Business Demography

Chapter 1

Q.1 What is Business Demography? State its Needs and

Importance.
Demography is the statistical study of human populations, focusing on their size, structure,
and distribution of these population, as well as how these aspects change over time due to
births, deaths, migration, and aging. It involves analysing demographic variables like age,
gender, ethnicity, employment status and education level to understand and predict
population dynamics, informing policy-making, economic planning, and public health
strategies. Demographers use various methods, including censuses and surveys, to gather
and interpret data, providing insights into trends such as fertility rates, life expectancy, and
migration patterns, which are crucial for managing resources and planning for sustainable
development.

The need and importance of Business Demography:

1. City Planning: Demographic data helps urban planners design and develop cities that
meet the needs of their populations, including infrastructure, housing, transportation, and
public services.

2. Resource Management: Understanding population trends and projections aids in the

efficient allocation and management of resources such as water, energy, and food.

3. Business Management: Businesses use demographic information to identify market

trends, target customers, and make strategic decisions about product development,
marketing, and location.

4. Service Management: Demography helps in planning and managing services like

healthcare, education, and social services by predicting demand and allocating resources
accordingly.

5. Government Planning: Governments use demographic data to formulate policies, plan

budgets, and develop programs that address the current and future needs of the
population.
6. Environmental Planning: Demographers provide insights into population growth and
movement, which are critical for assessing environmental impact and planning sustainable
development practices.

7. Disaster Management: Demographic information is crucial for disaster preparedness and

response, helping to identify vulnerable populations and plan for effective evacuation, relief,
and recovery efforts.

Q.2 Explain the Components of Business Demography

The key components of demography, which include fertility, mortality, nuptiality, migration,
and growth. Each of these components plays a crucial role in understanding and analysing
population dynamics. Here's a detailed explanation of each component:

1. Fertility: Fertility refers to the actual reproductive performance of an individual, a couple,

a group, or a population. It is measured by several indicators, including the Total Fertility
Rate (TFR), which estimates the average number of children a woman would have over her
lifetime, and the Crude Birth Rate (CBR), which is the number of live births per 1,000 people
per year. Fertility rates are influenced by various factors such as cultural, social, economic,
and biological influences. Understanding fertility is critical for predicting population growth,
planning for future educational and healthcare needs, and analysing potential changes in
the age structure of the population.

2. Mortality: Mortality refers to the incidence of death within a population. It is measured

by the Crude Death Rate (CDR), which indicates the number of deaths per 1,000 people per
year, and more specific indicators like infant mortality rate (the number of deaths of infants
under one year old per 1,000 live births) and life expectancy (the average number of years a
person is expected to live). Mortality rates are affected by factors such as healthcare quality,
nutrition, sanitation, and overall living conditions. Analysing mortality rates helps in
understanding the health status of a population, identifying public health challenges, and
planning healthcare services and interventions.

3. Nuptiality: Nuptiality refers to the frequency, characteristics, and patterns of marriage

within a population. It includes data on the number of marriages, age at first marriage,
divorce rates, and the prevalence of different types of marital unions. Nuptiality influences
fertility rates, household composition, and social structure. Understanding nuptiality is
important for planning social services, housing, and community programs. It also helps in
studying social trends and cultural practices related to marriage and family life.
4. Migration: Migration is the movement of people across regions and borders. It includes
both immigration (in-migration) and emigration (out-migration). Migration can be internal
(within a country) or international (across countries). Factors influencing migration include
economic opportunities, conflicts, environmental conditions, and social networks. Migration
affects population size, distribution, and composition. It has significant implications for
labour markets, urban planning, cultural diversity, and social integration. Analysing
migration patterns helps in understanding population changes and planning for
infrastructure, services, and policies to accommodate shifting populations.

5. Growth: Population growth refers to the change in the number of individuals in a

population over time. It is determined by the interplay of fertility, mortality, and migration.
Population growth can be positive (population increase) or negative (population decrease).
The growth rate is influenced by birth rates, death rates, and net migration rates.
Understanding population growth is essential for planning and managing resources,
infrastructure, and services. It also helps in forecasting future demographic trends and
addressing issues related to aging populations, urbanization, and sustainable development.

Q.3 What are the Factors affecting Fertility?

1. Biological Factors: Biological factors like age and sex are very important in affecting
fertility. Fecundity depends on the woman and her age. It is only the woman who can bear a
child with the onset of menstruation.

It is the highest between 20 to 25 years. After that, it starts declining slowly up to 38 years
and then rapidly till the age of 49-50 years when it totally stops. There are no such limits in
the case of a male who can beget children even in old age. So, fertility depends upon
biological factors like age and sex.

2. Physiological Factors: There are physiological factors which affect the fecundity period of
women. They are in fact, the periods in the reproductive pattern of a woman when she is
not able to conceive and is sterile. Sterility in a woman may be due to a number of factors.
In societies where a girl is married at an early age, the interval between cohabitation and
the birth of the first child is longer because the girl is not developed physically to bear the
child. Fertility is also affected by abortion, deliberate or natural, and still births.

3. Social Factors: Social factors like religion, caste, race, family system, education, status of
woman, etc. also influence fertility in a country.

They are discussed as under:

(a) Religion: Religion affects fertility in many societies. In Asian countries, marriage is a
social institution and a religious duty. Hence, it is universal. Religion expects every couple to
have at least a son and a daughter. The birth of a son is essential for the salvation of Hindu
parents and the marriage (Kanyadan) of a daughter is a religious and social obligation.
Certain religions permit polygamy, as in the case of Muslims, whereby a man can marry
more than one wife. This naturally increases fertility.

