AP Biology

Unit 2 - Cell Structure and Function

Unit Review

1. Briefly describe the difference between a light microscope and an electron

microscope. A light microscope uses visible light for lower magnification, ideal for live specimens. An electron microscope uses
electrons for much higher magnification, revealing fine details but only on non-living specimens.

2. If you wanted to examine changes in the shape of a living white blood cell, which
type of microscope would you want to use?
light microscope, it allows observation of live cells without harming them.

3. What about the details of a single human hair?

electron microscope, it offers the high magnification and resolution needed to see its surface structure clearly.

4. Which classification of organisms - eukaryotes or prokaryotes - are older?

Prokaryotes. They appeared around 3.5 billion years ago, while eukaryotes emerged about 1.5 billion years ago.

5. Provide two examples of prokaryotes.

a. ____________________________
Escherichia coli

b. ____________________________
Streptococcus bacteria

6. What groups of organisms are eukaryotes?

____________________________
Animals

____________________________
Plants

____________________________
Fungi

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 Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles, with
their genetic material in the cell. In
contrast, eukaryotic cells have a
defined nucleus containing their DNA
and various membrane-bound
organelles. This structural complexity
allows eukaryotic cells to perform
specialized functions. Additionally,
prokaryotes are generally smaller and
reproduce more rapidly than

Image courtesy Wikimedia eukaryotes.

7. Take a look at the above graphic. Then write a paragraph (4-6 sentences) that
explains the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

8. Use the table below to briefly summarize the function of the included major
organelles in a eukaryotic cell.

Organelle Functions

Cell wall Provides structural support and protection

Centrosome Organizes microtubules for cell division

Chloroplast Conducts photosynthesis, producing energy

Cytoskeleton Maintains cell shape and enables movement

Endoplasmic reticulum Synthesizes proteins and lipids

Flagellum Aids in cell movement

Golgi apparatus Modifies and packages proteins for secretion

Lysosome Breaks down waste and recycles materials

Mitochondria Generates energy (ATP)

Peroxisome Breaks down toxins and metabolic byproducts

Plasmodesmata Allows material transport between cells

Ribosome Synthesizes proteins

Vacuole Stores substances and maintains cell pressure

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 9. Eukaryotic cells, in particular, include organelles that amount to compartments of
the cell. Why is compartmentalization important in eukaryotic cells?
It allows specific biochemical processes to occur in optimized environments. Each organelle can maintain ideal conditions for its functions, preventing interference
between processes. For example, mitochondria generate energy, while lysosomes break down waste.

10. Look at the electron micrograph of a cell nucleus to the

left (image courtesy Wikimedia). Describe the structure
and function of the nucleus.
The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that acts as the control center of eukaryotic
cells. It is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope, which has pores
that allow materials to move in and out. Inside, the nucleus contains chromatin, made of
DNA and proteins, which organize genetic information. The nucleolus, a part of the
nucleus, produces ribosomes. Overall, the nucleus regulates gene expression, stores
genetic information, and coordinates important cell activities like growth and division.

11. How does the nucleus control protein synthesis in the cytoplasm?

The nucleus controls protein

synthesis in the cytoplasm by
regulating gene expression
and producing messenger
RNA (mRNA). First, specific
genes in the DNA are
transcribed into mRNA within
the nucleus. This mRNA then
exits the nucleus through the
nuclear pores into the
cytoplasm. Once in the
cytoplasm, ribosomes read
the mRNA sequence and Micrograph of rough ER (image courtesy Wikimedia)
translate it into a specific
protein by linking together the
appropriate amino12. acids. In Explain the relationships between the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, rough
this way, the nucleus dictates
which proteins areendoplasmic reticulum, and golgi apparatus.
synthesized based on the
genes that are activated or
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER), rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), and Golgi apparatus work together in synthesizing and
repressed, ensuring that the
cell produces the processing
proteins it proteins and lipids. The RER, which has ribosomes on its surface, synthesizes proteins that are modified and folded 3 within it.
The SER,
needs for various functions. lacking ribosomes, is involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification. Once proteins are processed in the RER, they are transported
to the Golgi apparatus in vesicles, where they are further modified, sorted, and packaged for distribution to their final destinations.
 13. Explain how impaired lysosomal function can cause the symptoms of storage
Impaired lysosomal function causes storage diseases because lysosomes break down waste materials. When they fail, substances like fats,
diseases. carbohydrates, or proteins accumulate in cells, disrupting normal function and causing various symptoms. For example, in Tay-Sachs and Gaucher's
disease, lipid buildup in neurons leads to neurological issues and organ enlargement. This inability to degrade materials results in toxic accumulation that
harms cells and tissues.
14. Describe the different structures and functions of vacuoles.

