CHEMISTRY OF SOIL THE E-HORIZON:

• The E horizon is usually lighter in color, often

below the O and A horizons. It is often rich in
What is soil chemistry ?
nutrients that are leached from the top A and O
• Soil chemistry is the study of the chemical horizons. It has a lower clay content and is
characteristics of soil. Soil chemistry is affected by common in forested lands or areas with high
mineral composition, organic matter and quality O and A horizons.
environmental factors.

THE B-HORIZON:
SOIL PROFILE
• The B-horizon has some similarities with the E-
• If one could dig a massive trench (hole), about 50- horizon. This horizon is formed below the O, A
100ft vertically downwards into the ground, you and E horizons and may contain high
will notice that you would have cut through concentrations of silicate clay, iron, aluminum and
various layers of soil types. A look at the layers carbonates. It is also called the illuviation
from a distance gives one a cross-section view of zone because of the accumulation of minerals. It
the ground (beneath the surface) and the kind of is the layer in which the roots of big trees end.
soils and rocks it is made up of.
• This cross-section view is called a Soil Profile. The
profile is made up of layers, running parallel to the THE C-HORIZON:
surface, called Soil Horizons.
• The C horizon lacks all the properties of the layers
• Each horizon may be slightly or very different
above it. It is mainly made up of broken bedrock
from the other above or below it. Each horizon
and no organic material. It has cemented
tells a story about the makeup, age, texture and
sediment and geologic material. There is little
characteristics of that layer.
activity here although additions and losses of
• Most soils have three major horizons. These are A
soluble materials may occur. The C horizon is also
Horizon, B Horizon and C Horizon. Aside from
known as saprolite.
these three, there are also the O, E and R
horizons. How are they different?

THE R-HORIZON:

THE O-HORIZON • The R horizon is bedrock, material, compacted

and cemented by the weight of the overlying
• The O horizon is very common in many surfaces
horizons. It is the unweathered parent material.
with lots of vegetative cover. It is the layer made
Rock types found here include granite, basalt and
up of organic materials such as dead leaves and
limestone.
surface organisms, twigs and fallen trees. It has
about 20% organic matter. It is possible to see
various levels of decomposition occurring here
TYPES OF SOIL
(minimal, moderately, highly and completely
decomposed organic matter). This horizon is often a.) SANDY SOIL
black or dark brown in color, because of its
organic content. It is the layer in which the roots • Sandy Soil are light, warm, dry and tend to be
of small grass are found. acidic and low in nutrients. Sandy soils are often
known as light soils due to their high proportion
THE A-HORIZON: of sand and little clay (clay weighs more than
sand). These soils have quick water drainage and
• The A horizon may be seen in the absence of the
are easy to work with. They are quicker to warm
O horizon, usually known as the topsoil. It is the
up in spring than clay soils but tend to dry out in
top layer soils for many grasslands and
summer and suffer from low nutrients that are
agricultural lands. Typically, they are made of
washed away by rain. The addition of organic
sand, silt and clay with high amounts of organic
matter can help give plants an additional boost of
matter. This layer is most vulnerable to wind and
nutrients by improving the nutrient and water
water erosion. It is also known as the root zone.
holding capacity of the soil.
b.) CLAY SOIL SEDIMENTATION AND CHEMICAL POLLUTION

• Clay Soil are heavy soils that benefit from high Sedimentation
nutrients. Clay soils remain wet and cold in winter
• Sedimentation is the tendency for particles in
and dry out in summer. These soils are made of
suspension to settle out of the fluid in which they
over 25 percent clay, and because of the spaces
are entrained, and come to rest against a barrier.
found between clay particles, clay soils hold a high
This is due to their motion through the fluid in
amount of water. Because these soils drain slowly
response to the forces acting on them: these
and take longer to warm up in summer, combined
forces can be due to gravity, centrifugal
with drying out and cracking in summer, they can
acceleration or electromagnetism.
often test gardeners.

