CARBOHYDRATES

What are Carbohydrates

● Compounds composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen.

● -ose indicates sugar

● Classified as a Macronutrients- required in large amounts by the

body

● Energy- yielding Nutrient i.e. 4 kcal/g

● Recommended intake: 45-65% of total calories from carbohydrates

Classification of Carbohydrates

● Simple Carbohydrates

○ Monosaccharide (glucose, fructose, galactose)

○ Disaccharides
(Maltose, Sucrose, Lactose)

● Complex Carbohydrates

○ Polysaccharides
(Starch, Glycogen, Fiber)
Monosaccharides
● The three known monosaccharides: ● Example: A pinch of purified
○ Glucose glucose on the tongue gives
only a mild sweet flavor, and
○ Fructose
galactose hardly tastes sweet
○ Galactose
at all. Fructose, however, is as
intensely sweet as honey and,
● The monosaccharides differ in their
in fact, is the sugar primarily
arrangements of the atoms. These chemical
responsible for honey’s
differences account for the differing sweetness of
sweetness.
the monosaccharides.
Structures
Glucose

● Commonly known as blood sugar and dextrose

● Glucose serves as an essential energy source for all the body’s activities.
● Immediate source of energy for cellular respiration.
● Glucose is one of the two sugars in every disaccharide and the unit from
which the polysaccharides are made almost exclusively.
● One of these polysaccharides, starch, is the chief food source of energy for
all the world’s people; another, glycogen, is an important storage form of
energy in the body.
Fructose

● Fructose is the sweetest of the sugars. It is also known as fruit

sugar.

● Fructose occurs naturally in fruits and honey

● Other sources include products such as soft drinks, ready-to-eat

cereals, and desserts that have been sweetened with high-fructose

corn syrup.
Galactose

● The monosaccharide galactose occurs seldom naturally single in

foods and binds with glucose to form a sugar in milk: lactose

Disaccharides
● Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide Disaccharide

■ Maltose – Glucose + Glucose = (Malt, grains)

■ Sucrose – Glucose + Fructose = (Table sugar, sugar cane, sugar

beets, honey, maple syrup)

■ Lactose – Glucose + Galactose = (Milk and milk products)

● Condensation:
links two monosaccharides together with a removal of water molecule

● Hydrolysis
breaks a disaccharide in two with the addition of water molecule usually with
the assistance of an enzyme.
Complex Carbohydrates:
Polysaccharides
● Polysaccharides: when more than 10 monosaccharides link together.

● Glycogen

○ Storage form of energy in the body

○ Glucose units
● Starch

○ Storage form of energy in plants

○ Glucose units
Glycogen

● Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in the body

● Highly branched polymer of glucose

● Stored in the liver and muscles

● Found in tiny amounts in meat sources

● Not found in plants

Starch
● The major digestible polysaccharide in our diet is starch.
● It is the storage form of carbohydrates in plants- long, branched or unbranched chains of
hundreds or thousands of glucose molecules linked together
● Sources: wheat, rice, corn, barley, rye, potatoes, tubers, yams etc.
● Two types of plant starch:

1. Amylose –

■ is in the form of a straight chain- spiral.

■ Soluble in water

2. Amylopectin-

■ is a combination of a straight and branched chain

■ Insoluble in water
Fiber
● Dietary fibers are the structural parts of plants and thus are found in
all plant-derived foods—vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and legumes.
Most dietary fibers are polysaccharides.

● Dietary fibers differ from starches in that the bonds between their
monosaccharides cannot be broken down by digestive enzymes in the
body.
Soluble Fiber
● Soluble fibers- dissolve in water , form gels (viscous), and are easily digested by

bacteria in the colon (fermentable).

● Includes: gums, pectins and some hemicellulose

● Commonly found in: oats, barley, legumes, and citrus fruits,

● soluble fibers are associated with protecting against heart disease and diabetes by

lowering blood cholesterol and glucose levels, respectively

○ Beneficial in diarrhea- watery stool – excess water absorbed

Insoluble Fiber

● Other fibers do not dissolve in water (insoluble fibers), do not form gels

(non-viscous), and are less readily fermented.

