PAPER 4

FIELDWORK
 Geography Alternative to Coursework (Paper 4)
Paper 4 is the alternative to coursework paper that is worth 27.5% of your final
IGCSE grade.

The coursework paper tests your understanding of how fieldwork is carried out.

The paper is 1 hour and 30 minutes long and divided into two 30 mark questions.

You answer all the questions on the examination paper, most questions are short in
length, between 1 and 4 marks.

The paper requires a combination of knowledge and skills.

The questions usually focus on coursework to do with; coasts, rivers, settlements

or weather.
Possible topics and areas of study may include:
Rivers
• Changes in river velocity from source to mouth

• Changes in load (shape and size) from source to mouth

• Changes in channel depth, width, cross-section and wetted perimeter from source to
mouth

• Changes in discharge from source to mouth

• Changes across a meanders cross section

• Changes in river gradient from source to mouth

• Changes in valley size and gradient from source to mouth

• Changes in land use a long a river

• Changes in pollution along a rivers' course (you need proper equipment for this)
 Coasts
• Changes in vegetation (cover and variety) moving inland

• Changes in beach profile and sand dune profile

• Speed of longshore drift

• Changes in land use

• Changes in defenses (compare to land use)

• Changes in beach or dune material (size or shape)

Settlements
• Changes in land use
• Changes in traffic (maybe CBD to rural-urban fringe)
• Changes in pedestrians
• Number and type of tourists
• Changes in the quality of the environment or pollution
levels (may look at the impact of industry)
• Changes in globalization
• Changes in cost of products
• Comparison to Burgess or Hoyt Model
• Changes in wealth or population density (will have to use
some secondary data)
• Sphere of influences of settlements or services
Weather
• Changes in temperature throughout the day or
between seasons

• Changes in rainfall

• Changes in humidity

• Changes in hours of sunshine or cloud cover

• Changes in wind speed and wind direction

 FIELD WORK
-Scientific study of geography using the environment as a laboratory or source of
information.
Types of Field Work

1.Field Excursion
-Visiting an area near or far from the school to see geographical phenomena then note
down and discuss later in class. Majorly intended to relax the participants as they learn.

2.Field Research
-Systematic problem solving done by experts in which scientific methods of collecting,
recording and analysing data are used.

3.Field Study
-Study conducted within a neighbourhood in which one theme is pursued e.g. ‘A study
of a local farm’.
-Researchers have objectives to be achieved at the end of the study.
 Importance of Field Work
1. Reinforces what has been learnt in class.

1. Enables one to gain more geographical knowledge.

1. It breaks the monotony of classroom work.

1. It provides learner with practical skills of collecting, recording and analysing data and
report writing.

1. Gives students an opportunity to go out and practise what they have learnt in class.

1. Enables students to familiarise themselves with the environment and develop a positive
attitude towards it.

1. Enables students to develop a positive attitude towards manual work.

1. Promotes development of virtues like cooperation by working in groups.

 Field Work Procedure (Steps Followed)

Identification of Topic/Theme
-Reason why you want to carry out field study e.g. ‘A study of rocks around the school’

Identification of the Area of Study

-Determining the area to be used for study.
-Should be chosen carefully to ensure that the field study is successful.

Statement of Objectives
-Stating aims of carrying the field study.
-Act as guidelines to activities to be undertaken during field work.
They should be simple, brief, testable and achievable. E.g. for the topic ‘A study of a local farm’
objectives could be stated as follows:
To find out methods of farming in a local farm
To identify the cattle breeds in the farm
To investigate the problems facing the farm.
 Formulation of Hypotheses

-Assumptions set before field work whose validity or acceptance is to be proved.

