Dissection of the amphibians.

These are organisms that live both in water and land. Frogs and toads are the animals of
interest here. (salamanders, newts are other examples of amphibians)
ECOLOGY OF THE ANIMAL
Differences between toad and frog
Frog Toad
Skin smooth, shinny, moist Skin rough, warty, moist
Very long, slender, flexible hind limbs Hind limbs averagely long, muscular,
highly folded onto the body folded onto the body.
Colour of the body green with black/dark Colour of the body dark brown/ black
brown/yellow spots

CLASSIFICATION
FROG TOAD
Kingdom Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordata Chordata
Class Amphibia Amphibia
Order anura anura
Family bufonidae ranidae
Genus Bufo Rana
species regularis temporalis
Why is the animal classified in:
i) Class Amphibia
 Thin moist glandular skin; warty skin;
 Wide gape
 Webs between digits of hind limbs.
ii) Order anura
 External ear drum/ tympanic membrane
 Long, hind limbs for leaping
 Webs between digits of hind limbs
HABITAT
Frogs are found in damp environments; grass near water, swamps, ponds, slow flowing
streams.
Toads are found in drier moist environments. Behind buildings, gardens, abandoned
storage tanks.
Why amphibians live near water?
 Keep the skin moist for cutaneous respiration.
 Easily escape enemies
 They lay their eggs in water

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 ADAPTATIONS FOR SURVIVAL
a) Head.
Component structures on the head (dorsal view)

 Is triangular, apex anterior and base posterior, joined to the trunk directly. No neck.
 Dorso-ventrally flattened and tapers anteriorly.
The shape above gives a well streamlined shape that reduces resistance to motion in
water.

i) Nostrils
These are a pair of small, rounded openings anteriorly located on the head and above
the mouth. This position allows gaseous exchange when the rest of the body is
submerged in water. Their location allows detect smells of food, ememies in the
environment and other stimuli.
ii) Eyes
Are large, round, protruding, lined dorsally, facing laterally. This gives the animal a
wide field of view.
Eyes are covered by a translucent fold of skin- the nictating membrane that cleans
and moistens the eye but also protects it.

iii) Ear drum/ tympanic membrane

The ear drum is a tough, prominent, circular patch of tough membrane. They are
located dorsal laterally behind the eyes. Their structure suits reception of sound
vibrations making the animal aware of its nearest environment. The tough nature
allows resist pressure exerted by water and other obstacles without rapture.

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 iv) Mouth
Anteriorly located on the head, has a wide gape to ingest large size prey.
v) Tongue
Is long, muscular, flat, elastic/ stretchable, forked/bilobed anteriorly, sticky/slimy and
has many small blood vessels. It is attached on the floor at the front.
 It is long enough to and elastic to trap insects at relatively far distance for
food.
 It is sticky to trap small insects for food.
 It is muscular to stretch out long to trap insects.
 It is flattened to increase surface area for trapping prey.
 It has numerous glands that secrete sticky mucus to trap prey.
 It has a wide base for firm attachment.
 It is attached to anterior end of the lower buccal floor to easily flick out and
trap insects at a long distance.

b) Skin
The skin is firmly attached on the head region, throat and legs. This is an
adaptation for locomotion. It is also loosely attached on the rest of the body with
fluid filled air spaces on the trunk. This allows distension of the body wall and
movement of skin without rapture of internal organs.
The following are adaptations of the skin
 It is tough and hard protecting the internal delicate organs from injury and
damage.
 The skin has poison glands all over the body with much concentration on the
head which secrete a milky mucus that protects the animal from predators.
 It is thin and moist to allow gaseous exchange when the animal is in water.
 It is warty and slimy making it slippery to allow the animal to escape
predation.
 Colour (specify it) is suited for camouflage efficiently in their environments.
c) Limbs.
These are of unequal size reflecting their different functions. The limbs are both
muscular, jointed with digits. The fore limbs hold the body and absorbs shock during
hoping. The hind limb generates strong propulsive thrust during movement.
Differences between Fore and hind limbs
Fore limb Hind limb
Has 4 digits Has 5 digits
No webs between digits Webs between digits
Divided into 2 regions Divided into 3 regions
Less muscular Muscular
L- shaped Z- shaped
2 joints 3 joints
Short and stout Elongated and folded

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 A DRAWING OF THE FORE LIMB

A DRAWING OF THE HIND LIMB.