● Includes: Cellulose, lignins, resistant starch, hemicellulose

● Found mostly in whole grains (bran) and vegetables

● insoluble fibers promote bowel movements, and helps alleviate

constipation.
Functional Fibers

● When fibers have been extracted from plants or are manufactured and

then added to foods or used in supplements, they are called functional

fibers.

● Cellulose in cereals, for example, is a dietary fiber, but when consumed

as a supplement to alleviate constipation, cellulose is considered a

functional fiber.

● Total fiber refers to the sum of dietary fibers and functional fibers.
Resistant Starches
● These starches escape digestion and absorption in the small intestine. Starch

may resist digestion for several reasons, including the body’s efficiency in

digesting starches and the food’s physical properties.

● Resistant starch is common in whole or partially milled grains, legumes, and just-

ripened bananas. Cooked potatoes, pasta, and rice that have been chilled also

contain resistant starch. Similar to insoluble fibers, resistant starch may support a

healthy colon
Phytic Acid

● Phytic acid is not a dietary fiber, but it is often found in fiber-rich foods

● Its a non-nutrient component of plant seeds; also called phytate.

● Phytic acid occurs in the husks of grains, legumes, and seeds and is capable of

binding minerals such as zinc, iron, calcium, magnesium, and copper in insoluble

complexes in the intestine, which the body excretes unused.

 Digestion &
Absorption of
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate Digestion
● Salivary amylase:

○ Carbohydrates smaller polysaccharides

● Pancreatic amylase:

○ Polysaccharides Disaccharides

● Specific Disaccharide enzymes (on microvilli)

○ Disaccharides monosaccharides

○ Enzymes: Maltase, Sucrase, Lactase

● Absorption:

○ Glucose and galactose enter the cells lining the small intestine by active transport;

○ Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion.

Carbohydrate
Metabolism
 A Preview of Carbohydrate Metabolism
Storing Glucose as Glycogen
● After a meal, blood glucose rises, and liver cells link excess glucose
molecules by condensation reactions into long, branching chains of glycogen.

● When blood glucose falls, the liver cells break down glycogen by hydrolysis
reactions into single molecules of glucose and release them into the
bloodstream. Thus glucose becomes available to supply energy to the brain
and other tissues regardless of whether the person has eaten recently.
● The liver stores about one-third of the body’s total glycogen and
releases glucose into the bloodstream as needed. Muscle cells can
also store glucose as glycogen (the other two-thirds), but muscles
hoard most of their supply, using it just for themselves during
exercise.

● The body can store only enough glycogen to provide energy for
relatively short periods of time—less than a day during rest and a few
hours at most during exercise.

● For its long-term energy reserves, for use over days or weeks of food
deprivation, the body uses its abundant, water-free fuel, fat.
Using Glucose for Energy

● Glucose fuels the work of most of the body’s cells. Inside a cell, a series of
reactions can break glucose into smaller compounds that yield energy when
broken down completely to carbon dioxide and water.
Making Glucose from Protein

● Glucose is the preferred energy source for brain cells, other nerve cells, and
developing red blood cells.

● When carbohydrates are not available the other 2 energy yielding nutrients are
looked forward to.

● Fat cannot make glucose to significant extent.

● The amino acids of protein can be used to make glucose to some extent, but
amino acids and proteins have jobs of their own that no other nutrient can
perform.
● Still, when a person does not replenish glucose by eating carbohydrate, body
proteins are broken down to make glucose to fuel the brain and other special
cells.

● These body proteins derive primarily from the liver and skeletal muscles. The
conversion of protein to glucose is called gluconeogenesis. (examples: Alanine
& Arginine)

● Adequate dietary carbohydrate can prevent this use of protein for energy, and
this role of carbohydrate is known as its protein-sparing action.
Making Ketone Bodies from Fat Fragments

● With less carbohydrate providing glucose to meet the brain’s energy needs, fat
takes an alternative metabolic pathway; instead of entering the main energy
pathway, fat fragments combine with one another, forming ketone bodies.

● Ketone bodies provide an alternate fuel source during starvation, but when their
production exceeds their use, they accumulate in the blood, causing ketosis.

● Because most ketone bodies are acidic, ketosis disturbs the body’s normal acid-
base balance.