-It is a prediction or statement that you make before your data collection
• Hypotheses may include:
The width of a river will increase as you move from the source to the mouth
• The amount of traffic will increase as you move from the rural-urban fringe to the CBD
• The amount of vegetation will increase as you move inland from the sea (distance =
200metres)
• The hottest part of the day will be between 1200 and 1400.
Anomalies sited suggest hypothesis is partly true,support by one of the anomalies.
Your hypothesis or hypotheses (if there are more than one!) should be sensible
and based on geographical theory. It should also be possible to test these
hypotheses safely.
What is wrong with the following hypotheses?
a)There is more rainfall where there is a full moon
b)There is more erosion when the river is in flood
 Choosing your sampling methods
-A sample -a part representing the whole (population).
Types of Sampling
a)Random Sampling
-Selection of members of a group haphazardly where every item has an equal chance of being
selected e.g. to select 5 students to go for a tour from a class:
∙ Class members write their names on pieces of paper
∙ They are folded and put in a basket
∙ The basket is shaken and fives papers are taken out
b).Systematic Sampling
-Selection of members of a sample from an evenly distributed phenomena at regular intervals e.g.
after every 10 items/members.
c)Stratified sampling
-Selection of members of a sample by breaking the population into homogenous groups e.g. to
select 6 students to go for a tour:
∙ Break the class into boys and girls
∙ Select 3 student from each group by random or systematic sampling
∙ Combine units from each group to form the required sample.
 Preparation of the Field Study
It involves:

a) Seek Permission from Relevant Authorities

-Seeking permission from school and authority in the area you are visiting.
It is important to:
To avoid being denied permission to enter there
Enables individuals to set early the suitable date and time of visit
Helps to arrange for a guide to conduct you around
b)Conduct Reconnaissance (Pre-Visit)
-A familiarisation tour of the intended area of study.
It is important to:
To determine appropriate routes to be taken
Enables to get documents from officials
Helps one to identify the appropriate methods of data collection
Helps to identify appropriate equipment to be used
 Hold Discussion In Class
-Looking through formulated objectives and hypotheses.
It’s important to:
Determine their suitability
Make adjustments
Decide upon data recording methods
Preparation of a Questionnaire
-Important where the interviewer is not able to be with respondents for a long time.
Dividing Into Groups
∙ To ease congestion in the area of study
∙ To create order during field work
∙ To reduce fatigue among participants
∙ To help participants collect data within the time given
Preparation for Documents
∙ Topographical maps to show the routes you will follow
∙ Tables for filling in information
∙ Permission documents
a) pie charts, etc.
 Reading Through Relevant Books
-Reading about the topic and the area of study
Important in that it helps participants to know:
∙ The kind of data they need to collect
∙ The techniques to be employed in the field.
Preparation of a Work Schedule
-A timetable to be followed on the day of field study.
It is important to:
∙ Indicate the specific time when each activity should take place
∙ Reduce time wastage by ensuring proper time management
∙ Ensure all important areas are covered and none is forgotten
∙ Provide an estimate of total time required for study

Selection of Important Tools and Equipment

-Tape measure and rulers for measuring, pencils for drawing sketch maps, notebooks for
writing notes, polythene bag for sorting and carrying samples, cameras for taking
photographs, geological hammer getting rock samples and hoe for digging to get soil
samples, etc.
 Carrying Out the Field Study
-Setting off to go to the area of study to look for data where techniques of collecting
and recording data are applied.

Follow Up Activities
-After data is collected and recorded it’s summarised in the following ways:
∙ Discussing the findings in class giving reports through group leaders
∙ Writing reports in essay form
∙ Calculation of percentages, means, medians and modes
∙ Laboratory testing of samples
∙ Presentation of data using methods such as graphs,
 Problems Encountered in Field work
1. Language Barrier
-Inability to communicate due to the interviewer and the respondent not sharing the same
language or respondents may be illiterate and thus unable to fill questionnaire. The
problems are:
Data may not be collected
Illiterate people may give wrong answers while attempting questionnaires
An interpreter may have to be engages who would be paid which would raise costs.
Answers may be distorted by the interpreter
2. Hostility
Those being approached to give answers may become harsh due to feeling that their
time is being wasted which would cause the field study to be unsuccessful.
3. Dishonest Respondents
-Respondents giving wrong information due to suspicion fear of shame or superstition.
 4.Bad Weather
Raining heavily making it impossible to proceed with data collection and difficulty in
movement.
Becoming very hot making participants uncomfortable and thus unable to proceed
with data collection smoothly.
Becoming misty or foggy causing invisibility problems.