c.) SILT SOIL

• Silt soil are light and moisture retentive soils with

a high fertility rating. As silt soils compromise of
medium sized particles they are well drained and
hold moisture well. As the particles are fine, they
can be easily compacted and are prone to
washing away with rain. By adding organic matter,
the silt particles can be bound into more stable
CHEMICAL POLLUTION
clumps.
• Chemical pollution occurs when chemicals
resulting from human activities enter the
d.) PEAT SOIL
environment, contaminating air, water or soil.
• Peat soil are high in organic matter and retain a Acid rain, greenhouse gases and ozone are all
large amount of moisture. This type of soil is very examples of chemical pollution.
rarely found in a garden and often imported into a
garden to provide an optimum soil base for
SOURCES OF CHEMICAL POLLUTION
planting.
• AGRICULTURE – Chemicals and pesticides are used
in our agricultural processes. To protect our crops
e.) CHALK SOIL
we spray them with pesticides. To ensure the
• Chalk soil can be either light or heavy but always health of their livestock, commercial farmers
highly alkaline due to the calcium carbonate or spray chemicals on the pens. Excessive use of
lime within its structure. As these soils are alkaline fertilizers is another source of water pollution. All
they will not support the growth of ericaceous of these can seep into the ground and
plants that require acidic soils to grow. If a chalky contaminate our soil, and eventually, these
soil shows signs of visible white lumps then they chemicals will make it into our water supply,
can’t be acidified and gardeners should be water bodies and the food we eat. These toxic
resigned to only choose plants that prefer an elements find their way into our atmosphere too,
alkaline soil. and add to the degradation of our environment.

f.) Loam soil

• TRANSPORTATION – Emissions from the vehicles
• Loam soil are a mixture of sand, silt and clay that we use in our daily lives contribute to air
are combined to avoid the negative effects of pollution. Cars, planes, and other conveyances
each type. These soils are fertile, easy to work give off carbon dioxide as they burn fossil fuel in
with and provide good drainage. Depending on the form of petroleum. The large amount of CO2
their predominant composition they can be either emitted by the millions of vehicles in the world
sandy or clay loam. As the soils are a perfect today contributes to global warming. Ships also
balance of soil particles, they are considered to be cause chemical pollution, especially those that
a gardeners best friend, but still benefit from carry crude oil. There have been several incidents
topping up with additional organic matter. of oil spills which caused some serious damages.
We still don’t know the long term effects of this
amount of pollution in the ocean. One thing for
sure is that it’s contaminating one of our major
food source… seafood.
• Household Chemicals – Aerosols and regular activities. Soil contaminants are all products of soil
household cleaning products may look innocent pollutants that contaminate the soil. Human
but a lot of consumer products are pollutants. Just activities that pollute the soil range from
look at the products you use on a daily basis and agricultural practices that infest the crops with
the warnings on their labels. pesticide chemicals to urban or industrial wastes
or radioactive emissions that contaminate the soil
with various toxic substances.
• Industries and Factories – Hazardous waste
comes from factories that do not dispose of them • BIOLOGICAL AGENTS
properly. Metals and solvents from industrial
Biological agents work inside the soil to introduce
process can pollute our water bodies and poison
manures and digested sludge (coming from the
aquatic life. Factories release a large amount of
human, bird and animal excreta) into the soil.
hydrocarbons into our atmosphere, adding to the
escalating effects of global warming. • AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

The soil of the crops is polluted to a large extent with

SOIL CONTAMINATION pesticides, fertilizers, herbicides, slurry, debris, and
manure.
• Soil contamination or soil pollution as part of land
degradation is caused by the presence of • RADIOACTIVE POLLUTANTS
xenobiotic (human-made) chemicals or other
Radioactive substances such as Radium, Thorium,
alteration in the natural soil environment. It is
Uranium, Nitrogen, etc. can infiltrate the soil and
typically caused by industrial activity, agricultural
create toxic effects.
chemicals, or improper disposal of waste. The
most common chemicals involved are petroleum • URBAN WASTE
hydrocarbons, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
(such as naphthalene and benzo(a)pyrene), Urban waste consists of garbage and rubbish
solvents, pesticides, lead, and other heavy metals. materials, dried sludge and sewage from domestic
Contamination is correlated with the degree of and commercial waste.
industrialization and intensity of chemical usage. • INDUSTRIAL WASTE