● To spare body protein and prevent ketosis, the body needs at least 50 to 100
grams of carbohydrate a day.
Using Glucose to Make Fat

● When glucose is abundant, energy metabolism shifts to use more glucose instead of
fat.

● When carbohydrate is abundant, fat is either conserved (by using more carbohydrate
in the fuel mix) or created (by using excess carbohydrate to make body fat). The fat
then travels to the fatty tissues of the body for storage.

● Unlike the liver cells, which can store only enough glycogen to meet less than a day’s
energy needs, fat cells can store seemingly unlimited quantities of fat.
Energy Metabolism
● Is the process of generating energy (ATP) from nutrients (CHO, Protein and
fats). Metabolism comprises a series of interconnected pathways that can
function in the presence or absence of oxygen.

Metabolism can be divided into two categories

1) Anabolism: Reactions in which small molecules are put together to build larger
ones. Anabolic reactions require energy e.g. Glycogen from glucose

2) Catabolism: Reactions in which large molecules are broken down to smaller

ones. Catabolic reactions release energy. e.g oxidation of glucose to yield
energy, carbon dioxide and water.
Breaking down Nutrients for Energy—Glucose

Glucose-to-Pyruvate
● The first pathway glucose takes on its way to yield energy is called
glycolysis (glucose splitting).

● In a series of reactions, the 6-carbon glucose is converted to similar 6-carbon

compounds before being split in half, forming two 3-carbon compounds.

● These 3-carbon compounds continue along the pathway until they are
converted to pyruvate. Thus the net yield of one glucose molecule is two
pyruvate molecules.

● As glucose breaks down to pyruvate, hydrogen atoms with their electrons are
released and carried to the electron transport chain by coenzymes made
from the B vitamin niacin.
Breaking down Nutrients for Energy—Glucose

Pyruvate Options- Anaerobic or Aerobic

● When the body needs energy quickly—as occurs when you run a quarter mile
as fast as you can—pyruvate is converted to lactate. The breakdown of
glucose-to-pyruvate- to-lactate proceeds without oxygen—it is anaerobic.
This anaerobic pathway yields energy quickly, but it cannot be sustained for
long—a couple of minutes at most.

● When energy expenditure proceeds at a slower pace—as occurs when you

jog around the track for an hour—pyruvate breaks down to acetyl CoA in an
aerobic pathway. Aerobic pathways produce energy more slowly, but
because they can be sustained for a long time, their total energy yield is
greater.
Pyruvate-to-Acetyl CoA (Aerobic)

● If a cell needs energy and oxygen is available,

pyruvate molecules enter the mitochondria of the
cell.

● There a carbon group (COOH) from the 3-carbon

pyruvate is removed to produce a 2-carbon
compound that bonds with a molecule of CoA,
becoming acetyl CoA which enetrs TCA cycle.

● The carbon group from pyruvate becomes carbon

dioxide (CO2), which is released into the blood,
circulated to the lungs, and breathed out.
● Many of the body’s metabolic pathways are reversible, but the step from
pyruvate to acetyl CoA is not one of them.
Summary
Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) Cycle
● The TCA cycle is the final common metabolic pathway for carbohydrates, fats,
and amino acids. Its reactions take place in the inner compartment of the
mitochondria.

● The tricarboxylic acid cycle is the set of reactions that break down acetyl CoA
to carbon dioxide and hydrogen atoms.

● When ATP is low and the cells need energy, acetyl CoA may proceed through
the TCA cycle, releasing hydrogens with their electrons to the electron
transport chain.
● The TCA cycle uses any substance that can be converted to acetyl CoA
directly or indirectly through pyruvate.
Steps of TCA Cycle
1. Formation of Citrate

 The 2-carbon acetyl CoA combines with a 4-carbon compound,oxaloacetate.

 The CoA comes off, and the product is a 6-carbon compound, citrate.
CoA

Acetyl CoA + Oxaloacetate Citrate

2. Formation of Isocitrate

 The atoms of citrate are rearranged to form isocitrate.

Citrate Isocitrate
Steps of TCA Cycle
3. Conversion of Isocitrate to Alpha-ketogltarate

 Now two H (with their two electrons) are removed from the isocitrate. NAD+
accepts the hydrogens with their electrons and becomes NADH + H +.