5.Accidents in the Field

One may fall and get inured when walking on rugged areas.
Injuries may result when using tools to get samples by cutting using pangas or knives
and digging using hoes.
6.Attacks by Wild Animals
-Participants may encounter wild animals when carrying out the study in bushy areas e.g.
snakes which may bite them, rhinos which may charge at them, etc.

7.Inaccessibility
-physical barriers such as swamps, rivers without bridges, steep slopes and thick
vegetation may hinder participants from reaching areas with vital information.
 Types of Data
1.primary Data
- First hand or original information from the field e.g.
-Primary data may include traffic counts, pedestrian counts, environmental indexes,
questionnaires or land use surveys,Mean daily temperature from a weather station and
Enumeration/census
2.Secondary/Derived Data
-2nd hand information available in stored sources compiled by other researchers e.g.
∙ Textbooks
∙ Reference books
∙ Maps
∙ Video/audio tapes
∙ Textbooks
∙ Newspapers
∙ Magazines
∙ Census reports
∙ Census reports
 Primary data Secondary data

Advantages • It is up to date (current) • You can study temporal changes

• You know how the data has e.g. how population has changed
been collected i.e. what technique over a number of years
• It only includes data that is • It can be quicker, especially if the
relevant to your coursework data is on the internet
• It only covers your study area • You can study a larger area
• It is collected in the format that • It may include data that you can
you want not obtain personally e.g. salaries

Disadvantages • The data may include some • It is out of date, especially if it has
personal bias been printed in a book.
• Data collection can be time • The information may include a
consuming larger area than your study area
• It can be expensive to travel to • You may not know how the data
places to collect data was collected and who collected
• It is hard to study temporal the data
changes • The data might be in the wrong
• Some data might be unavailable format e.g. in a graph and not raw
or too dangerous to collect figures
• Only possible to cover a small
Quantitative data: This is any data that involves figures. Quantitative data is very easy to present and
analyse.

Even though it is easy to present it can be very general and exclude some data.

Qualitative data: This is more written data or even photographs or pictures.

It tends to me individual and personal, but it can be very hard to present and analyze. Qualitative data often
comes about as the results of interviews with open-ended questions.
 Sources of Data
1.Primary Sources
-People or places which have 1st hand or original information.
The information can be collected by observation, measuring, counting,
photographing etc.
-First hand information is collected

2.Secondary sources
-Materials in which information collected by others was stored e.g. text books,
reference books, etc.
 METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA

1. Observation
-Use of eyes to observe features or weather, then information is recorded immediately e.g. cloud
cover, rocks, soil, land forms, vegetation, etc.
Advantages
a)Gives 1st hand information which is reliable.
b)Relevant material to the study is collected.
c)Time saving since one doesn’t have to look for data in many places.
Disadvantages
a) Data on past activities isn’t available.
b) May be hindered by weather conditions e.g. mist and dust storms.
c) Ineffective for people with visual disabilities.
d) Tiresome and expensive as it involves a lot of travelling because physical presence is required.
 2.interviewing
-Gathering information from people by direct discussions then answers are recorded. It
may be face to face or on a telephone. A questionnaire prepared in advance is used.
Advantages
a)Reliable first hand information is collected.
b)Interviewer can seek clarification in case of ambiguity of answers.
c)Can be used on illiterate.
d)Interviewer can gauge the accuracy of responses.
Disadvantages
a) Time consuming since one person can be handled at a time.
b) Expensive and tiresome as extensive travelling is required to meet the respondents.
c) May encounter language barrier if the respondent doesn’t speak the same language as
the interviewer.
d) A respondent may lie, exaggerate or distort facts leading to collection of wrong
information.
 3.Administering questionnaires
-Set of systematically structured questions printed on paper used on interviews or
sent to respondents to fill answers.
Types
∙ Open-ended questionnaire-in which respondent is given a chance to express
his views. The disadvantage is that different answers are given which are
difficult to analyse.
∙ Closed-ended (rigid) questionnaire-in which respondents are given answers
to choose from.
 Characteristics of a good questionnaire
∙ Short
∙ Uses simple language
∙ Systematically arranged from simple to difficult
∙ Clear questions
∙ Doesn’t touch on respondent’s privacy
Advantages
a) Comparisons can be made since questions are similar.
b) First hand information which is relevant to current trends and situation is collected.
c) Saves money on travelling as physical presence isn’t required.
d) Saves time as all respondents are handled at the same time.
e) A lot of information can be collected.
Disadvantages
a) Difficult analysis due to different answers.
b) Some questionnaires may be sent back while blank by lazy respondents.
c) Can’t be used on illiterate respondents.
d) Some respondents may write wrong information.
 4.Content analysis
-Technique of collecting data from secondary sources.
This is by reading, watching films, viewing photographs and listening to get
what is relevant.
Advantages
a) Easy to get data if analysed.
b) Cheap as there isn’t extensive travelling
c) Saves time as all information is in one place.
d) Possible to get old data

Disadvantages
a) Difficult to verify accuracy of data
b) Data may be irrelevant to current trends
c) Up to date data may not be readily available
 5.Measuring
-Determining distances, areas, height or depth using instruments and recording.
Distance can be estimated by pacing or taking steps of equal and unknown length.

6.Photographing
-Capturing on film or video and still photographs.
 8.Experimentation
–Conducting a test or investigation to provide evidence for or against a
theory e.g. to determine the chemical composition of rocks and soils.
Advantages
a) First hand data is obtained
b) Gives accurate results if properly conducted.
c) It can lead to further discoveries
Disadvantages
a) May be expensive as it involves use of expensive equipment.
b) May be time consuming
c) Use of defective instruments may lead to inaccurate results
Improper handling of equipment and chemicals may lead to accidents
9. Counts
- Pedestrian and traffic counts are two significant examples of this enquiry skill.

- Appropriate methods for recording the counts should be discussed including the layout of
recording sheets, instructions and the necessary information required to identify the sheet
following the count (i.e. time, date, location and name of recorder).

- The two most common types of count are traffic count and pedestrian count.

- When designing traffic and pedestrian counts keep the forms simple. Have an area for the
tally and an area to add up the total.

- It also is very important to have a place to mark down the date, time and location of the
count. This is important for when you return to the classroom and start data presentation
and making comparisons. Whenever doing a count you need to find a safe location and
carry it out for 10 minutes. If you are comparing different locations you should do the
counts at the same time, this makes comparisons fair. For example if you did one traffic
count at 08.00am when everyone was travelling to work and one at 11.00am when
everyone is at work then the comparison is unfair.
10.Environmental index: This is a type of survey that looks at the quality of the environment.
Your survey may focus on any aspect of the environment e.g. air or noise pollution, greenery, litter,
graffiti.

11.Globalization index: This is a type of survey that looks at how globalized a settlement or a
section of a settlement is. The survey make look at any aspect of globalization including language,
signage, businesses and people.

With both environmental and globalization indexes you use bi-polar scoring. Once you have
completed the index you add up the marks to give an area an overall score.