Steel, pesticides, textiles, drugs, glass, cement,

POLLUTANTS petroleum, etc. are produced by paper mills, oil
refineries, sugar factories, petroleum industries and
MAN-MADE POLLUTANTS others as such.
• Man-made contaminants are the main causes of
soil pollution and consist of a large variety of
EXAMPLES OF SOIL CONTAMINANTS
contaminants or chemicals, both organic and
inorganic. They can pollute the soil either alone or • LEAD (PB)
combined with several natural soil contaminants.
Man-made soil pollution is usually caused by the Potential sources: lead paint, mining, foundry
improper disposal of waste coming from industrial activities, vehicle exhaust, construction activities,
or urban sources, industrial activities, and agriculture activities.
agricultural pesticides. • MERCURY (HG)
NATURAL POLLUTANTS Potential sources: mining, incineration of coal, alkali
• Natural processes can lead to an accumulation of and metal processing, medical waste, volcanoes and
toxic chemicals in the soil. This type of geologic deposits, accumulation in plants &
contamination has only been recorded in a few vegetables grown on polluted soils.
cases, such as the accumulation of higher levels of • ARSENIC (AS)
perchlorate in soil from the Atacama Desert in
Chile, a type of accumulation which is purely due Potential sources: mining, coal-fired power plants,
to natural processes in arid environments. lumber facilities, electronics industry, foundry
activities, agriculture, natural accumulation.

• ZINC (ZN)
TYPES OF SOIL POLLUTANTS
Potential sources: mining; foundry activities;
• Soil pollution consists of pollutants and construction activities
contaminants. The main pollutants of the soil are
the biological agents and some of the human • NICKEL (NI)
Potential sources: mining; foundry activities; WEATHERING
construction activities
What is weathering?
• PAHS (POLYAROMATIC HYDROCARBONS)
Weathering is the breakdown of rocks and minerals
Potential sources: coal burning, vehicle emissions, into soils. Rocks are broken into three major groups:
accumulation in plants & vegetables grown on sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic. The rock
polluted soils; cigarette smoke; wildfires, agricultural cycle illustrates how these different types of rocks
burning; wood burning, constructions form.

• HERBICIDES/INSECTICIDES

Potential sources: agricultural activities; gardening HOW IS EROSION DIFFERENT TO WEATHERING?

• COPPER (CU) • Weathering is different from erosion. While

erosion is the process by which soil and rock
Potential sources: mining, foundry activities;
particles are worn away and moved elsewhere by
construction activities.
wind, water or ice, weathering involves no moving
agent of transport. It is the process of breakdown
of rocks at the Earth’s surface, either by extreme
CAUSES OF SOIL CONTAMINATION
temperatures or rainwater or biological activity. It
• Oil spills simply does not involve any movement of rock
material.
• Mining and activities by other heavy industries

• Accidental spills as may happen during activities, etc.

• Acid rain

• Agrochemicals, such as pesticides, herbicides and

fertilizers

• Road debris

• Drainage of contaminated surface water into the soil

• Ammunitions, chemical agents, and other agents of

war

• Waste disposal

• Deforestation

EFFECTS OF SOIL CONTAMINATION

• Climate change

• Loss of soil fertility TYPES OF WEATHERING

• Impact on human health PHYSICAL WEATHERING

• Physical weathering is the breaking of rocks into

smaller pieces. This can happen through
HOW TO REDUCE SOIL CONTAMINATION exfoliation, freeze-thaw cycles, abrasion, root
• Reforestation expansion, and wet-dry cycles.