(b) Racial Groups: There are differences in fertility among racial groups in certain societies.
In many African countries where other races like the whites, Asians, etc. live among the
locals, the locals have high fertility than the other races. Similarly, in America the Negroes
and Red Indians have higher fertility than the white community. This is also because of
better educational level and economic conditions of the white Americans.

(c) Customs: Customs in various societies also affect fertility. Fertility is high in societies
where widow remarriage is allowed. Divorcee are allowed to get marry again and can start
their new life. Customs where society even allows to raise kids by single parents such
changing conditions motivate people to have their children. This societal change and change
in their traditional customs, impacts on fertility.

(d) Family System: Family system affects fertility in different ways. In societies where the
joint family system prevails, whether fertility is high or low depends upon the economic
condition of the family. If the family is rich and has ample accommodation for the couples,
fertility is high. Reverse is the case in a poor family with little accommodation. This is the
position in all Asian countries where the joint family system is prevalent.

On the other hand, in a single-family system where the couple lives alone, fertility is low
because it is difficult to bring up many children. It is still low in those societies where both
husband and wife are employed. Such a situation exists in all the developed countries and in
a few cases in developing countries.

(e) Education: Education plays an important role in influencing fertility. In countries where
the percentage of literates is high, fertility is low. That is why the birth rate is low in
developed countries. The educated couple prefers a very small family.

It understands the use and importance of various family planning devices. Moreover, the
span of child-bearing is reduced considerably in the case of a girl who receives education for
a number of years and marries at a ripe age.

(f) Status of Women: Fertility is also affected by the status of women in a society. In India
before Independence, women who produced more children were held in high esteem. Even
in the present, this is so in certain communities in rural India. In all such cases, the women
are confined only to household work.

But in countries where the growth rate of population has a tendency to decline, women are
encouraged to have more children and they are held in high esteem. This was the case
during the Stalin regime in Russia where women with large number of children were
rewarded and their children were given many facilities by the State.

In Japan, the latest studies reveal that the average Japanese woman has 1.33 children.

But in Tokyo, this figure has declined to 1 child. To halt this trend and encourage Japanese
women to produce more children, the Japanese Government has announced that every
woman who gives birth will receive the equivalent of $1,700 and more than $15,000 worth
of help with childcare.

Some car manufacturing companies are offering employees a car when they have a child.
Other firms are giving extra monetary rewards to staff who have more children. Thus, by
raising the status of Japanese women, the country is trying to increase fertility.

4. Economic Factors: Economic factors like urbanization, occupation of the family and
overall economic conditions have much effect on fertility.

They are discussed below:

(a) Urbanization: Urbanization affects fertility of the people differently as compared with
rural areas. Fertility declines with urbanization. This is caused by lack of accommodation
and high cost of living in the case of those who migrate from rural areas.

They have high fertility because children start earning at an early age and thus augment
family income. Those engaged in white-collar jobs want to educate their children but cannot
afford to have many due to the high cost of living.

The better-off also want fewer children to maintain their standard of living. When both
husband and wife are employed, they cannot have more than one child, if there is nobody
to look after the child in their absence. Even the cost of keeping children in creches and of
baby-sitters in big cities dissuades them to have another child.

(b) Occupation: Occupation determines the economic condition of a family which, in turn,
affects fertility. Manual workers have high fertility because to supplement the family
income, they want more working hands in the form of children. But those engaged in
business, trading and in white-collar jobs have low fertility.
Where women are also employed along with men, fertility is low, as is the case in developed
countries. But farmers in rural areas have high fertility as compared with non- farm
population. Both farmers and farm workers have high fertility because the farmers being
rich can afford more children, whereas the farm workers need more children to help them
in farming operations in order to earn more. But artisans, petty traders, etc. in rural areas
have comparatively low fertility because of their low earning capacity.

(c) Economic Conditions: The economic conditions of a country influence fertility

considerably. In developed countries, per capita income and standard of living being high,
fertility is low. People prefer to maintain their high standard of living instead of having more
children which involve high costs in bringing up and educating them. But the poor in
developed countries have high fertility because they want more children to support the
family.

The same is the case in underdeveloped countries both in agricultural and industrial sectors.
The cost of bringing up a child is much less than the benefit to the family from a child when
he or she starts earning at a very young age.

Similarly, the fertility among rich farmers is high because they can afford to have more
children. But in cities, except in the case of the poor, the fertility is low. The industrialist, the
businessman, the salaried class all want to maintain their respective standard of living,
rather want to raise it. With high cost of living, they find it difficult to bring up more
children. So, fertility is low among them.

5. Family Planning:

(a) Fertility: One of the important factors affecting fertility is family planning. Among other
factors, developed countries have been able to bring down their fertility rates by voluntarily
adopting family planning devices. But in underdeveloped countries, both men and women
are reluctant to use contraceptives due to social taboos and restrictions, ignorance, poverty,
proper education, etc.

Despite the best efforts of governments and private organizations in many developing
countries, family planning programmes have not been successful. Consequently, fertility is
high in such countries.

(b) Mortality: Mortality rate, or death rate, is a measure of the number of deaths (in
general, or due to a specific cause) in a particular population, scaled to the size of that
population, per unit of time. Mortality rate is typically expressed in units of deaths per
1,000 individuals per year.
(c) Natality: This entry gives the average annual number of births during a year per 1,000
persons in the population at midyear; also known as crude birth rate.

