external surface of the host.
o Lice on human
o Ticks on dog
o Marine fish infested with copepods
• Cuscutaa parasitic plant grow on hedge plants
• Endoparasites: are those that live inside the host body at different sites.
• Life cycle is more complex.
• Morphological and anatomical features are greatly simplified.
• Highly developed reproductive system.
• Brood parasitism:
• Special type of parasitism found in birds.
• The parasitic birds lay its eggs in the nest of its host and let the host incubate them.
• The egg of the host is very similar with the egg of the host.
• Cuckoo lays eggs in the nest of the crow.
• Commensalism: This is the interaction in which one species benefits and the other is neither benefited nor
harmed.
• Orchids growing as an epiphyte on a mango branch.
• Clown fish living among tentacles of sea anemone. Barnacles on back of whales.
• Cattle Egret and grazing cattle.
• Mutualism: interaction between two living organisms, both are equally benefited, no one is harmed.
• Lichen: a mycobiont and a Photobiont.
• Mycorrhiza: relationship between fungi and root of higher plant.
• Pollinating insects and flowering plants.
• Fig trees and its pollinating agent wasp.
• Sexual deceit
• Mediterranean orchid Ophrys employs ‘sexual deceit’.
• Petal of the flower resembles the female bee.
• The male bee attracted to what it perceives as a female, ‘pseudocopulates’ with the flower but does not
get any benefits.

ECOSYSTEM
CHAPTER 12

ECOSYSTEM

• The interaction between the living organism and the non-living environment is called
ecosystem.

ECOSYSTEM – STUCTURE AND FUNCTION:

• Interaction of biotic and abiotic components results in a physical structure that is

characteristic of each type of ecosystem.
• Identification and description of plant and animal species of an ecosystem gives its species
composition.
• Vertical distribution of different species occupying different levels is called stratification.
• The components of the ecosystem are seen to function as a unit when you consider the
following aspects:
▪ Productivity.
▪ Decomposition.
▪ Energy flow and
▪ Nutrient cycling.
• Basic events (in terms of function) in an ecosystem:
▪ Conversion of inorganic into organic material (photosynthesis) by producers.
▪ Consumption of the autotrophs by heterotrophs.
▪ Decomposition and mineralization of the dead organic matter to release them
back for reuse by the autotrophs
▪ There is unidirectional flow of energy towards the higher trophic levels and its
dissipation and loss as heat to the environment.

PRODUCTIVITY: The rate of biomass production is called productivity.

Types of productivity-

• Primary productivity:
o The amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over a time
period by plants during photosynthesis.
o It is expressed in terms of weight (gm-2) or energy (kcal m-2).
• Gross primary productivity: (GPP) is the rate of production of organic matter during
photosynthesis.
• Net primary productivity:
o A considerable amount of energy is utilized by plants in respiration.
o Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses (R) is the net primary
productivity.
o GPP – R = NPP.
• Net primary productivity is the available biomass for the consumption to heterotrophs
(herbivore and decomposers.
• Secondary productivity: is defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter by the
consumer.
• DECOMPOSITION:
• Earthworm is said to be ‘friends’ of farmer:
• Breakdown the complex organic matter.
• Loosening of the soil helps in aeration and entry of root.
 • The decomposers break down complex organic matter into inorganic substances like carbon
dioxide, water and nutrients, called decomposition.
• Dead plant remains such as leaves, bark, flowers and dead remains of animals, including
fecal matter, constitute the detritus.
• The process of decomposition completed in following steps:
• Fragmentation : Break down of detritus into smaller particles by detritivore (earthworm).
• Leaching: Water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil horizon and get
precipitated as unavailable salts.
• Catabolism : Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simple inorganic
substances.
• Humification: Accumulation of dark coloured amorphous substances called humus.
• Importance of humus:
• Highly resistance to microbial action.
• Undergo decomposition at an extremely slow rate.
• Being colloidal in nature, it serves as reservoir for nutrients.
• Mineralization: The humus is further degraded by some microbes and release of inorganic
nutrients occur.
• Factor affects rate of decomposition:
• Decomposition is largely an oxygen-requiring process.
• Detritus rich in chitin and lignin has slow rate of decomposition.
• Detritus rich in nitrogen and water-soluble substance like sugar has faster decomposition.
• Temperature and soil moisture are most important climatic factor that regulate
decomposition
• Warm and moist environment favor decomposition.
• Low temperature, dryness and anaerobiosis inhibit decomposition.

ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM:

• Figure 12.1 An ideal pyramid of energy. Observe that primary producers convert only 1% of the
energy in the sunlight available to them into NPP
• Except for deep sea hydrothermal ecosystem, sun is the only source of energy for all ecosystems on
earth.

• Less than 50% of incident solar radiation is photosynthetically active radiations. (PAR).
• Plants capture 2-10 % of PAR and used in photosynthesis.
• All organisms depend on the producers, either directly or indirectly.
• Energy flow in the ecosystem is unidirectional i.e. energy transferred from producer to consumers.
• Energy transfer is not absolute, and spontaneous, unless energy is degraded it can not be transfer.
When energy transferred from one trophic level to another, lot of energy lost in the form of heat to
the environment.
• Only 10% of energy transferred from one trophic level to other.
Food chain:

Figure 12.2 Diagrammatic representation of trophic levels in an ecosystem

• Grazing food chain: it extends from producers through herbivore to carnivore.
• Detritus food chain: Begins with dead organic matter (detritus) and pass through detritus feeding
organism in soil to organisms feeding on detritus-feeders.
• In aquatic ecosystem GFC is the major conduit for energy flow.
• In terrestrial ecosystems a much larger fraction of energy flows through the detritus food chain than
through GFC
• Different food chains are naturally interconnected e.g. a specific herbivore of one food chain may
serve as food of carnivores of other food chains. Such interconnected matrix of food chains is called
food web.
• Trophic level: A group of organism irrespective of their size having same source of energy or similar
food
habit constitute a trophic level.
• Standing crop: each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time called as
the standing crop.
• The standing crop is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number in a unit
area.
The number of trophic levels in a food chain is restricted by 10 % flow of energy, less amount of energy
available to the last trophic level
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID:

Figure 12.3 Pyramid of biomass shows a sharp decrease in biomass at higher trophic levels
 Figure 12.4 Pyramid of numbers in a grassland ecosystem. Only three top-carnivores are
supported in an ecosystem based on production of nearly 6 millions plants

• The base of the pyramid is broad and it narrows down at the apex. The similar shape is obtained
when food or energy relationship between organisms at different trophic level.

• The relationship can be expressed in terms of number, energy or biomass.

• The base of the pyramid represented by producer and apex is the top consumer; other trophic levels
are in between.

• In most ecosystems, all the pyramids, of number, of energy and biomass are upright.

• The pyramid of number in a tree ecosystem is inverted.

The pyramid of biomass in sea also inverted because the biomass of fishes is far exceeds that of
phytoplankton

• Figure 12.4 (A) Inverted pyramid of biomass-small standing crop of phytoplankton supports large
TC standing crop of zooplank Pyramid of energy is always upright, can never be inverted, because
when energy flows from a particular trophic level to the next, some energy is always lost as heat
at each step.

Figure 12.4 (B) An ideal pyramid of energy. Observe that primary producers convert only 1% of the energy in
the sunlight available to them into NPP

Limitations of ecological pyramids:

• It does not take into account the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels.

• It assumes a simple food chain, it never exits in nature.

• It dose not accommodate food web.

• Saprophytes are not given place in ecological pyramids.

