CARBOHYDRATES

Lecture-3
Lecturer: İdil ALPAT YAVAŞ
CARBOHYDRATES

1. Most abundant
nutrients in foods
2. One of the most
abundant organic
molecules in nature
3. Provide essential
energy to the body
In individuals following a normal diet, 55-
60% of daily energy is provided from
carbohydrates.

They are the primary fuel source for body cells!

WHAT ARE CARBOHYDRATES?
They are composed of the elements;
Carbon (C),
Hydrogen (H) and
Oxygen (O)
CLASSIFICATION
There are carbohydrates in various structures and
names according to;
• The number of these three elements (C, H and O)
• The order of their combination and
• Their utilization in the human body.
The main sources of carbohydrates are plant tissues.
Example; fruits, vegetables, grains, legumes…
 CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES

CARBOHYDRATES

Simple Complex

Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharide

Oligosaccharides s
• One sugar • Two sugar • Two to ten sugar • Ten or more sugar
molecule molecules molecules molecules
1. MONOSACCHARIDES
(simple sugars)
• Consists of C, H and O
• They cannot be divided into smaller units
by hydrolysis!
There are three main monosaccharides.
GLUCOSE (Dextrose)
• It is found in the blood in the human body
(blood sugar).

In the state of fasting,

blood glucose levels
should be 70-100
mg/dL
 Glucose is the most
abundant
Basic building block
monosaccharide in
of all other
the structure of
carbohydrates!
complex
carbohydrates.

It is moderately It raises blood

sweet. sugar quickly!
Sources of glucose
• It is mostly found in
grapes, foods and
beverages made from
grapes (such as
molasses=pekmez),
and honey.
• It is also found in other
fruits together with
fructose.
There are three main monosaccharides.
FRUCTOSE (Fruit sugar)

It is metabolized into It is involved in the Found in fruits,

glucose by the liver. structure of some honey and high
disaccharides. fructose corn syrup.

It is the sweetest of all sugars!

HIGH FRUCTOSE CORN SYRUP
High fructose corn
syrup (HFCS), is
frequently used by
the food industry, for
various reasons;
• Long shelf life,
• Low cost
• Sweeter than
sucrose
Why consuming HFCS is dangerous
for our health?

Increases the risk of;

• Type 2 diabetes
• Obesity
• Hypertension
• Cardiovascular diseases
There are three main monosaccharides.
GALACTOSE
• Not usually found free in nature. It is found
in structure of disaccharides.
• Converted into glucose by liver.
SWEETNESS OF SACCHARIDES
• Monosaccharides are usually sweet and
colorless.
• In order to determine the sweetness of sugars,
sucrose is used as a reference sugar.
The sweetness rate of sucrose is considered to
be 100 and other sugars are compared with it;

Lactose 16
Galactose 16
Maltose 32
Glucose 74
Sucrose 100
Fructose 173
2. DISACCHARIDES
ditwo saccharidesugars

They are sugars formed by combining two

monosaccharides by losing one molecule of water.
• The chemical bond between two monosaccharides
is called a “glycosidic bond”.
Glycosidic
bond
SUCROSE
• It is the carbohydrate
that we use daily as
table sugar.
• Suger cubes we use for
tea, coffee…
SUCROSE
SOURCES
AND
PRODUCTION
It is mostly found in
sugar beets and
sugar cane.
1. To obtain sugar,
beets are crushed
in presses.
2. Its water is taken
and then heated.
3. Water rests in the
cold and the sugar
crystallizes.
LACTOSE
• It is known as milk sugar!
• It consists of one molecule glucose and one
molecule galactose.
• It is found in mammalian milks and also human milk
(7-8% in breast milk, 4-5% in cow's milk).
• There are no other types of carbohydrates in milk.
LACTOSE INTOLERANCE
• People with lactose intolerance or lactose
malabsorption are unable to fully digest the
sugar (lactose) in milk.
• As a result, they have diarrhea, gas and
bloating after eating or drinking dairy
products.
Why would a person be lactose intolerant?
Deficiency of “lactase“ – an enzyme produced in small
intestine – is usually responsible for lactose
intolerance.
Lactase's primary function is to break down lactose.
If it’s deficient, we cannot break down lactose and it
causes gastrointestinal symptoms.
Have you ever tasted lactose-free milk?
How does it taste?
Lactose-free milk is produced by breaking down the
lactose in milk,
• with the enzyme “lactase“.