Adaptations.
 Forelimbs are short and stout, holding the body clear off the ground during
rest.
 Fore limbs are short and stout to absorb shock during hoping.
 Hind limbs have webbed feet providing a large surface area against which a
forward thrust is generated during swimming.
 Hind limbs are long, muscular and highly folded into three regions. They
provide a forward thrust to the body during jumping and swimming in water.
 Hind limbs have long nailed toes which dig deep into the ground to provide
stability during jumping on land
assignment 1.
a) You are provided with specimen R (Toad) which is freshly killed. Classify the specimen
as far as possible giving reasons for the class.
b) Observe the structural features on the head from the left hand side. Draw and label the
features concerned with sensitivity and feeding.
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c) Examine the head of the specimen. Describe the shape of the head and its significance.

SEX IDENTIFICATION
No external genitalia are present. However males and females have structures that allow
identification.
Males Females
Slender body Broad abdomen with eggs especially
during the breeding season.
Skin underlying throat is usually white Skin underlying the throat is creamy/ grey
Rough black warty patch on ventral Broad body
surface of first finger on the fore limb
called nuptial pad

INTERNAL ANATOMY
MUSCULATURE OF THE TOAD.
With normal dissection procedures, (opening up body cavity-the frog, fig 4 HCQ Rowett, page 69), the
arrangement of muscles underlying the skin can be seen as below;.

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 A drawing of ventral muscles of the lower limb

The musculo-cutaneous vein emerges from the arm pits and branches into smaller blood
vessels distributed over the inner surface of the skin.
 There are four/ five muscle blocks arranged parallel to each other. The muscle blocks
overlap.
A drawing of the dorsal view of the hind limb.

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 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
This is made up of the alimentary canal and associated organs. Alimentary canal
consists of mouth, buccal cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, duodenum, ileum, rectum.
Associated organs include pancreas, liver, gall bladder.

Mouth.
 Terminal, very large, extends to tympanic membrane. This provides wide gape
for ingestion of large food and prey.
 Numerous maxillary teeth which are uniform, small, pointed, conical shaoed and
curving backwards.
 Internal roof has nares (singular-naris) through which air enters the buccal cavity.
They are 2, small, rounded, with valves.
 Vomerine teeth protrude out of the roof of the mouth above the eye balls.

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 Structure of the buccal cavity after cutting to one side.

The Oesophagus is short, narrow, tubular within. It has longitudinal folds which close
entry of air into the stomach.

The stomach is elongated and thick walled, internally it is folded longitudinally to

allow distension and increase surface area for secretion of gastric juice.
There are 2 constrictions. One anterior is the cardiac sphincter controlling entry of food
and the other cardiac sphincter controlling exit of food.

The pancreas is cream coloured and lives in the mesentery between the stomach and
the duodenum.

The gall bladder is an oval shaped sac lying between the main lobes of the liver. It has
the bile duct its outlet.

The ileum is very coiled, narrow, tubular with thin walls.

The rectum is short, thick walled, enlarged, wide between the colon and the cloaca. It is
used for temporary storage of wastes before elimination

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A drawing showing the abdominal organs in situ.

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 A drawing showing the abdominal structures when the alimentary canal is displaced
to the left of the specimen.

The viscera is a word that collectively means the internal organs of the body in the
abdominal and thoracic cavities.

URINOGENITAL SYSTEM
This system is clear only when the alimentary canal is removed.
The lungs, kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder and cloaca form the excretory system.
Part Description and location
Kidney Dark,one on each side of the of the dorsal aorta or posterior venacava
Ureter Slender duct from the kidney
Bladder Thin-walled transparent bi-lobed structure. Opens into the cloaca.
Cloaca Small median chamber and opens to the outside through an aperture.

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Reproductive system.
Male Description
Testis Paired, yellow oval bodies, attached onto ventral side of the
kidney.
Vasa efferentia Convey sperm.
Female
Ovaries Pair of large irregulary folded structures.
Oviducts Long, white above the ovaries. Posteriory each widens to form
large thin walled chamber the ovisac/ uterus.
Cloaca Median sac. Opens to the outside via an aperture.
The female Urinogenital system.