Indexes normally use bi-polar scoring. This simply means the score goes from negative to positive with
0 being the average. Indexes are quite subjective (one person might think one crisp packet is a lot of
litter while another might think it is hardly litter), therefore, to keep the indexes consistent for
comparisons you should do them in groups and one group should do all the same index e.g. group 1
only does environmental indexes.
 Methods of Recording Data
-Methods of storing information to avoid losing it.
Recording sheets
should always have….
-A title
-Headings for date, day, time, location with spaces next to each
-Other factors such as weather may also need to be recorded if relevant
– Enough space for all your recordings at each site/sample you will visit for this piece of data
-Tallys are the best option for counts
What is wrong with the following recording sheet for a pace of field work comparing traffic at three sites?
 1.Note Taking
-Writing in a note book what is being observed, answers
during interviews and then notes are compiled in school or
office when writing report.
2.Filling In Questionnaires
-Filling answers in questionnaires which are responses from a
respondent by an interviewer or respondent himself which
he/she then sends back.
3.Tallying
-Making 4 vertical or slanting strokes and the 5th across the 4
to record data obtained by counting or measuring similar
items.
 4.Tabulation

-Drawing of tables and filling in data systematically e.g. weather recording

sheets.
5.Field Sketching

-Summarising information observed in the field by making a rough

drawing of landscape and labelling the essential information.
6.Mapping/Drawing Maps

-Drawing of a rough map of an area of study and labelling in

words or symbols accompanied by key.
 7.Tape Recording
-Recording image of an object or landscape on a film which is processed to get a
photograph then the photographs are labelled to avoid mix up during storage.

8.Labelling samples
-Recording conversations during interviews on audio tapes using a tape recorder.
Permission should be got from the respondent to record his/her responses.
Advantages
∙ It’s used if responses are too many to be recorded on a note book.
∙ It allows smooth flow of discussion as asking respondents to repeat answers
would irritate them.
 Analysis of Data
-Examining the numerical figures in detail.
Techniques of analysing Data

1. Calculation of Percentages
-If in the study of a farm 10 hectares are devoted to coffee, what is the % of the area
under coffee?

2.Measures of Central Tendency

-Outstanding general characteristics of the data.
a) Arithmetic Mean

a) Median
-The middle value in a set of data arranged in order.
 c)Calculation of Ranges
-Difference between the largest and smallest values. Calculate the range of
for the data above.
d)Mode
-Most frequently recurring value in a set of data.
3.Statistical Presentation of Data
Use of graphs and tables
You can make your coursework safer by doing the following:

• Protection from the weather (waterproof jacket, umbrella, hat, sun cream)
• Sensible dress
• Always carry out coursework in groups
• Always tell an adult or teacher where you area carrying out coursework
• Always carry a mobile phone with you
• Never do coursework near a river or the sea without an adult or teacher and
without them checking that it is safe
• Carry out coursework in day light and wear reflective clothes
• Check that your study area is safe. For example it wouldn't be safe walking around
downtown in some cities
• Don't display valuables making you more vulnerable to crime e.g. if you have a
camera or a phone keep it out
• Also you can wear insect repellent
 Pilot Survey:
• This is basically a test that you carry out before your data collection.

• In pilot survey /study ,the methods to be used in the full investigation are tested
beforehand e.g. a questionnaire may be used with a few people in order to make
sure the methods or questions work before full study is undertaken.

• It’s a trial run to test if your equipment are working,if people understands the
questions in the questionnaire correctly.

• It is very important that you test your data collection forms to ensure that you ask
all the right questions ,your collection forms contain all the right categories
before the day of study, if
all equipment work
and can everyone in the group use it correctly .
MEASURING ACCURATELY

Ways of reducing errors in measurements include;

• Know how to read each instrument correctly

• If working alone ,take more readings/measurements and take an average

• If working in a group, three students should take the same reading which can
then be averaged

• Also method and better equipment partly determine the accuracy.