Instead of lactose, there is glucose and galactose.

Lactose 16
Glucose is sweeter than Galactose 16
lactose, so lactose-free milks
are sweeter than usual milks. Maltose 32
Glucose 74
Sucrose 100
Fructose 173
MALTOSE
Glucose + Glucose = Maltose
• It is composed of two molecules of glucose.
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
 Oligosaccharides usually act as prebiotics.

What are ”prebiotics”?

Their most important physiological
effects are to stimulate the proliferation
of bifidobacteria, which inhibits the
growth of pathogenic bacteria in the
intestines. ​
They are the food for the gut bacteria!
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
They are mostly found in legumes.

It is also found in foods such as

onions, garlic, wheat, rye, sweet
potato, and bananas. ​ ​
PREBIOTICS
Prebiotics offer a wide range of health
benefits, including;

Stronger immune system,

Reduced appetite,
Lower blood glucose levels and
Improved gut health.
PREBIOTICS
Prebiotics resist digestion in the small intestine and
reach the colon where they are fermented by the gut
microbiome.

As a result of fermentation in the colon;

Short-chain fatty acids are formed. They are a source
of energy for the cells of the large intestine. They
have a beneficial effect on the health and integrity of
the intestine. ​ ​
POLYSACCHARIDES
They are polymers formed by combining more than
one monosaccharide with glycosidic bonds.

Digestible Non-digestible
• Starch • Soluble fiber
• Glycogen • Insoluble fiber
STARCH
Starch is made up of 3000 monosaccharides.
Starch raises blood glucose levels quickly!
(Glycemic index)

Classification;
1. Amylose  straight chain
2. Amylopectin  branched chain
AMYLOSE
Straight chain
Resistant starch  More resistant to digestion
May improve digestive health
May improve glucose tolerance
May stimulate growth of beneficial intestinal
bacteria
AMYLOPECTIN
• Branched chain
• Easier to digest
GLYCOGEN
• Storage form of glucose in animals and
humans
• Structure is similar to amylopectin but
with more complex branching
• Found in liver and muscles
GLYCOGEN
• Liver glycogen responds to blood glucose (BG)
levels
BG  glycogen breakdown  BG

• Muscle glycogen can be broken down for energy

for the muscle
FIBER
• Dietary fiber = fibers found naturally in foods,
mainly in fruits, vegetables, whole grains and
legumes.
• Nondigestible polysaccharides
• Provides no energy
Chemical Composition of Fibers
Insoluble: not fermented
• Cellulose
• Hemicellulose Not easily fermented
• Lignin*
Soluble: 1.5-2.5 kcal/g
• Gum Easily fermented by
• Pectin intestinal bacteria
• Mucilage (Short chain fatty acids!)
USE OF
CARBOHYDRATES
IN THE BODY
For carbohydrates to be used in the body, they
should be;
Digested
Absorbed
Metabolized
Digestion of carbohydrates
1. Monosacchrides: They do not undergo any
changes during digestion.

Monosaccharides do not get hydrolyzed.

Digestion of carbohydrates
1. Disacchrides: They are hydrolyzed by the
disaccharidase enzymes in the small intestine
and they are broken down into
monosaccharides that formed them.
• Lactose  galactose + glucose
• Sucrose  fructose + glucose
• Maltose  glucose + glucose
Digestion of carbohydrates
1. Disacchrides: They are hydrolyzed by the
disaccharidase enzymes in the small intestine
and they are broken down into
Disaccharidase
monosaccharides that formed them.
enzymes;
• Lactose  galactose + glucose• Lactase,
• Sucrose  fructose + glucose • Sucrase,
• Maltose  glucose + glucose • Maltase
Digestion of carbohydrates
In the absence of these enzymes, disaccharides
cannot turn into monosaccharides.
As a result, malabsorption occurs and usual
symptoms are abdominal pain and diarrhea.