(d) Migration: It is a way to move from one place to another in order to live and work.
Movement of people from their home to another city, state or country for a job, shelter or
some other reasons is called migration. Migration from rural areas to urban areas has
increased in past few years in India. Nowadays, many people decide to migrate to have a
better life. Employment opportunities are the most common reason due to which people
migrate. Except this, lack of opportunities, better education, construction of dams,
globalization, natural disaster (flood and drought) and sometimes crop failure forced
villagers to migrate to cities.

Q.4 What are the factors affecting Mortality?

Factors Affecting Mortality:

1. Standard of Living: The standard of living significantly impacts mortality rates. A higher
standard of living, often characterized by good education, sufficient income, and access to
necessary items, contributes to lower mortality rates. Increased availability and
consumption of nutritious food, advanced medical facilities, and health awareness
programs in schools and colleges improve overall health and reduce the risk of diseases.
Access to clean water, sanitation, and safe housing also plays a critical role in enhancing life
quality and longevity. Consequently, populations with higher standards of living typically
experience lower mortality rates due to better health and living conditions.

2. Infant Mortality Rate: The infant mortality rate (IMR) is a critical indicator of a
population's health and is influenced by the availability and quality of maternal and infant
care. Advances in neonatal intensive care, widespread immunization programs, and ongoing
medical research have significantly reduced infant mortality. Societal changes, such as
improved healthcare practices and increased awareness of child health, have further
contributed to this decline. Effective prenatal and postnatal care, along with education on
nutrition and hygiene for mothers, ensures better infant survival rates. Reducing infant
mortality is crucial for decreasing overall mortality rates and improving population health.

3. Biological Factors: Biological factors affecting mortality include endogenous and

exogenous elements. Endogenous factors are internal, such as genetic predispositions and
conditions inherited from parents, which can influence an individual's susceptibility to
diseases and overall health. Exogenous factors are external and encompass societal,
cultural, and environmental influences. For instance, exposure to pollutants, living
conditions, lifestyle choices, and cultural practices can all impact mortality rates.
Understanding the interplay between these internal and external factors is essential for
addressing health disparities and reducing mortality.

4. Declining Crude Death Rate: The crude death rate (CDR) is the number of deaths
occurring among a population in a given geographical area during a specific year, expressed
per 1,000 people of the mid-year total population of that area. A declining crude death rate
indicates improvements in public health and healthcare systems, better living conditions,
and effective disease prevention and management strategies. This decline can be attributed
to several factors, including advances in medical technology, better access to healthcare
services, improved sanitation and hygiene, and effective public health interventions.
Understanding the trends and factors contributing to the declining crude death rate helps in
formulating policies and programs aimed at further reducing mortality and enhancing
population health.

Chapter 2

Q.1 Write Short Notes on:

1) Population Density
Population density is a vital metric that measures the concentration of people within a
specific area, typically expressed as the number of individuals per unit of land area. It offers
valuable insights into the spatial distribution of human populations and plays a crucial role
in various aspects of societal planning and resource allocation. High population density
often characterizes urban areas, indicating significant infrastructure and economic activity,
while low population density is typical of rural regions with sparse settlements.
Understanding population density helps policymakers address challenges related to
urbanization, resource management, and environmental sustainability, ensuring that
development initiatives are both efficient and equitable.

2) Immigration
Immigration refers to the movement of people from one country or region to another with
the intention of settling permanently or temporarily. It has been a fundamental aspect of
human history, driven by factors such as economic opportunities, political instability, social
factors, and environmental conditions. Immigration contributes to cultural diversity,
economic growth, and innovation in host countries, bringing in new skills, perspectives, and
labour. However, it also presents challenges related to social integration, cultural
assimilation, and resource distribution. Immigration policies vary widely across countries,
influencing the patterns and impacts of migration. Effective management of immigration
involves balancing the needs of migrants with those of host communities, ensuring
equitable access to opportunities and resources while upholding humanitarian values and
respecting national sovereignty.

3) Population Growth
Population growth refers to the increase in the number of individuals in a population over a
specific period. It is influenced by factors such as birth rates, death rates, migration
patterns, and socioeconomic dynamics. Exponential population growth, particularly in the
past century, has led to significant challenges globally, including strain on natural resources,
environmental degradation, and social inequalities. However, population growth also drives
economic expansion, innovation, and cultural diversity. Sustainable management of
population growth involves balancing demographic trends with social, economic, and
environmental considerations. This includes access to education and healthcare, promotion
of family planning, empowerment of women, and equitable distribution of resources. By
addressing the complex interplay between population growth and development, societies
can strive for a more prosperous and resilient future.

4.) Population Distribution

Population distribution refers to the spatial arrangement of people within a specific
geographic area, such as a country, region, or city. It describes how the population is
dispersed across different locations and provides insights into patterns of human
settlement. Factors influencing population distribution include physical geography, climate,
resources, economic opportunities, infrastructure, and historical settlement patterns. For
example, populations may concentrate in urban areas due to job opportunities and
amenities, while rural areas may have sparse populations due to agricultural or
environmental factors. Analysing population distribution helps policymakers and planners
understand regional demographics, plan infrastructure development, allocate resources
efficiently, and address social and economic disparities. It is a crucial aspect of urban and
regional planning, as well as sustainable development efforts.

Q.2 Explain the concept of over-population and under-

population
Over Population: When the total capacity of the population exceeds than its area, the
situation is over population. The population is above the optimum level. This situation
creates scarcity of the resources.
Overpopulation leads to:

 Scarcity of the resources.