 • Biodiversity: the term biodiversity refers to the totality of genes, species, and ecosystems of a region.
• Types of biodiversity described by Edward Wilson:
• Genetic diversity: A single species might show high diversity at the genetic level over its
distributional range.
▪ Medicinal plant Rauwolfia vomitoria
of Himalayan range produces active chemical
reserpine shows genetic variation.
▪ India has more than 50000 different strains of rice.
▪ 1000 varieties of mango.
• Species diversity: different species of a single animal like frog.
Ecological diversity: diversity in the ecosystem level like desert, rain forest, mangroves, coral reef,
wetlands, estuaries etc.
How many species are there on Earth and How many in India?

Figure 13.1 Representing global biodiversity: proportionate number of species of

major taxa of plants, invertebrates and vertebrates
• According to IUCN (2004), 1.5 million of plants and animals are in our biosphere.
• Robert May places global species diversity at about 7 millions.
• More than 70 percent of all the species recorded are animals.
• All plants constitute about 22 percent.
-Among animals insects constitute 70 percent
• India has only 2.4 percent of the world’s land area; its share of global species diversity is
impressiveM8.1 percent.
India is considered one of the mega diversity countries of the world.

Pattern of Biodiversity:

Latitudinal gradients:
• Species diversity decreases as we move away from the equator towards the pole.
• Tropic (23.5o N to 23.5o S) harbors more species than temperate and pole
• The largely tropical Amazonian rain forest in South America has the greatest biodiversity on
earth:
• 40,000 species of plants.
• 3000 species of fishes.
• 1300 of birds.
• 427 amphibians
• 378 reptiles
 • More than 1, 25,000 invertebrates.
Why tropical rain forest has greater biodiversity:
• Unlike temperate regions subjected to frequent glaciations in the past, tropical latitudes
have remained relatively undisturbed for millions of years and thus, had a long evolutionary
time for species diversification.
• Tropical environments. Unlike temperate ones, are less seasonal, relatively more constant
and predictable, promotes niche specialization and lead to greater species diversity.
• There is more solar energy available in the tropics, which contribute to higher productivity.
Species area relationship:
• ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT observed within a region species richness increased
with increasing explored area but only up to a limit.
• The relation between species richness and area for a wide variety of taxa turns out
to be a
rectangular hyperbola.
• On a logarithmic scale the relationship is a straight line describe by the equation LogS =
logC +Z log A