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 The male urinogenital system.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
a) Arterial system.
Arteries are much paler than veins. To study the arterial system, the veins must be removed.
Carotid arch Lingual/external carotid Tongue, lower jaw
Internal carotid Eye, pharynx, palate
Systemic arch Subclavian artery Fore limbs
Systemic artery Posterior circulation
Pulmo Cutaneous artery Skin
cutaneous arch
Pulmonary artery Lungs

 The coeliaco-mesenteric artery branches off the left systemic artery before forming
the dorsal aorta. It divides into coelic artery and mesenteric artery.
 The coelic artery divides into;
a) Gastro-duodenal artery divides into gastric artery(supplying the stomach) and
duodenal artery (supplying the duodenum)
b) Hepatic artery that supplies the liver.
 The mesenteric artery divides into;
a) Anterior mesenteric artery to the intestines
b) Posterior mesenteric artery to the lower intestines and rectum.
c) Splenic artery supplying the spleen.
 Dorsal aorta branches into;
a) Renal arteries (usually 5) supplying left and right kidneys
b) Lumbar arteries to the dorsal muscles
c) Genital arteries
d) Iliac artery which also branches into femoral artery and sciatic artery.

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A DRAWING OF THE SPECIMEN SHOWING THE MAIN ARTERIES OF
THE BODY

A drawing of the vessels supplying the head region.

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A drawing showing the blood vessels supplying the alimentary canal displaced to the
right with its associated organs in the abdominal cavity of the toad.

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 A drawing showing the blood vessels that supply urinogenital system and the hind
limbs of the toad.

THE VENOUS SYSTEM.

Turn the heart upwards and locate the anterior venacava and posterior venacava.
The anterior venacava originates from;
a) External jugular vein made by joining of mandibular (draining lower jaw)
and the lingual vein (draining the toungue).
b) Innominate vein the middle of the three veins. It is formed by union of
internal jugular vein (draining the jaw) and subscapular vein (draining the
shoulder).
c) Subclavian vein is the largest of the three. It comes from the arm. It is
formed by joining of brachial vein (draining the arm) and musculo-
cutaneous vein draining the skin and body wall.
The posterior venacava originates from;
a) Hepatic veins draining the liver
b) Renal veins (4 in number) draining the kidneys
c) Spermatic (draining the testis) or ovarian (draining the ovaries). though
sometimes they join one of the renal veins)

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Other vessels.
Vein Part it drains
Pulmonary Lungs to the left auricle. It is obscured by posterior
venacava and the liver. These have to be removed first
Renal portal Hind limbs. It drains blood from the femoral vein(hind
limb) and sciatic vein(inside of thigh) to the kidney
Pelvic From the femoral vein to the ventral abdominal
Ventral abdominal From union of the right and left pelvic veins
Hepatic portal vein Formed from a fusion of;
Gastric vein draining the stomach
Duodenal vein draining the duodenum
Intestinal vein draining the ileum
Splenic vein draining the spleen
Rectal vein draining the rectum.

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A drawing showing blood vessels that return blood from the head and fore limbs back to
the heart.

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 NERVOUS SYSTEM
Remove the heart, lungs, liver, kidney, testes or ovaries, the alimentary canal (while
keeping the aorta intact.
The bony vertebral column and ten pairs of spinal nerves are seen. The sympathetic
cords are also seen.
(the nerves are distinct as thread like, white – features that make them easy to identify.
A drawing showing the ventral branches of spinal nerves and sympathetic nervous
system.

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A DRAWING SHOWING ABDOMINAL STRUCTURES WHEN THE
ALIMENTARY CANAL IS DISPLACED TO THE LEFT OF THE SPECIMEN.

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 TRIAL QUESTIONS.
1. UNEB 2016 QN 1. You are provided with specimen R which is freshly killed.
Examine the fore and hind feet of the specimens.
a) Draw and label the ventral side of the left fore foot and the left hind foot of the
specimen. Both drawings should be at the same magnification. (7 marks)
(i) Fore foot
A DRAWING OF THE VENTRAL SIDE OF THE LEFT FORE FOOT
OF SPECIMEN R

(ii) Hind foot

A DRAWING SHOWING THE VENTRAL SIDE OF THE LEFT HIND FOOT OF
SPECIMEN R.

b) Dissect the specimen to display the heart and the blood vessels that carry blood
from the head region, intestines and kidneys and back to the heart. Without
displacing the heart, draw and label your dissection. (36 marks)

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 A DRAWING SHOWING THE BLOOD VESSELS THAT CARRY BLOOD
FROM THE HEAD REGION, INTESTINES AND KIDNEYS OF SPECIMEN
R WITH THE HEART UNDISPLACED.