 Deteriorate the standard of living.
 Global warming.
 Natural disasters.
 Unemployment.
 Poverty.
 Robbery and more crime due to poverty and unemployment.
 Raising health issues.
 Demolishing fertile land because of the availability of living space.
 Demolishing farms for the better roads, airports, hospitals, schools, colleges in
outside of city.
 Decline in per capita income.
 Insufficient food, water etc.
 Uneven distribution of resources.

Example: China, India, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, are overpopulated countries where we could
see all the above factors.

Under Population: The population is below than the area of a country is termed as under
population. This situation creates when there is a less population in country. Due to less
population, there is less utilization of resources hence; everybody gets abundance of
resources which raises standard of living.

Under population leads to:

 More availability of the resources.

 Raising standard of living.
 Less global warming.
 Less natural disasters.
 Proper employment.
 Less poverty.
 Less robbery and less crime due to poverty and unemployment.
 Healthy lifestyle.
 Fertile land, farms are preserved.
 No advance facilities are developed due to less population.
 More Per capita income.
 Sufficient rather surplus of food, water etc.
 Uneven distribution of resources due to neglected area.
 Problem of remote area.
Example: Vatican City with a population of fewer than 1,000 people, Vatican City has the
smallest population of any country in the world. Mongolia is the least densely populated
country followed by Namibia and Australia. Five least dense countries: Australia (3.22)
Canada (4.06), Kazakhstan (6.82), Russian Federation (8.79) and Bolivia (Plurinational State
of (10.25).

Q.3 Explain the methods of assessment of population

growth.
1. Crude Birth Rate (CBR): The crude birth rate (CBR) is equal to the number of live births (b)
in a year divided by the total midyear population (p), with the ratio multiplied by 1,000 to
arrive at the number of births per 1,000 people. It indicates the rate of births in a
population and is a basic measure of fertility. A high CBR means that a large number of
babies are being born in the population, contributing to population growth.

2. Crude Death Rate (CDR): Crude death rate is a measure of the number of deaths within a
population. Crude death rate refers to the number of deaths occurring throughout a year,
per 1000 population of a country. It is estimated at mid-year. It provides a basic measure of
mortality in a population. A high CDR indicates a high number of deaths, which can lead to a
declining population if not balanced by a high birth rate or immigration.

3. Natural Growth Rate (NGR): Natural Growth Rate is the difference between the crude
birth rate and the crude death rate. It measures the rate at which a population is growing or
declining due to natural factors, excluding migration. For example, if a country has a high
birth rate and a low death rate, its natural growth rate will be high, indicating a growing
population.

4. Actual Growth Rate (AGR): Actual Growth Rate is the overall rate at which a population is
growing or declining, taking into account births, deaths, and net migration (the difference
between immigration and emigration). It provides a complete picture of population
dynamics, including the impact of people moving into or out of a region. This measure is
essential for understanding the true rate of population change and planning for future
needs.

5. Total Fertility Rate (TFR): Total Fertility Rate is the average number of children a woman
would have if she lived through her reproductive years, based on current age-specific
fertility rates. It provides a comprehensive measure of fertility, indicating the potential for
population growth. A TFR of around 2.1 children per woman is considered the replacement
level, which means the population size will remain stable if this rate is maintained.
6. Gross Reproduction Rate (GRR): Gross Reproduction Rate calculates the average number
of daughters a woman would have if she survived her entire reproductive life, without
adjusting for mortality. This measure focuses on potential population growth by counting
the number of daughters per woman but does not account for the impact of female
mortality, thus showing the maximum possible growth rate if all women survived through
their reproductive years.

7. Net Reproduction Rate (NRR): Net Reproduction Rate is the average number of daughters
that would be born to a woman (or a group of women) if she conformed to the age-specific
fertility and mortality rates of a given year. It reflects whether a population is replacing itself
from one generation to the next. An NRR of 1 means each generation of women is having
exactly enough daughters to replace itself, ensuring a stable population size without
considering immigration or emigration.

Q.4 What are the reasons for Uneven Population?

Reasons for Uneven Population Distribution:

Population distribution is influenced by various factors that determine why some areas are
densely populated while others are sparsely inhabited. These factors can be broadly
classified into physical, cultural, and social categories:

1. Physical Factors:

- Climate: Temperate climates with moderate temperatures and adequate rainfall are
more conducive to human habitation and agriculture, leading to higher population
densities. Extreme climates, such as very hot, cold, or dry areas, generally support fewer
people.

- Location: Proximity to coasts, rivers, and other waterways often results in higher
population densities due to the availability of resources, trade routes, and transportation
options.

- Rainfall: Areas with sufficient rainfall support agriculture and water supply, attracting
higher populations. Conversely, regions with scarce rainfall, like deserts, tend to have lower
population densities.

- Drought: Frequent or prolonged droughts can lead to water scarcity, making regions less
habitable and resulting in lower population densities.
 - Mineral and Energy Resources: Regions rich in minerals and energy resources attract
industries and workers, leading to higher population densities due to economic
opportunities.

- Water: Access to fresh water sources is crucial for drinking, agriculture, and industry,
leading to higher population densities near rivers, lakes, and groundwater sources.

- Fertile Soil: Areas with fertile soil support agriculture and can sustain larger populations.
Fertile valleys and plains often have higher population densities.

2. Cultural Factors:

- Education: Regions with better educational facilities attract families seeking quality
education for their children, leading to higher population densities in urban and developed
areas.

- Government Policies: Policies promoting economic development, infrastructure, and

social services can attract populations to certain areas. Conversely, restrictive policies can
lead to population decline.

- Family Ethical Values: Cultural attitudes towards family size can influence population
density. Societies valuing larger families may have higher population growth rates.