 A carbon is combined with two oxygens, forming carbon dioxide (which

diffuses away into the blood and is exhaled). What is left is the 5-carbon
compound alpha-ketoglutarate.

Isocitrate +NAD + Alpha-ketoglutarate +NADH2 + CO2

Steps of TCA Cycle
4. Conversion of alpha-ketoglutarate to succinyl CoA

 Now two compounds interact with alpha-ketoglutarate— a molecule of CoA

and a molecule of NAD +.
 In this complex reaction, a carbon and two oxygens are removed (forming
carbon dioxide); two hydrogens are removed and go to NAD+ (forming
NADH+H+); and the remaining 4-carbon compound is attached to the CoA,
forming succinyl CoA.

Alpha-ketoglutarate + CoA+NAD + Succinyl CoA+NADH 2 +CO2

Steps of TCA Cycle

5. Conversion of Succinyl CoA to Succinate

 Now two molecules react with succinyl CoA—a molecule called GDP and
one of phosphate (P).

 The CoA comes off, the GDP and P combine to form the high energy
compound GTP (similar to ATP), and succinate remains.
Steps of TCA Cycle
6. Conversion of Succinate to Fumarate

 In this reaction, two H with their electrons are removed from succinate
and are transferred to a molecule of FAD (a coenzyme like NAD +) to
form FADH 2 . The product that remains is fumarate.

7. Conversion of Fumarate to Malate

 A molecule of water is added to fumarate, forming malate.

Steps of TCA Cycle
8. Conversion of Malate to Oxaloacetate

 A molecule of NAD+ accepts two H with their associated electrons and

forms NADH+H+. The product that remains is the 4-carbon compound
oxaloacetate.

The cycle is complete and the oxaloacetate can combine with another molecule of
acetyl CoA (step 1), and the cycle can begin again.
Electron Transport Chain
1. In the first step of the electron transport chain, NADH transfers its high-energy
electrons to a molecule called a flavoprotein, leaving NAD+ and reduced
flavoprotein. A little energy is released as heat in this reaction.

2. The flavoprotein passes on the electrons to a molecule called coenzyme Q.

Again a little energy is released as heat, but ADP and P bond together and form
ATP, storing much of the energy.
This is a coupled reaction: ADP + P → ATP.
Electron Transport Chain
3. Coenzyme Q passes the electrons to cytochrome b. Again the electrons
release energy.

4. Cytochrome b passes the electrons to cytochrome c in a coupled reaction in

which ATP is formed: ADP + P → ATP.

5. Cytochrome c passes the electrons to cytochrome a.

6. Cytochrome a passes them (with their H) to an atom of oxygen (O), forming

water (HO 2).
This is a coupled reaction in which ATP is formed: ADP + P → ATP.
Hexose Monophosphate Shunt
● An aerobic bypass for glycolysis may be utilized especially by the liver and
adipose tissue. This is known as the hexose Monophosphate shunt or the
oxidative shunt.

● Through the reactions occurring in this pathway, Ribose , which is a

constituent of RNA, is synthesized.

● Also, NADPH is produced, which is essential for the synthesis of fatty acids
and for the utilization of lactic acid in muscular work.
Biosynthesis of
Carbohydrate
Definition of Biosynthesis

● Biosynthesis is a multi-step, enzyme-catalyzed process where

substrates are converted into more complex products in living
organisms.

● In biosynthesis, simple compounds are modified, converted into

other compounds, or joined together to form macromolecules.
Biosynthesis of Carbohydrate

Biosynthesis of carbohydrate will be discussed under two headings:

• Synthesis of glucose in animals and humans

• Conversion of glucose to other carbohydrates

Synthesis of Glucose
Gluconeogenesis: The synthesis of glucose from non carbohydrate sources.

● These sources are most commonly pyruvate, citric acid cycle intermediates (citrate, iso-citrate,
alpha-ketoglutarate etc.) and *glucogenic amino acids.

● Gluconeogenesis is not the exact reversal of glycolysis; that is, pyruvate to glucose does not
occur by reversing the steps of glucose to pyruvate.