LACTOSE INTOLERANCE!
Digestion of carbohydrates
1. Polysaccharides: They are digested more
gradually.

For example; once a starch containing food is

eaten, it is initially broken down by chewing in the
mouth (physical digestion). Sugars, starch and
glycogen are released.
Digestion of carbohydrates

With the effect of the amylase

enzyme in the salivary gland
secretion, some starch and glycogen
are broken down and.
In the stomach; The acidic
environment of the stomach inhibits
the action of salivary amylase.
Digestion of carbohydrates

In the small intestine, the enzyme amylase that is

secreted from the pancreas breaks down starches into
oligosaccharides and disaccharides.
These are then broken down into monosaccharides
by disaccharidase enzymes and then absorbed.

Intestinal cells release these enzymes.

Digestion of carbohydrates: Starch
Resistant starch:
Undigested starch passes into the large intestine.
There, it is broken down by gut bacteria. Starch
that escapes digestion is known as "resistant
starch".
Digestion of starch differentiate according to its
physical stracture.

Starch in cooked foods is more easily digested

than when eaten raw.
The starch in potatoes is not digested when raw.
When potatoes are cooked, starch is digested
quickly when potato is hot, and slowly when its
cooled.​
Starch in cereals is digested more easily than
starch in legumes.
The digestion of starch, which is eaten together
with foods containing lipid and protein, is slower.
Why digestion of starch is important?
It is important for people with diabetes. The
starch that is digested slowly, does not raise
blood sugar quickly.
Freshly baked potatoes, white bread, cooked
rice elevate blood sugar quickly!
Digestion of carbohydrates: Fiber
 Fiber passes through the GI tract undigested.
 It passes through the stomach, small intestine
and colon and out of the body.
Soluble fiber
• This type of fiber dissolves in water to
form a gel-like material.
• It can help lower blood cholesterol and glucose levels
and also it helps stay full longer.
• Soluble fiber is found in oats, peas, beans, apples,
citrus fruits, carrots, barley, chia seeds and psyllium.
Insoluble fiber: not fermented
• This type of fiber promotes the movement
of material through your digestive system and
increases stool bulk, so it can be of benefit to
those who struggle with constipation or
irregular stools.
• It is good for colon health.
• Whole-wheat flour, wheat bran, quinoa, nuts, beans
and vegetables, such as cauliflower, green beans
and potatoes, are good sources of insoluble fiber.
For carbohydrates to be used in the body, they
should be;
Digested
Absorbed
Metabolized
Absorpsion of carbohydrates

• Monosaccharide
absorption occurs in
the duodenum.
Absorpsion of
carbohydrates

• Portal vein transports

absorbed
monosaccharides to
the liver.
Absorpsion of carbohydrates
And then the liver;
1. Transforms fructose and galactose to
glucose and use for energy
2. Release glucose back to the blood for
the cells to use
3. Store excess glucose as glycogen
4. Convert glucose to fatty acids for
storage in adipocytes
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
Provides energy  4 kcal per gram
Protects/spare protein
Prevents ketosis  ketones are used as energy
source instead of glucose
Food sweeteners (glucose, sucrose, fructose…)
RECOMMENDED
CARBOHYDRATE INTAKE
RDA is 130 g/day for adults.
50-100 g carbohydrate/day prevents
ketosis.
Energy of carbohydrates should be
%55-60 of total energy intake.
PROBLEMS WITH HIGH
SUGAR INTAKE
High blood sugar! Diabetes!

Glycemic index: the blood glucose response to a

given food compared to a standard food.

In order to keep normal blood glucose levels,

we should pay attention to glycemic index of the
foods we consume.