- Age of Marriage: Cultural norms dictating the age of marriage can affect birth rates and
population growth. Earlier marriages often result in higher birth rates and, subsequently,
higher population densities.

3. Social Factors:

- Healthcare: Availability and quality of healthcare services attract people to areas where
they can access good medical care, leading to higher population densities.

- Employment Opportunities: Areas with diverse job markets and economic opportunities
draw people seeking work, resulting in higher population densities in cities and industrial
regions.

- Infrastructure: Well-developed infrastructure, including transportation, housing, and

utilities, supports higher population densities by improving living conditions and economic
prospects.
 - Political Stability: Regions with stable governments and low levels of conflict are more
attractive to residents and migrants, leading to higher population densities. Conversely,
areas with political unrest often see population decline.

- Quality of Life: Regions offering a higher quality of life, including safety, recreational
facilities, and cultural amenities, attract larger populations.

Q.4 What are the factors affecting Population Density?

Factors Affecting Population Density:

1. Natality (Birth Rate): High birth rates increase population density by adding more
individuals to the population. Regions with high natality often experience rapid population
growth, contributing to greater density, especially in areas with limited space and resources.

2. Environmental Factors: Favourable climates, rich natural resources, and accessible

geography support higher population densities. Regions with temperate climates, fertile
soil, abundant water, and easy terrain for building and transportation tend to attract more
people and sustain higher populations.

3. Mortality (Death Rate): Low mortality rates, resulting from good healthcare, sanitation,
and living conditions, contribute to higher population density by allowing more people to
live longer. Conversely, high mortality rates decrease population density by reducing the
number of individuals.

4. Political Factors: Political stability and effective governance attract people, leading to
higher population densities. Regions with stable governments, good infrastructure, and
public services are more likely to see population growth. Areas with political instability,
conflict, or poor governance often experience population decline.

5. Immigration: Immigration increases population density by bringing people into an area.

Regions that offer economic opportunities, safety, and better living conditions attract
immigrants, leading to higher population densities. Policies that encourage immigration also
contribute to this growth.

6. Emigration: Emigration decreases population density by removing individuals from an

area. Regions with limited economic opportunities, political instability, or poor living
conditions often see high emigration rates, leading to lower population densities. People
leave these areas in search of better opportunities and conditions elsewhere.

7. Societal Factors: Societal norms and cultural practices can significantly influence
population density. High value placed on large families can lead to higher birth rates and
increased population density. Additionally, societal factors such as education levels, gender
roles, and healthcare practices also play a role in shaping population distribution.

8. Technological Factors: Advances in technology impact population density by improving

living standards and economic opportunities. Technological developments in agriculture,
industry, and services can support larger populations by increasing food production,
creating jobs, and enhancing infrastructure. Technology also improves healthcare, reducing
mortality rates and supporting higher population densities.

9. Transport: Efficient transportation networks contribute to higher population density by

facilitating the movement of people, goods, and services. Regions with well-developed
roads, railways, ports, and airports attract businesses and residents, leading to urban
growth and increased population density. Access to reliable public transportation also
encourages people to settle in urban areas.

10. Economic Factors: Economic opportunities are a major driver of population density.
Areas with diverse and thriving economies attract people seeking employment and better
living conditions. Higher wages, job availability, and economic stability lead to higher
population densities as people migrate to these regions for work.

11. Legal Factors: Legal frameworks and government policies significantly affect population
density. Policies promoting housing development, economic incentives, and infrastructure
investment can attract people to certain areas. Conversely, restrictive zoning laws, land use
regulations, and limited access to property rights can inhibit population growth and density.

12. Urbanization: Urbanization leads to increased population density as people move from
rural areas to cities in search of better economic opportunities, education, healthcare, and
lifestyle. Urban areas offer more amenities and services, attracting larger populations. The
process of urbanization involves the expansion of cities and the development of
infrastructure to support growing populations, resulting in higher population densities.

Chapter 3
Q.1 Explain the Importance of Human Resource as
development of the nation
For the development of a nation, economic growth is very important for population. The
same population is responsible to raise the economic growth. People with technology,
knowledge, develops an intelligence among the socio-cultural environment which creates
an invention for developing a nation by generating and developing new products and
services. In circulation of these products and services, money circulates from one individual
to another which develop a nation.

Following are the importance of human resource in micro aspect.

1. Accelerate Overall Growth: Overall growth of a nation depends upon how economy works
and how money flows among the society. Due to humans’ brain, they have developed a
system where people are depending upon each other’s business due to which money
circulates and develop a nation

2. Innovation and Creativity: The nation which has more innovation and creativity in the
products and services leads to more innovative product development which, ultimately
impact on positively industry. The more industry leads to more employment and so on.

3. Creating Demand Vs Supply: Business depends upon demand and supply which generate
from the human population only. Each business has forward or reverse relation with other
business and ability to grow in the business. Hence, it is the people who grow a business.

4. Competitive Advantage: According to Porter and Millar postulates, competitive advantage

gives new way of doing business to the businesses. This spawn entire business because of
the competition. It is the people who creates competition and to overcome it, they come up
with different strategies and policies. Competitive advantage creates new level of
competition among the market which benefits to society or sometimes harms

5. Increase Productivity: Through automation, productivity of men and machines has been
increased but it is the human being who takes an effort to make those machines, through
various cultures and adoption of techniques.

Q.2 Explain the Importance of Literate Population in

modern Society
Literacy refers to the ability to read and write proficiently. It is a fundamental skill that
empowers individuals to access information, communicate effectively, and participate fully
in society. Literacy is to make people communicate and express through a variety of media.
Literacy is plural, being practiced in particular contexts for particular purposes and using
specific languages. Literacy involves a continuum of learning measured at different
proficiency levels.