● There are three irreversible steps in glycolysis:

 Phosphoenolpyruvic acid to pyruvate + ATP
 Fructose 6-phosphate to fructose 1,6-disphosphate
 Glucose to glucose 6-phosphate
• These three steps are reversed in gluconeogenesis, but by different reactions and using
different enzymes.
*Glucogenic amino acid is an amino acid that can be converted into glucose through gluconeogenesis
e.g Alanine, Arginine, Asparagine etc.
Conversion of glucose to other carbohydrates

Glycogenesis: The synthesis of glycogen from glucose.

• The biosynthesis of other disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and

polysaccharides also uses this common activation step to form an
appropriate UDP derivative.

*Uridine triphosphate(UTP) has the role of a source of energy or an activator of substrates

in metabolic reactions, like that of ATP. When UTP activates a substrate (like Glucose-1-
phosphate), UDP-glucose is formed and inorganic phosphate is released. UDP-glucose
enters the pathway of synthesis of glycogen.
The Constancy of Blood Glucose
Maintaining Glucose Homeostasis

● To function optimally, the body must maintain blood glucose within limits
that permit the cells to nourish themselves.

● If blood glucose falls below normal, a person may become dizzy and weak
● If it rises above normal, a person may become fatigued. Left untreated,
fluctuations to the extremes—either high or low—can be fatal.
The Regulating Hormones

● Blood glucose homeostasis is regulated primarily by two hormones:

 Insulin, which moves glucose from the blood into the cells

 Glucagon, which brings glucose out of storage when necessary.

● After a meal, as blood glucose rises, special cells of the pancreas respond by
secreting insulin into the blood.

● The amount of insulin secreted corresponds with the rise in glucose. As the
circulating insulin contacts the body’s cells, receptors respond by transferring
glucose from the blood into the cells.
● Most of the cells take only the glucose they can use for energy right away,
but the liver and muscle cells can assemble the small glucose units into
long, branching chains of glycogen for storage.

● The liver cells can also convert extra glucose to fat for export to other cells.
Thus elevated blood glucose returns to normal levels as excess glucose is
stored as glycogen and fat.

● When blood glucose falls (as occurs between meals), other special cells of
the pancreas respond by secreting glucagon into the blood. Glucagon
raises blood glucose by signaling the liver to break down its glycogen
stores and release glucose into the blood for use by all the other body
cells.
Insulin and Glucagon Regulate Glucose Metabolism
● Another hormone that signals the liver cells to release glucose is the ―fighter-
flight‖ hormone, epinephrine.

● When a person experiences stress, epinephrine acts quickly to ensure that

all the body cells have energy fuel in emergencies.

● Among its many roles in the body, epinephrine works to release glucose from
liver glycogen to the blood.
● Balancing within the Normal Range

The maintenance of normal blood glucose depends on foods and hormones.

 When blood glucose falls below normal, food can replenish it, or in the
absence of food, glucagon can signal the liver to break down glycogen
stores.

 When blood glucose rises above normal, insulin can signal the cells to take
in glucose for energy. Eating balanced meals that provide abundant
carbohydrates, including fibers, and a little fat help to slow down the
digestion and absorption of carbohydrate so that glucose enters the blood
gradually. Eating at regular intervals also helps the body maintain a balance
between the extremes.
● Falling outside the Normal Range

 In some people, blood glucose regulation fails. When this happens, either
of two conditions can result: diabetes or hypoglycemia.

 People with these conditions need to plan their diets and physical activities to
help maintain their blood glucose within a normal range.
Carbohydrate
Metabolism in
Diabetes
● Diabetes mellitus refers to metabolic disorders characterized by elevated
blood glucose concentrations and disordered insulin metabolism.

● People with diabetes may be unable to secrete sufficient insulin or use insulin
effectively, or they may have both types of abnormalities.
Effects of Insulin Insufficiency on
Nutrient Metabolism-CHO
Nutrient Effects of Insulin Insufficiency

• Decreased glucose uptake by muscle and

adipose tissue
• Decreased glycogen synthesis in muscle
and liver
Carbohydrate (CHO)
• Increased glycogen breakdown in muscle
and liver
• Increased gluconeogenesis in the liver
• Hyperglycemia
THANK-YOU!
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