Objective:

To study the basics of Immunity and its types, along with Antigen-
Antibody structure and interaction and the basic structure and
working of Human Immune System.

References:-
NCERT Class 12 Biology Textbook

P-1
Contents:-
Immunity
Types of Immunity
Antibodies: General Structure and their Types
Antibody - Antigen Interaction
Vaccinization and Immunization
Auto - Immunity
Allergies
Immune system of our body
Examples of Immuno-deficiency Diseases along with their
brief description.

P-2
 ❖ Immunity:-
Every day we are exposed to large number of infectious agents. However,
only a few of these exposures result in disease because our body is able to
defend itself from most of these foreign agents. This overall ability of the
host to fight the disease -causing organisms, conferred by the immune
system is called Immunity. Hence, it is also known as disease resistance.
• The lack of immunity is known as susceptibility.

❖ Innate Immunity:-
It is non- specific natural type of defence that is present at the time of birth.
It is inherited by the organism from the parents and protects it from birth.
For ex. Humans have innate Immunity against distemper, a fatal disease of
dogs. This is accomplished by providing 4 types of barriers to the entry of
the foreign agents into our body. These are

P-3
i. Physical barriers: Skin (its outer tough layer stratum corneum)
is the main barrier which prevents entry of the micro-organisms.
Mucus coating of the epithelium lining the respiratory,
gastrointestinal and urino- genital tracts also help in trapping
microbes entering our body.

ii. Physiological Barriers:- Acid in the stomach , Salva in the mouth,

tears from eyes-all prevent microbial growth.

iii. Cellular Barriers: Certain types of leukocytes (WBC) of our body

like polymorpho-nuclear leukocytes (PMNL- neutrophils (and
monocytes and natural killer (type of lymphocytes) in the blood as
well as macrophages in tissues can phagocytose and
destroy microbes.

iv. Cytokine Barriers:- Virus- infected cells secret proteins called

interferons which protect non- infected cells from further
viral infection.

P-4
 ❖ Acquired Immunity:-
It is pathogen specific. It is also known as adaptive or specific Immunity. It is
characterized by memory. When our body encounters a pathogen for the
first time. It produces a response called primary response which is of low
intensity. Subsequent encounter with the same pathogen brings forth a
highly intensified secondary or anamnestic response. This is credited to the
fact that our body appears to have memory of the first encounter.

It is of two types: Antibody Mediated and Cell Mediated.

1. Antibody Mediated: The primary and secondary immune response
are carried out with the help of two special types of lymphocytes
parents in our blood. i,e B-lymphocytes and T- lymphocytes. The B-
lymphocytes produce an army of proteins in response to pathogens
into our blood to fight with them. These proteins are called antibodies.
The T-cells themselves do not secrete antibodies but help B cells
produce them. Because antibodies are found in the blood the response
is also called as humoral immune response.
P-5
❖ Structure of Antibody:-

Antibodies are immunoglobulins (lg) which are produced in the body in

response to the antigen or foreign bodies. Thus, all antibodies are
immunoglobulins but all immunoglobulins are not antibodies.

IgG serves as a model of basis structural unit of all lg. Each

antibody molecule has four peptide chains, two small called light chains
and two longer called heavy chains. Hence an antibody is represented as
H2L2 . The heavy chain has large no of amino acids while the light chain
has smaller no of amino acids. A disulfide bond joins a light chain with a
heavy chain. Two disulfide bonds also link the two heavy chains. This
part of the antibody displays considerable flexibility and is called the
hinge region. The stem of the Y shaped antibody monomer is called the
Fc region, so named because when antibody structure was first being
identified, it was a fragment (F) that crystallized (C) in cold storage. It
lacks the ability to bind to antigen.
P-6
Two identical fragments of Y shaped molecule possess the antigen -
binding sites and thus named fragment antigen binding (Fab). The
antigen binding sites bind to the specific antigens in a lock and key
pattern forming an antigen antibody complex.
Each Y-shaped antibody molecule has atleast two binding
sites that can attach to a specific epitope (antigenic determinants of
cell wall) on an antigen. Antigens thus combine with the antibodies. The
combination is very much like the lock and key analogy.
Different types of antibodies like IgA, IgM, IgE, IgG are produced in
our body.

P-7
❖ Antigen Antibody Interaction:-
Epitopes (antigenic determinants) are components of the antigen. Each
antigen carries more than one epitope. Each Y shaped antibody molecule
has atleast two binding sites that can attach to a specific epitope on an
antigen. An antibody can also bind to identical epitopes on two different
cells at the same time which can cause neighbouring cells to aggregate.
The antibodies can inactivate the invading agent in one of the
following ways:-

1. Agglutination: It is the clumping of microorganisms or blood cells,

typically due to an antigen Antibody reaction.
2. Opsonization (Adherence): For Opsonizating the antigen, such as a
bacterium is coated with antibodies that enhance phagocytosis.
Making microbes more susceptible to phagocytosis is known as
opsonization and antibodies are called Opsonins.
P-8
 3. Precipitation: Phagocytic cells ingest agglutinated microbes more
readily. Also, soluble antigens may come out of solution and form a
more easily phagocytized precipitate when cross linked by antibodies.
This process is called precipitation.