• NB;one possible explanation for anomalous result is student error in measuring
or reading. Can be improved by use of better equipment.
 1.MEASURING STREAM VELOCITY
Can be done by a flowmeter or an orange;
1.USING AN ORANGE
1. Measure out 10m down the river’s course using the tape measure
2. One person stands at the upstream part of the tape measure with a float(orange)
3. One person stands at the downstream part of the tape measure with stopwatch.
4. A stop watch is started when the orange is released release the timing begins (in seconds).Stop
timing when it reaches the end of the measured section.
5. Write down the result
6. Repeat the experiment 4 more times if possible. By averaging several different reading a better
result can by obtained.
7. It is also a good idea to take the timings at several locations ACROSS at the site you have chosen
and take an average, as sometimes velocity is different in the middle of the chanel compared to the
sides.
Once you have your timings , work out the average time the float took to travel 10 metres.
Then use the formula below to work out the velocity
 Advantage; 1.its cheap.

Disadvantages:1.Possible error in starting

and stopping the stopwatch at the exact moments when the orange passes the start
and end points.

2.It takes more time .

3.The orange might be blown by the wind or

swept by a current into the vegetation at the side of a channel.

4.It measures the surface velocity which is reduced slightly by friction

with the air.
2.USING A FLOWMETER
 2.USING A FLOWMETER

It is inserted into the water to the depth stated in the instructions(usually 0.6 of the
depth)to obtain the average velocity
of the stream at that distance from the bank(with the propeller facing upstream).
HOW TO OBTAIN RESULTS
It is usually read from a digital display .
The reader should calculate the average of several readings.

Advantage;
Quick and accurate method

Disadvantages
It is relatively expensive
It is not accurate where the velocity is low and the depth is shallow.
2.Measuring channel width and depth and drawing a cross section of a river
The width of a river (bank full width)
1. Take a tape measure and two poles (sticks)
2. Place one pole on each bank
3. Stretch the tape measure from bank to bank touching the poles
4. It should be kept as taut as possible to be accurate.
5. Record the width in metres
The depth of a river
1. Leave the width tape measure in place
2. Put a metre rule in the water, every 1m, until it just touches the bed of the river
3. Measure depth of the water in metres e.g. 0.25 for 25cm. so that width and depth measurements are the same
units.
4. Next measure depth from the bed to the measuring tape- this gives you bank full depth
5. Repeat this every metre across the river width
Drawing a cross section graph from the width and depth data
A river cross section graph is a graph to show the width and depth across a river
You can follow the steps below to plot a river’s cross section
If you want to work out the river’s cross sectional area you
can do the calculation
Width X mean depth
Measuring size and shape of river bed load
If you want to compare the size and shape of river bed load at various sites along a river’s course
you would need the following equipment.
– Callipers
– Ruler
– Roundness Index Chart
Instructions
1)Systematically sample pebbles at each site- every metre across channel do the following
2) At each point reach down with the index finger extended and select the first pebble it touches.
3) Grip the length of the longest avis on this pebble using the callipers and then take the pebble out
leaving the gap still between the callipers grips.
4) Measure the length of this gap in the callipers using a ruler
5) Now repeat this process for the width of the pebble
4) Also assess each pebble for it’s roundness using a roundness index chart.
5) Repeat this process at every metre you stop at across the channel (depending on the
size of the sample you want and the width of the river you may need to select more than
one pebble for each metre)
6) You can not down the direction the float was moving, and then work out the velocity
in metres per second, using the formula above
Measuring the movement of beach material
You can measure the speed and direction of long shore drift occurring along a
coastline using this method
1) Measure out 10 metres along the coastline with a tape measure
2) Place a float into water in the breakwater zone at the start point.
3) Observe and time the object’s movement across the pre-set distance.
4) Note the direction the float moves
5) Repeat 5 times
MEASURING THE HEIGHT OF A TALL OBJECT e.g height of a tree or building.
• Choose a place level with the base of the object from which to sight the top of it with a clinometer.
• Measure and record the horizontal distance from your selected position to the object.
• Sight the top of the object with the clinometer and read off the angle of elevation.
• Find the tangent of the angle
• Multiply the distance from the object by the tangent of the angle.
• Add your height to the result obtained .