Figure 13.2 Showing species area relationship. Note that on log scale the relationship
becomes linear Where S= species richness, A = Area, Z = slope of the line (regression
coefficient), C = Y- intercept.
• It has been noted that regardless of the taxonomic group or region the slope of the
regression line are amazingly similar. However, for a very large area like the entire
continent the slope of the line is steeper.
Importance of species diversity to the Ecosystem:
• Community with more species generally tends to be more stable than those with less
species.
• A stable community should not show too much variation in productivity from year to year;
it must be resistant or resilient to occasional disturbances (natural or man-made)
• Stable community must be resistant to invasion by alien species.
• David Tillman’s long-term field experiment finds that:
o Plots with more species showed less year to year variation in biomass
o Increased diversity contributed to higher productivity.
• The rivet popper hypothesis:
o In an airplane (ecosystem) all parts are joined together by thousands of rivets
(species).
o If every passenger starts popping a rivet to take home (species extinct), it may not
affect flight safety initially but as more and more rivets are removed the plane
becomes dangerously weak.
o Further more which rivet is removed may also be critical.
o Loss of rivets on the wings (key species) is obviously a more serious threat to flight
safety than loss of a few rivets on the seats or windows inside the plane.
Loss of Biodiversity:
• The IUCN Red List (2004) documents the extinction of 784 species.
• Recent extinction includes:
o Dodo (Mauritius) , Quake (Africa) , Thylacine (Australia) , Stiller’s cow (Russia).
 o Three subspecies of tiger (Bali, Java, Caspian).
• Since the origin and diversification of life on earth there were five episodes of
mass extinction of species.
• The sixth mass Extinctions in progress now.
How the’ sixth Extinction’ is different from the previous five extinctions.
• The current extinction rate is 100 to 1000 times faster.
• All others are pre-human period, this one is anthropogenic.
Effect of biodiversity loss:
• Decline in plant production.
• Lowered resistance to environmental perturbations such as drought.
• Increased variability in certain ecosystem processes such as plant productivity, water use, and
pest and disease cycle.
Causes of biodiversity loss:
• The present loss is all due to human activity (anthropogenic).
• There are four major causes “The Evil Quartet” are as follows:
Habitat loss and fragmentation:
• Most important cause driving animals and plants to extinct.
• The tropical rain forest reduced to 6 % from 14 % of earth land surface.
• The Amazonian rain forest is called as ‘lungs of the planet ‘is being cut cleared for cultivating soya
beans.
• Degradation of many habitat by pollution is also threatens the loss of diversity.
Large areas are broken into fragments also the cause of diversity loss.
Over-exploitation:
• When ‘need’ turns to ‘greed’ it leads to over-exploitation of natural resources.
• Many species extinctions in the last 500 years (Steller’s sea cow, passenger pigeon) were due
to over- exploitation.
• Many marine fish populations around the world are over harvested.
Alien species invasion:
• The alien species became invasive and cause decline or extinction of indigenous species.
• Nile perch introduced into Lake Victoria in east Africa led to extinction of 200 species of cichlid fish
in the lake.
• Parthenium (carrot grass), Lantana and water hyacinth (Eicchornia) posed a thread to
indigenous
species.
• African cat fish Clarias gariepinus for aquaculture purposes is posing a threat to indigenous
catfishes in our rivers.
Co-extinction:
• When a species becomes extinct, the plant and animal species associated with it an obligatory
way also become extinct.
• Extinction of Host species leads to extinction of the parasite also.
• Co-evolved plant-pollinator mutualism where extinction of one invariably lead to the extinction
of the other.
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION:
Why should we conserve Biodiversity?
Reason for conservation biodiversity is grouped into three categories.
• Narrowly utilitarian.
• Broadly utilitarian
• Ethical

Narrowly

utilitarian:
 • Human derive countless direct economic benefits from nature.
• Food (cereals, pulses, fruits), firewood, fiber, construction material.
• Industrial products (tannins, lubricants, dyes, resins, perfumes).
• Products of medicinal importance.
• Bioprospecting: exploring molecular genetic and species-level diversity for products of
economic importance.
Broadly Utilitarian
• Amazonian forest along produce 20% of oxygen during photosynthesis.
• Pollinator layer: bees, bumblebees, birds and bat that pollinate the plant without which seed
cannot be produced by plants.
• Aesthetic pleasure we get from the biodiversity.
How do we conserve
biodiversity?
In situ conservation:
• When we conserve and protect the whole ecosystem, its biodiversity at all level is protected – we
save the
entire forest to save the tiger. This approach is called in situ (on site) conservation.
• Biodiversity hot spot: regions with very high levels of species richness and high
degree of endemism.(species confined to that region and not found anywhere else). Hot spot in
biodiversity is also regions of accelerated habitat loss.
• Out of 34 hot spot in the world, three hot spot located in India:
o Western Ghats and Srilanka.
o Indo-Burma.
o Himalaya.
Other protected area under in situ conservations are:
o 14 biosphere reserve
o 90 national park
o 448 wild life sanctuary
• Sacred groves: tract of forest were set aside, and all the trees and wildlife within were venerated
and given total protection.
Ex situ conservation: threatened animals and plants are taken out from their natural habitat and placed in
special setting where they can be protected and given special care.
• Zoological Park.
• Botanical garden
• Wildlife safari.
• Conservation of gamete by cryopreservation.
• Genetic strains are preserved in seed bank.
Convention on Biodiversity:
• “The earth Summit” held in Rio de Jeneiro in 1992 called upon all nations to take appropriate
measures
for conservation of biodiversity and sustainable utilization of its benefits.
World Summit on Sustainable development held in 2002 in Johannesburg, South Africa, 190 countries
pledged their commitment to achieve by 2010 a significant reduction in the current rate of biodiversity loss
at global, regional and local level.