Vacuoles are membrane-

bound organelles in
eukaryotic cells, mainly in
plants and fungi, with varying
structures and functions. In
plant cells, they are large and
central, storing water and
nutrients while maintaining
turgor pressure. Animal cells
have smaller, more numerous
vacuoles for transport and
storage. Food vacuoles,
found in some protists and
animal cells, contain
digestive enzymes for
nutrient absorption, while
contractile vacuoles in
protists help regulate water
balance. Overall, vacuoles
play crucial roles in storage,
waste management, and
cellular homeostasis.

Moss chloroplasts (image courtesy Wikimedia)

15. Distinguish between the role of mitochondria and the role of chloroplasts.
mitochondria generate energy through respiration, while chloroplasts produce energy through photosynthesis.

16. Explain the importance of compartmentalization in mitochondrial function.

Compartmentalization in mitochondria is essential for energy production. The outer membrane allows molecule entry, the intermembrane space creates a proton gradient for ATP
synthesis, and the matrix contains enzymes for the citric acid cycle. This organization ensures efficient metabolic processes.

17. Identify the three functional compartments of a chloroplast.

a. __________________________
Membrane

b. __________________________
Thylakoid

c. __________________________
Stroma

18. What is the importance of compartmentalization in chloroplast function?

Compartmentalization in chloroplasts is vital for efficient photosynthesis. Thylakoid membranes capture light energy for ATP synthesis, while the stroma contains enzymes for the Calvin
cycle, converting carbon dioxide into glucose. This separation optimizes conditions for each reaction, enhancing metabolic efficiency and energy production.

19. What is the role of peroxisomes in eukaryotic cells?

Peroxisomes are organelles in eukaryotic cells that break down fatty acids and detoxify harmful byproducts, like hydrogen peroxide, using enzymes such as catalase. They also play a role
in lipid metabolism and the synthesis of specific biomolecules, helping to maintain cellular health.

20. Describe the structure and monomers of microtubules, microfilaments, and

intermediate filaments.
Microtubules are cylindrical structures made of tubulin dimers, providing support and facilitating transport and mitosis. Microfilaments consist of actin monomers, aiding in structural support
and cell motility. Intermediate filaments are composed of various protein monomers, offering mechanical stability and strength to cells.

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21. Describe the structure of the cell wall in plants and of the extracellular matrix in
animal cells. The plant cell wall is primarily composed of cellulose fibers, providing structural support and protection, while the extracellular matrix in animal cells consists of glycoproteins
and fibers, allowing for cell communication, adhesion, and structural integrity. Together, these structures help maintain the shape and functionality of cells in their respective
environments.

22. What would happen to a plant cell’s function if the cell wall were impermeable?
If a plant cell's wall were impermeable, it would prevent the uptake of essential nutrients and water, leading to cellular dysfunction and potentially causing the cell to wilt or die due to lack of
hydration and nutrient absorption.

23. Describe the structures of intercellular junctions found in plant and animal cells.
Relate those structures to their functions.
Intercellular junctions in plant cells include plasmodesmata, which allow the exchange of materials between cells, while animal cells feature tight junctions for sealing spaces between cells,
desmosomes for mechanical strength, and gap junctions for communication. These structures facilitate communication, adhesion, and the coordinated functioning of tissues.

24. Describe the properties of phospholipids. Be sure to include a description of their

arrangement in cellular membranes, the fluid properties of the cell membrane, and an
explanation of how membrane fluidity is influenced by the cell membrane’s composition.
Phospholipids consist of a hydrophilic head and two hydrophobic tails, arranged in a bilayer that forms the basic structure of cellular membranes. The fluid properties of the membrane allow for lateral
movement of proteins and lipids, and membrane fluidity is influenced by fatty acid composition, temperature, and the presence of cholesterol, which can stabilize or disrupt the bilayer.

25. List the types of cell membrane proteins and carbohydrates.

Types of cell membrane proteins include integral proteins, peripheral proteins, and receptor proteins, while carbohydrates are typically found as glycoproteins and glycolipids. These components play
key roles in transport, signaling, and cell recognition.
26. How are these proteins and carbohydrates spatially arranged in cell membranes?
Make a drawing and label it.
Proteins and carbohydrates are arranged in the cell membrane with integral proteins spanning the membrane, peripheral proteins attached to the membrane surface, and carbohydrates extending
from proteins and lipids.

27. How do the proteins and carbohydrates in a cell membrane contribute to the
functioning of the membrane?
Proteins and carbohydrates in the cell membrane contribute to its functionality by facilitating transport across the membrane, mediating cell communication and signaling, and providing structural
support and recognition sites for other cells. These interactions are crucial for maintaining homeostasis and responding to environmental changes.