MEASURING THE CROSS PROFILE (SECTION)OF THE BED OF A STREAM

CHANNEL AND FINDING THE AREA OF THE CROSS SECTION .
• Place the poles on each bank, one on each side.
• Stretch a tape tightly between the two poles to measure the distance.
• With a ruler measure depth of water at regular intervals e.g. 20 m apart.
• Ensure the vertical ruler touches the river bed.
• Get the average depth and multiply by width
• The smaller the intervals between measurements the more accurate the profile will be.
INVESTING TRAFFIC FLOWS –PLANNING AND DATA COLLECTION
• E.g. investigating hypothesis ;Traffic flows in and out of the town centre vary on different main
roads

• Planning in class
• The sampling sites for this investigation are selected subjectively to ensure all roads are covered at
appropriate sites.
• All counts are done at the same time to ensure fair comparisons.
• A checklist should be drawn up of the equipment needed.
• During the investigation
• At each site ,at least one student must be on either side to count traffic going in and out.
• Each student with a stop watch will start and be set to stop at pre agreed times. Ten minutes for each count
will be appropriate.
• The counts should be done a minimum of three times-spaced throughout the day to include a range of
flows(first in the middle of the rush to work, second during the lunch break ,third afternoon before the rush
home)

• Follow up in the classroom

• If more than one group surveyed the same stretch of roads ,average the results.
• Then each student will be able to present ,analyse and make reasoned conclusions using the collected data.
 EXAMPLE
Enquiry question: How does traffic flow at major junction in New York during
the day?

Equipment needed:Clipboard,watch,recording sheet,pens,pencils,camera ,16

students making 8 pairs.

Method: At 09:00,12:00 and 15:00(equal three hour intervals)* pairs will carry
out a traffic count for 10 minutes. Two pairs will be responsible for one of the
four roads merging at the junction. Each pair on opposite sides recording the
numbers of different vehicles using a tally system on a recording sheet.

Safety issues: Clothing ,ID,Money,check if permission needed, stay in pairs, cell

phone, school or teacher contact location, choose a safe position.
• LAND USE
A land use survey of a large town can be done using systematic sampling
along one or more transect(starting at the town Centre and ending at the edge
of town.
• Land use include:
Shops -convenience ,comparison, department
stores,supermarkets,hypermarkets etc.
Services-Financial,educational,medical,transport,food and
drink,religious,administration,leisure and entertainment etc.
Industries -crafts, light industry, Heavy industry, mining/quarrying etc.

Open spaces -parks, sports fields, demolition sites, wasteland etc.

Residences -Houses, flats/apartments ,Temporary/squatter

Unoccupied -Residences,factories,shops etc.
PLANNING AND CONDUCTING A LAND USE SURVEY OF A CBD
1.Obtain or draw a large scale plan of the area on which separate buildings are shown.

2.Decide on whether it is possible to record all buildings or whether systematic sampling

should be used.

3.Decide the land use categories.

4.Decide whether to record just the ground floor or all floors. If both use a method to
show which is which.

5.Mark the uses on the base map.

6.Devise shadings for each category and plot the land uses on another copy of the map.
 VEGETATION
• Studies of changes in small vegetation species or of variations in ground coverage
,involve area
sampling along a transect using a quadrant.

• A quadrant is a series of squares (quadrats 0.5 m or 1m sq.) placed in a habitat of

interest and
the species within those quadrats are identified and recorded.

• Sample points where quadrants are placed can be selected systematically.

• If the quadrats has been subdivided into 100 squares the number of squares without
plants can be counted to give the percentage of bare ground. If it has 25 subdivisions
multiply by four.