Importance of Literacy Population in Modern Society:

1. To develop a nation: Literate population always helps any nation to develop and grow.
Because of literate population social, economic, cultural growth takes place locally and
globally. Nation can increase its potentiality of becoming more powerful through its
population worldwide.

2. It teaches and explores the skills imparted among the individual: Modern society which is
going after technology cannot run without literate people. Only having basic literacy is not
merely important but it also requires special skills, managerial or technical skills which can
help industry. Education of specialized area teaches, impart skills among the individual and
explore that area more for the innovation and creativity which later on boost the industry

3. Create competencies: Literacy has always been a collection of cultural and

communicative practices shared among members of particular groups. As society and
technology change, so does literacy. Because technology has increased the intensity and
complexity of literate environments, the 21st century demar.ds that a literate person
possess a wide range of abilities and competencies. These literacies are multiple, dynamic
and malleable. As in the past, they are. inextricably linked with particular histories, life
possibilities and social trajectories of individuals and groups.

4. Reduces unemployment: Due to literacy, people explore to always new innovation which
produces employment at different levels. Good employment in a nation creates GDP higher
and it makes total growth of a nation.

5. Literacy improves the development of the wider community: The positive knock-on effect
of educating girls can be seen in the wider social and economic benefits yielded for their
communities. Increasing the emphasis towards women's education, positively impacts on
each generation through raised expectations and increased self-esteem. Improving literacy
facilitates employment whereby both males and females can contribute, helping the wider
economy and community to thrive.

6. Literacy reduces infant mortality rates: Illiteracy directly affects an individual's health and
well-being, so the importance of education on physical health is vital. Those without
education are more likely to be vulnerable to health problems. Infant mortality rates drop
significantly for women who have primary education, and even more for those who
complete secondary school. It is estimated that infant mortality decreases 9% every year of
education.

7. Literacy empowers women and girls: The global illiterate population of young girls is 61.9
per cent so the importance of education for women cannot be understated. Breaking the
cycle of illiteracy and improving self-esteem is crucial for women and girls in the developing
world. By enabling them to become economically productive and independent, they
become empowered and can take control of their lives. The importance of education in
fostering personal autonomy, and creative and

8. Literacy positively impacts economic growth beyond the local community: The impact of
improving literacy in girls not only has a positive economic impact at a local and community
level, but the productivity of the workforce flourishes at country level too by enhancing a
country's economic strength.

Q.3 Write short notes on:

1. Literacy
Literacy is the ability to read and write proficiently. It encompasses the skills necessary to
understand, interpret, and communicate through written language. Literacy is fundamental
for accessing information, participating in education, engaging in the workforce, and
functioning effectively in society. Beyond basic reading and writing, literacy also includes the
ability to comprehend and analyse texts, enabling individuals to navigate and contribute to
an increasingly complex world.

2. Sex Ratio
The sex ratio is a demographic measure that compares the number of males to females in a
given population, usually expressed as the number of males per 100 females. A sex ratio of
100 indicates an equal number of males and females, while a ratio above 100 means there
are more males than females, and a ratio below 100 indicates more females than males.
The sex ratio can vary significantly based on factors such as birth rates, mortality rates,
migration patterns, and cultural practices. For instance, in many countries, the natural sex
ratio at birth tends to slightly favour males, with approximately 105 male births for every
100 female births. However, social factors like gender-selective practices, health disparities,
and differing life expectancies can influence the overall sex ratio of a population.
Understanding the sex ratio is important for analysing population dynamics, planning social
services, and addressing gender-related issues within a society.

3. Age and Sex Pyramid (with suitable diagram)

An age and sex pyramid, also known as a population pyramid, is a graphical representation
that illustrates the age and sex distribution of a population. The pyramid typically consists of
two bar graphs stacked on top of each other, with the left side representing males and the
right-side representing females.

The horizontal axis of the pyramid represents age groups, usually in five-year increments,
starting from the youngest at the bottom and ascending to the oldest at the top. The
vertical axis shows the percentage or absolute number of individuals in each age group.

The shape of the pyramid provides insights into the demographic structure of a population.
A broad base indicates a high birth rate and a young population, while a narrow base
suggests a lower birth rate and an aging population. The width of each bar reflects the
relative size of each age group, with wider bars indicating larger cohorts and narrower bars
indicating smaller cohorts.

By analysing the age and sex pyramid, demographers can assess population trends, such as
fertility rates, mortality rates, life expectancy, and population growth. This information is
crucial for planning social services, healthcare, education, and retirement programs to meet
the needs of different age groups within a society. Additionally, age and sex pyramids can
help policymakers anticipate future demographic changes and develop strategies for
sustainable development and resource allocation.
4. Working Population
The working population refers to the segment of a society that is actively engaged in the
labour force, typically between the ages of 15 to 64 years old, although the age range may
vary depending on the country's retirement policies and cultural norms. These individuals
are employed or seeking employment and contribute to the economy through their
productive activities. The working population plays a vital role in driving economic growth,
generating income, and supporting social welfare systems through taxation. They are
responsible for producing goods and services, innovating technologies, and sustaining
various industries. Understanding the composition, skills, and demographics of the working
population is essential for policymakers, businesses, and organizations to develop strategies
for workforce development, employment policies, and social welfare programs.
Additionally, the size and composition of the working population can have significant
implications for issues such as labour market dynamics, productivity levels, and retirement
planning, making it a critical aspect of demographic analysis and economic planning.