4. Neutralization: The reaction of antibody with antigen blocks or

neutralized some bacterial toxins and prevents sheep attachment of
some viruses to body cells. This is called neutralization.

5. Lysis: Some powerful antibodies attack plasma membrane of the cell

and thereby causing rupture of the plasma membrane allowing escape
of the cell contents is called lysis (dissolution).

2). Cell Mediated: The second type is called cell-mediated immune

response or cell-mediated Immunity (CMI). The T-lymphocytes
mediate CMI. Very often, when some human organs like heart, eye,
liver, kidney fail to function satisfactorily, transplantation is the only
remedy to enable the patient to live a normal life. Then a search
begins- to find a suitable donor. Grafts from just any source - and
animal, another primate, or any human beings cannot be made since
the grafts would be rejected sooner or later. Tissue maching, blood
group matching are essential before undertaking any graft /transplant
and even after this the patient has to take immunosuppressant all
his/her life. The body is able to differentiate 'self' and 'non-self' and
the cell- mediated immuno response is responsible for the
graft rejection.

P-9
• The cells of the immune system are derived from the pluripotent
stem cells in the bone marrow. Pluripotent means a cell that can
differentiate into many different types of tissue cells.

• When antibodies on B cell's surface bind with antigens, the B cell is

activated and divides, producing clones. These clones give rise to
plasma B cells and memory B cells. This phenomenon is called
clonal selection.

P-10
 ❖ Active and Passive Immunity:-
When a host is exposed to antigens, which may be in the form of living or
dead microbes or other proteins antibodies are produced in the host body.
This type of immunity is called active Immunity. Active immunity is slow
and takes time to give its full effective response. Injecting the microbes
deliberately during immunization or infectious organisms gaining access
into body during natural infection induce active immunity.

• It is further of two types: Natural and Artificial

• A person who has recovered from an attack of small pox or measles or
mumps develops natural active Immunity.
• Artificial active immunity is the resistance induce by vaccines.

When ready-made antibodies are directly given to protect the body against
foreign agents, it is called passive immunity. Ex: The yellowish fluid
colostrum secreted by mother during the initial days of location has
abundant antibodies (IgA) to protect the infant. The foetus also receives
some antibodies from their mother, through the placenta during pregnancy.

• It is also of two types: Natural and Artificial

• Natural passive immunity is the resistance passively transferred from
the mother to the foetus through placenta. Ex: IgG antibodies can
cross the placental barrier to reach the foetus.

P-11
Artificial passive immunity is the resistance passively transferred to a
recipient by administration of antibodies. This is done by administration of
hyperimmune sera of man or animals which contains antibodies. For ex:
anti-tetanus serum (ATS) is prepared in horses by ATS is then used for
passive immunization against tetanus.

❖ Vaccinization and Immunization:

Vaccine is a preparation/suspension or extract of dead/attenuated
(weakened) germs of a disease which on inoculation (injection) into a
healthy person provides temporary/permanent active/passive immunity by
inducing antibodies formation. Thus antibody provoking agents are called
vaccines.

The principle of immunization or vaccination is based on the property

of 'memory' of the immune system. In vaccination, a preparation of
antigenic proteins of pathogen or inactivated/weakened pathogen
(vaccine)is introduced into the body. The antibodies produced in the body
against these antigens would neutralize the pathogenic agents during actual
infection.
P-12
The vaccines also generate memory -B and T-cells that recognise the
pathogen quickly on subsequent exposure and overwhelm the invaders with
a massive production of antibodies. If a person is infected with some deadly
microbes to which quick immune response is required as in tetanus, we
need to directly inject the preformed antibodies or antitoxin (a preparation
containing antibodies to the toxin). Even in cases of snakebites, the injection
which is given to the patients, contain preformed antibodies against the
snake venom. This type of immunization is called passive immunization.

Recombinant DNA technology has allowed the production of antigenic

polypeptides of pathogen in bacteria or yeast. Vaccines produced using this
approach allows large scale production and hence greater availability for
immunization, e.g., hepatitis B vaccine produced from yeast.

• Toxoid is a modified bacteria toxin that has been made non toxic but
retains the capacity to stimulate the formation of antitoxin.

Vaccines are classified as follows:-

1. 1st generation vaccines: Produced by conventional methods. Ex: small
pox vaccine, Salk's polio vaccine.

2. 2nd generation vaccines: prepared with the help of genetic

engineering technology. Ex: Hepatitis B and Herpes vaccine.