• Random samples of vegetation can be taken using quadrats thrown over the shoulder
at sites selected randomly.
INVESTIGATING VEGETATION CHANGE ACROSS SAND DUNES USING SYSTEMATIC
SAMPLING
Dunes age increases with distance inland, A transect from young to old dunes will show an increase in;
• The density of the vegetation cover.
• The number of plant species.
• The height of the tallest species
Any of these changes can be investigated along a transect line:
1. Place a ranging pole at the high water mark. Lay out a transect from it at right angles to the shore by
extending a tape measure as far as it will go. Mark the end with another ranging pole .
2. At regular intervals e.g. every 10 metres place the quadrat at the side of the tape and count the number of
different vegetation species or percentage vegetation cover. You could use a ruler to measure the highest
species within the quadrat at each point.
3. Record the results on the recording sheet.
4. Move the start of the measuring tape to the second ranging pole and repeat the process until all of the
sand dune ridges have been crossed.
Your results can be compared with parallel transects taken at the same time by other groups of students at
regular intervals along the beach.
INVESTIGATING PEBBLE LOAD SIZE CHANGES ALONG A RIVER BED BY
SYSTEMATIC POINT SAMPLING
• The same technique of sampling along a transect line at regular intervals is used.
• At regular intervals, stretch a tape measure from bank to bank. Record on the recording sheet
whether you are starting from the left or right bank(left facing downstream).
• At each selected set interval along the tape measure, place a long ruler vertically down to the
river bed and pick up a number of pebbles from that point.
• Place the pebbles in a bag labelled with the identity of the sample point from which they were
taken.
• The long axis of a pebble can be measured accurately by a calipers than a ruler.
• Tighten the calipers around the long axis of the pebble and measure the gap of the calipers
against the ruler.
• A device called a pebbleometer can also be used to measure the pebble.
• The average particles size at each sample point can be found by adding up the lengths of all
the pebbles and dividing the total by the number of pebbles in the sample.

Pebble size up a beach can be done this way.

SURVEYING A SLOPE PROFILE –DATA COLLECTION AND DATA
PRESENTATION
-Take the necessary equipment; two ranging poles, a clinometer, a prepared recording sheet,
pencil and clipboard.

-One student holds ranging pole at the start of the slope, while a second student holds a second
ranging pole at the first noticeable break of slope.(or 10 metres).The ranging poles are kept
vertical and they rest on the surface but do not sink into the ground.

-The first student then holds the clinometer at a known comfortable height against the first
ranging pole and sights the same height on the second ranging pole .The second student reads
and records the angle in the prepared table .

-The distance between the two poles is measured with a tape measure stretched between them
and recorded in the table.

-The process is repeated until all the segments of the slope have been measured.
INVESTIGATING LONGSHORE DRIFT
• Paint some pebbles in a variety of bright easy to see colors.

• Choose a time when longshore drift is occurring(onshore wind and oblique wave
crests).

• One student puts one pebble in the water and stays at that point.

• Another student watches the pebble for ten swashes and marks where it moved to.

• Measure the distance from the start and end point with a tape.

• Repeat the process.

This could be combined with measuring wave frequency or wind speed to see how they
affect longshore drift. Varied pebble sizes could be used to see their effect)
BIPOLAR SURVEYS
-Its useful for assessing environmental quality.
-A range of scores is used e.g. a scale using negative and positive figures either side of 0.The 0 represents an average
situation and the negative figures show the extent of undesirable aspects and the positive figures the extent of good
aspects e.g +3 the highest quality and -3 the poorest..
INVESTIGATINGTHE ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY OF A TOWN’S DIFFERENT RESIDENTIAL
AREAS-PLANNING AND CONDUCTING A BIPOLAR SURVEY.
Planning the survey
• Choose an appropriate number of survey sites.
• Decide where the survey sites should be located e.g. along a transect from town to outskirts.
• Select which characteristics of the environment to measure as indicators of environmental quality. E.g how much
litter and noise there is.
• Decide on the range of scores to use
• E.g. a five point scoring scale

+2-tarred ,without potholes

+1-tarred with some breaks in the surface
0-Tarred with many potholes
-1-Earth road with a smooth surface
-2 -Earth road with many potholes

• Prepare a recording sheet for use in the field leaving space to write the site number.
• Decide the time of the survey and how many students will go to each site.