5. Literacy Ratio or Literacy Rate

The literacy ratio, also known as the literacy rate, is a crucial indicator of a population's
educational attainment and ability to read and write. It measures the percentage of people
within a specific age group who possess basic literacy skills, typically defined as the ability to
read and write at a specified level of proficiency.

A high literacy ratio reflects a population's access to education, quality of schooling, and
commitment to promoting literacy. It has significant implications for individual
empowerment, socio-economic development, and overall well-being.

Governments and organizations use literacy ratio data to assess the effectiveness of
educational policies, identify disparities in access to education, and target interventions to
improve literacy rates, particularly among marginalized and vulnerable populations.

While the literacy ratio has improved globally over the years, challenges remain, including
gender disparities, regional inequalities, and limited access to quality education in certain
areas. Addressing these challenges requires concerted efforts to enhance educational
infrastructure, promote lifelong learning opportunities, and foster a culture of literacy and
education for all.

Q.4 Explain the following concept:

1. Working Population
People who are eligible and wants to work also they are employable or self-employed are
working population. Generally, persons between 15-60 are working or considered
economically productive.

There are many factors which are responsible for working population like:

1. Age-specific population: The distribution of individuals across different age groups

determines the size and composition of the working population. Factors such as birth rates,
mortality rates, and demographic trends impact this distribution.

2. Education: The level of education and skills possessed by individuals significantly affects
their participation in the workforce. Education systems, access to quality education, and
training opportunities influence the availability of skilled workers.

3. Skilled workers: The presence of a skilled workforce is vital for driving innovation,
productivity, and economic growth. Investments in vocational training, higher education,
and professional development programs are essential for nurturing skilled workers.
4. Availability of jobs: The presence of job opportunities across various sectors and
industries influences labour force participation rates. Economic policies, business
environments, and market demands play a crucial role in determining job availability.

5. Economic condition of the nation: The overall economic health and stability of a nation
impact employment prospects, wages, and labour market dynamics. Factors such as GDP
growth, inflation, and unemployment rates affect the working population.

6. Culture: Societal norms, values, and attitudes towards work influence labour force
participation patterns. Cultural factors may shape perceptions of gender roles, work-life
balance, and career aspirations.

7. Resources availability: Access to resources such as capital, technology, and infrastructure

can influence job creation and entrepreneurship. Regions with abundant resources may
attract industries and businesses, leading to employment opportunities for the working
population.

Advantage of Working Capital:

1. Accelerate economic growth: A productive workforce contributes to increased output,

innovation, and efficiency, driving overall economic growth and prosperity.

2. Overall development: The active participation of the working population fosters

development across various sectors, including infrastructure, healthcare, education, and
technology, leading to improved living standards and quality of life.

3. Reduction in poverty: Gainful employment provides individuals with the means to

support themselves and their families, reducing reliance on social welfare programs and
lifting people out of poverty.

4. Exchange of money: Working individuals earn income, which they then spend on goods
and services, stimulating economic activity and supporting businesses and industries.

5. Exchange of labour force: Labor mobility allows for the exchange of skills and expertise
across regions and industries, leading to a more efficient allocation of resources and
fostering innovation and knowledge transfer.

6. Distribution of resources: The working population plays a crucial role in the distribution of
resources by engaging in productive activities, thereby ensuring the efficient allocation of
goods and services to meet societal needs.
7. Change in market structure: A dynamic workforce can lead to changes in market
structures as new industries emerge, existing ones evolve, and consumer preferences shift,
creating opportunities for entrepreneurship and economic diversification.

8. Increase in the GDP of the nation: A larger and more productive workforce contributes to
higher levels of output and income, resulting in an increase in the Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) of the nation, reflecting its economic strength and competitiveness on the global
stage.

These advantages underscore the significance of investing in human capital development,

creating favourable employment conditions, and fostering an environment conducive to
workforce participation, ultimately driving sustainable economic growth and development.

2. Sex Ratio
The sex ratio is a demographic measure that compares the number of males to the number
of females in a population. It is typically expressed as the number of males per 100 females.
This ratio provides insights into the gender composition of a population and is an important
indicator for understanding social dynamics, gender imbalances, and population trends.

1. Sex ratio at birth: This ratio refers to the number of male births per 100 female births in a
given population over a specific period, usually expressed as a percentage. In many
societies, there is a slight natural preference for male births, resulting in a sex ratio at birth
slightly higher than 100. However, significant deviations from the expected ratio may
indicate gender-based discrimination, selective abortion, or other socio-cultural factors
influencing reproductive behaviour.

2. Sex ratio of death: Also known as the mortality sex ratio, this measure compares the
number of male deaths to the number of female deaths in a population over a specific
period, typically expressed as the number of male deaths per 100 female deaths. Variations
in the mortality sex ratio may result from differences in life expectancy, mortality rates by
gender, and healthcare access and quality. Historically, males have exhibited higher
mortality rates than females across many age groups due to factors such as occupational
hazards, risky behaviours, and biological differences.

3. Sex ratio of migrants: This ratio compares the number of male migrants to the number of
female migrants in a population or geographical area. Migration patterns can be influenced
by various factors, including economic opportunities, political stability, and family
reunification. Disparities in the sex ratio of migrants may reflect differences in migration
motives, employment opportunities, or migration policies. For example, labour migration
flows may be dominated by males seeking employment opportunities, leading to
imbalanced sex ratios in migrant populations.