2. You are provided specimen P which is freshly killed.

(a) Examine the specimen and give five observable adaptive features that enable the
specimen to survive in its habitat. (5 marks)
 Dorso-laterally positioned, large protruding eyes for a wide vision
 Wide gape of the buccal cavity for consuming prey of large size.
 Nostrils for passage of gases.
 Streamlined head/ triangular head reducing water resistance while swimming.
 Short , stout fore limbs act as shock absorbers when landing while jumping.
 Webbed hind feet/ digits provide large surface area to generate propulsive force in
water.
 Dark skin for camouflage
 Jointed limbs for flexibility during movement/ locomotion.
 Numerous poison glands for defense.
 Nictating membrane to protect and moisten the eye.
 Any other adaptation accepted.

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(b) Dissect the specimen to display the;
i) Blood vessels taking blood to the left lung of the animal. Draw and label.
(16 marks)
A DRAWING OF SPECIMEN P SHOWING BLOOD VESSELS TAKING
BLOOD TO THE LEFT LUNG.

ii) Blood vessels returning blood from the right side of the head and chest
region of the animal to the heart. (22 marks)
A DRAWING OF SPECIMEN P SHOWING BLOOD VESSELS RETURNING
BLOOD FROM THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE HEAD AND CHEST REGION TO
THE HEART

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3. UNEB 2015 QN 1. You are provided with specimen K which is freshly killed.
(a) (i) Measure the length of the fore and hind limbs and record the result in table 1.
Express the results as a ratio of the length of fore limb: length of the hind limb. (2
marks)
Table 1.
Length Fore limb Hind limb

Ratio
(ii)State the significance of the ratio. (1 mark)
(b) Examine the hind limb and state three ways it is adapted for the survival of the
specimen in its habitat. (3 marks)
(c) Examine the head of the specimen and draw and label the dorsal view of the
anterior part of the head to show the structures for sensitivity. (5 marks)
(d) Dissect the specimen to expose the heart. Turn the heart to display the main blood
vessels;
(i) Returning blood from the trunk to the heart.
(ii) Supplying the structures for absorption of nutrients and excretory organs.
Draw and label. (27 marks)
4. (a) You are provided with specimen R. classify it into the following groups. (1
marks)
(i) Kingdom
(ii) Phylum
(iii) Class
(b)Observe the head of the specimen and state how it is adapted to its habitat. (3
marks)
(c) Dissect the specimen R to display the main superficial muscles of the left thigh of
the specimen. Draw and label the muscles. (9 marks)
(d) Continue to dissect the specimen to display,
(i) The blood vessels that drain from the alimentary canal and its associated organs
back to the heart, with the alimentary canal displaced to your right and the heart
turned upwards and pinned through the ventricle.
(ii) the blood vessel that take blood from the heart to the thoracic region of the
animal.
Draw and label your dissection showing (i) and (ii) (26 marks)
5. UNEB 2007 QN 1. You are provided with specimen T which is freshly killed.
(a) Pin the specimen with the ventral side uppermost. Dissect and remove the skin,
taking note of how it is attached to the underlying body wall.
(i) Describe the attachment of the skin to the body wall. (3 marks)
(ii) Suggest the significance of the way the skin is attached to the body wall as
described in (a)(i) above. (3 marks)
(b) Observe the main blood circulation on the skin.
(i) Describe the pattern of blood circulation on the skin. (4 marks)
(ii) Give the significance of the pattern of blood circulation described in (b)(i) (3
marks)
(c) Dissect the specimen further to display;
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 (i) Blood vessels carrying blood from organs located on the left half of the
abdominal cavity back to the heart.
(ii) Structures used for the elimination of unwanted materials from the body.
With the heart displaced anteriorly, draw and label the blood vessels and
structures displayed in (c)(i) and (ii) on one diagram. (27 marks)

6. You are provided with specimen K which is freshly killed. Open up the buccal cavity
of the specimen and proceed with your dissection to display the rest of the internal
structures. Carefully displace the alimentary canal to the left of the specimen without
damaging any mesentery. Draw and label all the structures seen lying wholly anterior
to the bladder. (25 marks)

7. a) Carefully examine the external features of the head and describe its structure.
(10 marks)
b) Using dissecting instruments open the buccal cavity and describe the structural
features in this part of the body (10 marks)
c) Explain three ways the structural features of the buccal cavity suit their
function.
d) Dissect the specimen to display the arterial circulation on the left side lying
posterior to the heart plus the associated structures. Draw and label when the heart
is displaced. (20 marks)
8. You are provided a freshly killed animal.
a) Describe the following structural features of the head.
i) mouth (2 marks)
ii) ear drum (2 marks)
iii) eye (4 marks)
iv) iv) poison glands (3 marks)
bi) Describe the structural features you used to identify the sex.( 3 marks)
ii) Dissect and remove the skin from the ventral sides of the animal’s head, abdomen and
limbs.
Search for the superficial structures, draw but DON’T label. ( 8 marks)
c) Dissect the animal to display the blood vessels draining the left side anterior to the
heart, with the heart turned forward. Draw and label. (16 marks)