28. Use of irrigation as a way to provide water to crops grown in arid regions is known
to cause an increase in the concentration of salts in the soil. This happens because, when
water evaporates, salts that had been dissolved in the water are left behind. Consider
what you have learned about water balance in plant cells and then explain why increased
soil salinity may harm crops. Increased soil salinity harms crops because high salt concentrations in the soil create an osmotic imbalance, leading to
water loss from plant cells and preventing effective nutrient uptake. This stress can result in wilting, reduced growth,
and, ultimately, crop failure.

29. Explain why a cell membrane is selectively permeable. Be sure to include discussion
of the factors that make this feature of the membrane possible.
A cell membrane is selectively permeable due to its phospholipid bilayer structure, which allows nonpolar molecules to pass while restricting the movement of polar molecules and ions. This
selectivity is further enhanced by the presence of specific transport proteins that facilitate the movement of certain substances across the membrane.

30. A cell’s membrane expands as the cell grows. Does this process involve endocytosis
or exocytosis? Be sure to explain your answer.
A cell's membrane expands as it grows through exocytosis, a process where vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane to release their contents and add to the membrane's surface area. This
mechanism enables the incorporation of new lipids and proteins into the membrane.

31. Describe the locations and functions of transport proteins.

Transport proteins are located in the cell membrane and function to facilitate the movement of ions, nutrients, and other molecules across the membrane, either passively through channels or actively
using energy. They are essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis by regulating the internal environment of the cell.

32. Define diffusion.

Diffusion is the passive movement of molecules or particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration until equilibrium is reached. This process does not require
energy and is driven by the inherent kinetic energy of the molecules.

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33. What causes diffusion?
Diffusion is caused by the random movement of molecules due to their kinetic energy, leading to a net movement from areas of higher concentration to lower concentration.

34. Why doe diffusion occur spontaneously?

Diffusion occurs spontaneously because molecules naturally move to achieve equilibrium, driven by their kinetic energy and the concentration gradient.

35. What regulates the rate of diffusion?

The rate of diffusion is regulated by factors such as concentration gradient, temperature, molecular size, and the medium through which the molecules are diffusing.

36. Define osmosis.

Osmosis is the passive movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.

37. Predict the direction of water movement based on differences in the concentration
of a solute. Make a drawing to illustrate your predictions.
Water will move toward the area with a higher solute concentration, resulting in dilution of the solute.

38. Make a table or a chart that shows the differences between hypertonic, hypotonic,
and isotonic solutions.

39. How do living cells regulate the balance between water content inside the cell and
water concentration outside the cell? Be sure to include mention of those cells with walls
and those without. Living cells regulate water balance through osmosis, using mechanisms like contractile vacuoles in protists, and cell walls in plants that prevent over-
expansion. Animal cells rely on membrane proteins to control water and solute movement, while plant cells maintain turgor pressure to balance internal and
external conditions.

40. How do transport proteins facilitate diffusion?

Transport proteins facilitate diffusion by providing a pathway for specific molecules or ions to cross the membrane, either through channel proteins or carrier proteins.

41. How does the sodium potassium pump work? Include a drawing.
The sodium-potassium pump works by actively transporting three sodium ions out of the cell and two potassium ions into the cell against their concentration gradients, using ATP for
energy.
42. How is the sodium-potassium pump an example of active transport?
The sodium-potassium pump is an example of active transport because it moves ions against their concentration gradients, requiring energy from ATP.

43. Why can’t the sodium-potassium pump be considered an example of co-transport?

The sodium-potassium pump cannot be considered co-transport because it directly uses ATP to transport sodium and potassium ions separately, rather than relying on the movement of
one ion to facilitate the transport of another.

44. What mechanism causes the formation of a membrane potential or an

electrochemical gradient? A membrane potential or electrochemical gradient is formed by the uneven distribution of ions across the cell membrane, created by active
transport mechanisms like the sodium-potassium pump.

45. Describe the process of cotransport.

Cotransport is the process by which one molecule's movement (usually down its gradient) is coupled with the movement of another molecule (usually against its gradient)
through a transport protein.

46. How are large molecules transported across the cell membrane?.
Large molecules are transported across the cell membrane through processes like endocytosis (phagocytosis for solids, pinocytosis for liquids) or exocytosis.

47. Write a description of receptor-mediated endocytosis.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis involves the binding of specific molecules (ligands) to receptors on the cell membrane, triggering the invagination of
the membrane to form a vesicle that internalizes the bound ligands.

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48. How is receptor-mediated endocytosis used by the cell?
Receptor-mediated endocytosis allows cells to selectively uptake specific substances from the extracellular environment, ensuring efficient nutrient
absorption and regulation of various cellular functions.