• Controlled farming practices

• Bioremediation

• Reduce, Recycle, and Reuse

• Use biodegradable products

• Reduce the use of pesticides and fertilizers

 EXAMPLES OF PHYSICAL WEATHERING research concerns about organic and inorganic soil
contamination, pesticides and other pollutants, and
• EXFOLIATION- when temperature of rocks rapidly
environmental health risks.
changes that can expand or crack rocks. This
especially happens with granitic rocks as they
were cooling, like at Yosemite National Park.
WHAT DO SOIL CHEMIST STUDY ?
• FREEZE-THAW - when water freezes, it expands. If
• ION EXCHANGES
moisture seeps into cracks before winter, it can
then freeze, driving the rocks apart. Ion exchange involves the movement of cations
(positively charged elements like calcium, magnesium,
• ABRASION - when the wind blows, it can pick up
and sodium) and anions (negatively charged elements
sand and silt, and literally sandblast rocks into
like chloride, and compounds like nitrate) through the
pieces.
soils.
• ROOT EXPANSION - like freeze thaw, roots grow
CATION EXCHANGE - the interchanging between a
bigger every year. These roots can drive the roots
cation in the solution of water around the soil particle,
apart.
and another cation that is stuck to the clay surface.
The number of cations in the soil water solution is
much smaller than the number that is attached to soil
CHEMICAL WEATHERING particles.
• Chemicals react in the environment all the time, The total amount of positive charges that the soil can
and these cause chemical weathering. Major absorb is called the cation exchange capacity
chemical reactions include carbonation, (CEC). CEC impacts how quickly nutrients move
dissolution, hydration, hydrolysis, and oxidation- through the profile. A soil with a low CEC is much less
reducation reaction. All of these reactions have fertile because it cannot hold on to many nutrients,
water involved with them. and they usually contain less clays. If your soil has a
Examples: low CEC, it is important to apply fertilizer small doses
so it does not infiltrate into the groundwater. A soil
• CARBONATION - when water reacts with carbon with a low CEC is less able to hold spilt chemicals.
dioxide, it creates carbonic acid, which can
dissolve softer rocks.

• DISSOLUTION- limestone and rocks high in salt • SOIL PH

dissolve when exposed to water. The water The soil pH is a measure of soil acidity or alkalinity. pH
carries away the ions. can range from 1 to 14, with values 0-7 being acidic,
• HYDROLYSIS- minerals in the rock react with and 7-14 being alkaline. Soils usually range from 4 to
water and surrounding acids. The hydrogen atoms 10. The pH is one of the most important properties
replace other cations. Feldspar hydrate to clay. involved in plant growth, as well as understanding
how rapidly reactions occur in the soil.
• OXIDATION-REDUCTION - water and rock
particles react with oxygen. This causes the • SORPTION AND PRECIPITATION
minerals and materials to rust and turn red. Soil particles have the ability to capture different
If the area is hot and humid, chemical weathering is nutrients and ions. Sorption is the process in which
more prevalent. If it is drier, physical weathering is one substance takes up or holds another. In this case,
more predominant. soils that have high sorption can hold a lot of extra
environmental contaminents, like phosporus, onto the
Soils transport and move water, provide homes for particles.
thousands of bacteria and other creatures, and have
many different arrangements of weathered rock and Soil precipitation occurs during chemical reactions
minerals. When soils and minerals weather over time, when a nutrient or chemical in the soil solution (water
the chemical composition of soil also around soil particles) transforms into a solid. This is
changes. However, nothing changes the chemistry of really important if soils are really salty. Soil chemists
soils faster than humans do. study the speed of these reactions under many
different conditions.
Many of today’s soil chemistry problems have to do
with environmental sciences. What happens when a
chemical is accidentally spilt in the soil? How fast does
it break down? What does it break down into? Where
does it go and how fast does it move? A soil chemist
may ask these example questions. Soil chemists
• SOIL ORGANIC MATTER INTERACTIONS

Soil chemists also study soil organic matter (OM),

which are materials derived from the decay of plants
and animals. They contain many hydrogen and carbon
compounds. The arrangement and formation of these
compounds influence a soils ability to handle spilt
chemicals and other pollutants.

• OXIDATION AND REDUCTION REACTIONS

Organic or biological weathering refers to the same

thing. It is the disintegration of rocks as a result of the
action by living organisms. Trees and other plants can
wear away rocks since as they penetrate into the soil
and as their roots get bigger, they exert pressure on
rocks and makes the cracks wider and deeper.
Eventually, the plants break the rocks apart. Some
plants also grow within the fissures in the rocks which
lead to widening of the fissures and then eventual
disintegration.

Microscopic organisms like algae, moss, lichens and

bacteria can grow on the surface of the rocks and
produce chemicals that have the potential of breaking
down the outer layer of the rock. They eat away the
surface of the rocks. These microscopic organisms also
bring about moist chemical micro-environments
which encourage the chemical and physical
breakdown of the rock surfaces. The amount of
biological activity depends upon how much life is in
that area. Burrowing animals such as moles, squirrels
and rabbits can speed up the development of fissures.