9. You are provided a freshly killed toad.

a) Describe the structure of the foot of the posterior limbs. (3 marks)
b) Explain how the structure of the foot is related to its function ( 2 marks)
c) Dissect the animal to display the heart and the gut. Turn the heart forward and search
for the vascular system draining the gut, spleen and associated structures. Draw and
label. ( 18 marks)
d) By further dissection search for blood vessels that supply blood to the head, skin and
stomach. Leave the heart un displaced. Draw and label.( 15 marks)

10 a) Explain five ways the animal is adapted to live in its habitat.( 5 marks)
b) Dissect the specimen to display the:
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 (i) The main routes of blood flow supplying the left anterior region of the specimen.
(ii) The main routes of blood flow draining the right hind limb of the animal to the
heart, with the heart pinned forward through the ventricle. Draw and label your
dissection.(30 marks)
11) You are provided with a freshly killed toad.
a)i) Carefully observe the animal and explain five structural features that suit
the animal to live on either land or water bodies.(05marks)ii) Describe
the position and structure of the following; Webbed toes, Cloaca, Head,
Tongue: ( 8 marks)
b) Lay the specimen ventral side upper most. Dissect it in the usual way, and
remove the skin of the head, trunk and fore and hind limbs up to the elbow
and knee respectively.
i) Draw and label the superficial structures.
(13marks)
ii) Describe the structural features of the skin and clearly indicate, how
they relate to function.
(05marks)
c) Proceed to dissect and display the internal structures. Displace the stomach
further to the right, the right lung to cover part of the heart. Search for
blood vessels supplying the stomach, pancreas, and the right hand side of
the animal anterior to the heart. Draw and label.
(16marks)
12. You are provided with a freshly killed frog.
a) Observe the fore and hind limbs and describe their structure. (04marks)
b)i) Outline three differences between the fore and hind feet. (03marks)
ii) Draw but don’t label the hind foot. (03marks)
c) Lay the animal ventral side upper most. Dissect it in the usual way to
display internal structures. Turn the dish side ways and cut through the
right angle of the jaw, pharynx up to oesophagus. Pin a side the floor of
the buccal cavity and pharynx. Search for structures used for feeding
Search for blood vessels supplying the gut. Draw and label your
dissection. (22marks)
13.You are provided with a freshly killed frog.
a. i) Examine the head and describe how it is adapted to promoting the animal’s
survival.(05marks)

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 ii) Open the buccal cavity, using dissecting instruments search for a structure
at the front of the floor of the buccal cavity, hold the structure, pull it and
release it. State your observations and explain their significance in
promoting the animal’s nutrition. (03marks)
(b) Dissect the specimen and pull the skin off the body wall.
i) Describe its attachment on the body wall. (02marks)
ii) Examine the skin and explain three ways it is adapted to the process
of gaseous exchange. (3marks)
c) Dissect the specimen further to display the routes of blood low:
(i) Carrying blood from the head region on the right hand side of the specimen
back to the heart.
(ii) Carrying blood to the alimentary canal, displaced to the right and to the
kidneys, the right turned to appear on top of the left. Without displacing
the heart, draw and label your dissection. (25marks)
14) You are provided with a freshly killed toad.
a) With the mouth opened, pull out the tongue and pin it. Draw and label the head
as observed in lateral view.(05marks)
b) Dissect the animal to display:
i) Blood vessels supplying the left hand lung, fore limbs, skin and head.
ii) Blood vessels draining blood from the right hand side of the animal EXCEPT
the inner part of the hind limb. Turn the heart forward. Draw and label.
(28marks)
15. You are provided with a freshly killed animal labelled T.
a)i) State the sex of the animal. Give a reason for your answer.
ii) Outline 3 differences between the fore and hind limbs.
(b) Lay specimen T- ventral side upper most. Pin it and proceed to dissect, display:
i) Routes of blood flow draining blood from the left hand side of the head and lung
to the heart.
ii) Routes of blood flow supplying the right forelimb, part of digestive system
anterior to ileum and the urinogenital system. Displace the heart forward. Draw and
label.

“with dexterity science is easy”……..john Bruce.

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