3. 3rd generation vaccines: Synthetic vaccines which are under trial.

P-13
 ❖ Allergies:
The exaggerated response of the immune system to certain antigens present
in the environment is called allergy. The substance to which such an
immune response is produced are called allergies. The antibodies produced
to these are IgE type. Common examples of allergens are mites in dust,
pollens, mould, spores, feathers, fur, animal dander, etc. symptoms of
allergic reactions include seezing, watery eyes, running nose and difficulty
in breathing. Allergy is due to the release of chemicals like histamine and
serotonin from the mast cells. For determining the cause of allergy, the
patient is exposed to or injected with very small doses of possible allergens,
and the reactions studied. The use of drugs like antihistamine, adrenaline
and steroids quickly reduce the symptoms of allergy. Somehow, mordenday
life style has resulted in lowering of immunity and more sensitivity to
allergens - more and more children in metro cities of India suffer from
allergies and asthma due to sensitivity to the environment. This could be
because of the protected environment provided early in life.
Some forms of allergy are:-
Hay Fever: Allergy due to pollen of grasses , trees and other plants. It is
characterized by inflammation of the membrane lining the nose.
Asthama: The tissue surrounding the bronchioles of the lungs swell up and
compress the bronchioles. Hence, there is difficulty in breathing. Treatment
is with bronchodilators with or without corticosteroids, usually
administered via aerosol or dry powder inhalers.
Anaphylaxis (Anaphylactic shock): An allergic reaction involving all the
tissues of the body and occures in a few minutes after the injection of an
antigen such as penicillin. P-14
 ❖ Auto Immunity:-
If the immune system falls to recognise self from non-self and stracts
destroying the body's own proteins this leads to some malfunctions which
are called autoimmune disease and such an Immunity is known as
autoimmunity. Sometimes due to genetic and other unknown reasons, the
body attacks self cells. This results in damage to the body and is called auto
Immune disease.

Ex: Addison’s disease, autoimmune haemolytic anaemia, Rheumatoid

arthritis etc.

❖ Immune System in the Body:-

The human immune system consists of lymphoid organs, tissues, cells and
soluble molecules like antibodies. Immune system is unique in the sense
that it recognizes foreign antigens, responds to these and remembers them.
The immune system also plays an important role in allergic reactions, auto-
immune diseases and organ transplantation.
Lymphoid organs: These are the organs where origin and/or
maturation and proliferation of lymphocytes occur. The primary lymphoid
organs are bone marrow and thymus where immature lymphocytes
differentiate into antigen-sensitive lymphocytes. After maturation the
lymphocytes migrate to secondary lymphoid organs like spleen, lymph
nodes, tonsils, Peyer’s patches of small intestine and appendix. The
secondary lymphoid organs provide the sites for interaction of lymphocytes
with the antigen, which then proliferate to become effector cells.
P-15
 The bone marrow is the main lymphoid organ where all blood cells
including lymphocytes are produced. The thymus is a lobed organ located
near the heart and beneath the breastbone. The thymus is quite large at the
time of birth but keeps reducing in size with age and by the time puberty is
attained it reduces to a very small size. Both bone-marrow and thymus
provide micro-environments for the development and maturation of T-
lymphocytes. The spleen is a large bean-shaped organ. It mainly contains
lymphocytes and phagocytes. It acts as a filter of the blood by trapping
blood-borne microorganisms. Spleen also has a large reservoir of
erythrocytes. The lymph nodes are small solid structures located at different
points along the lymphatic system. Lymph nodes serve to trap the micro-
organisms or other antigens, which happen to get into the lymph and
tissue fluid. Antigens trapped in the lymph nodes are responsible for the
activation of lymphocytes present there and cause the immune response.
There is lymphoid tissue also located within the lining of the major
tracts (respiratory, digestive and urogenital tracts) called mucosal-
associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). It constitutes about 50 per cent of the
lymphoid tissue in human body.

❖ Immunodeficiency Diseases:-
These are conditions where the defense mechanisms of the body are
weakened, leading to repeated microbial infections.

These may be primary or secondary:-

Primary immunodeficiency diseases: They exist from birth. A
person may be without B cells or T cells or both from the birth. Ex: Severe
combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID).
P-16
Secondary immunodeficiency diseases: Factors such as
malnutrition, infections, metabolic disorders may lead to defects in
specific and non specific immunity. Thus, they are more common than
primary immunodeficiency diseases. Ex: AIDS, Hodgkin’s disease

SCID: The person who is suffering from SCID lacks both B cells and T cells
from birth. It is a serious genetic disease in which the person is highly
susceptible to infection.

AIDS: It is a disorder of cell mediated immune system of the body. There is a

reduction in the number of helper T cells which stimulate antibody
production by B cells. This results in the loss of natural defece against viral
infection.

P-17