Chapter 4

Q.1 What is Urbanisation? Explain the various factors

that affect the urbanisation and rural population/Discuss
the various factors influencing Urbanization
Urbanization is the process whereby an increasing proportion of a population migrates from
rural areas to urban centres, leading to the growth and expansion of cities and towns.
Driven by factors such as industrialization, economic opportunities, and improvements in
infrastructure, urbanization reshapes societies, economies, and landscapes. While it offers
access to better amenities, employment opportunities, and social services, urbanization
also brings challenges such as overcrowding, environmental degradation, and social
inequalities. Managing urbanization effectively requires comprehensive urban planning,
infrastructure development, and policies that promote sustainable growth, ensuring that
cities remain vibrant, inclusive, and resilient hubs of economic and social activity.

Urbanisation is always demanding from every city and area but to change the structure of a
city takes much time and city has to go with gradual changes with the mentality

Today’s urbanisation, has become more life threatening than availing its benefits. Due to
fast changing life, people have to manage, preserve the resources which are in hand. This
change of urbanising does not only affect the urban population but it equally affects rural
population.

Let us discuss each area which got affected.

1. Infrastructure: It is the area which majorly got affected because of urbanisation.

Infrastructure includes: Housing, road, building, offices, transports, schools, colleges,
bridges etc. Due to high development in the cities, lands are occupied largely which
demolishing the agricultural area. This has made villagers to compromise their agricultural
land in exchange of money which is a big loss in their lives and also for the nation.

Also, due to high density, city remains with huge housing problems. The cost of houses is
going very high which sometimes become non affordable to the common man. Due to full
occupancy of urban areas, city expands its boundaries and slowly cover the rural areas. Due
to this movement, rural areas are having buildings, constructions but this leads to depleting
natural resources due to distribution.

So, though city gets all facilities, makes their daily life easy because of good infrastructure it
occupies rural place and another question which are unresolvable.

2. Uneven Distribution of resources: Due to uneven population distribution, resources have

to be shared among the population with various areas. The need of water, energy, food
supply in the urban areas is always on an increasing demand. But, the availability of these
resources is not appropriate to the demand. Hence, many of the times resources are
diverted from the more available areas which causing uneven or scarcity of the resources.

3. Waste Management: Rising population always causes to generate huge wastage.

Developed cities cannot create more space for the garbage dumping or decomposing them.
Urban cities are having a greater number of industries, hospitals, housing which creates
massive waste every day. Hence, the problem instead of resolving, it grows rapidly and
effect on living human, animal population.

4. Administrative Problems: As the city grows, there is also an increase in the administrative
tasks. City funds sanctioning, allocation, utilisations, registrations of various things are
becoming a huge task in front of administrators. Also, traffic, crime, civil protection such like
many administrative burdens goes on increasing which needs support from the state and
central government. Although the support extended, corruption is the virus which malifies
the system.

5. Socio/Behavioural/Cultural Problems: Due to urbanisation, society is full of diversified

culture which affects people social status, their behaviour, their relationship with society
and families.

Due to jobs and sustainability, people move and settle in urban areas where they have to
sometimes leave back their families which also declines the connect and hamper their
personal life. They always seek moral support which makes people stress.

Q.2 State the features and importance of urbanization

The features of urbanization are:

1. Increase in population concentration: Urbanization entails a shift of population from rural

areas to urban centres, resulting in a higher density of people living in cities and towns. This
demographic shift often accompanies economic development and industrialization.
2. Growth in the size of urban areas: Urbanization leads to the expansion and enlargement
of cities and towns as they accommodate the influx of people from rural areas. This growth
can manifest in the physical expansion of urban boundaries and the development of new
infrastructure and residential areas.

3. Transfer of people from agricultural to non-agricultural occupations: As rural dwellers

migrate to urban areas, they often transition from agricultural livelihoods to jobs in
manufacturing, services, commerce, and other non-agricultural sectors. This shift reflects
the changing economic structure of urbanized societies, where industrialization and
urbanization go hand in hand, leading to a diversification of the workforce and
specialization of skills.

The importance of urbanization is:

1. Economic Growth: Urbanization often accompanies economic development and

industrialization, leading to increased productivity, innovation, and entrepreneurship. Cities
serve as hubs for economic activities, attracting investment, fostering trade, and generating
employment opportunities. The concentration of industries, services, and human capital in
urban areas contributes to overall economic growth and prosperity.

2. Improved Living Standards: Urbanization can improve living standards by providing access
to better infrastructure, healthcare, education, and amenities such as clean water,
sanitation, and transportation. Cities offer a wide range of social and cultural opportunities,
including cultural events, entertainment venues, and recreational facilities, enhancing the
quality of life for residents.

3. Social Mobility and Opportunity: Urban areas often offer greater social mobility and
opportunity compared to rural areas. They provide a conducive environment for education,
skill development, and upward mobility, enabling individuals to pursue their aspirations and
achieve higher levels of socio-economic status. The diverse and dynamic nature of urban
societies fosters social interaction, exchange of ideas, and cultural diversity, enriching
communities and promoting social cohesion.

4. Innovation and Knowledge Exchange: Urbanization promotes innovation and knowledge

exchange by bringing together diverse talents, expertise, and resources in close proximity.
Cities serve as centres of learning, research, and creativity, facilitating collaboration among
academia, industry, and government. This exchange of ideas and information drives
technological advancements, scientific discoveries, and cultural innovation, contributing to
societal progress and competitiveness.
5. Environmental Sustainability: While urbanization poses challenges such as pollution,
congestion, and resource depletion, well-planned urban development can contribute to
environmental sustainability. Compact urban forms, efficient transportation systems, green
spaces, and sustainable infrastructure can mitigate environmental impacts, reduce carbon
emissions, and enhance resilience to climate change. Moreover, urbanization can promote
sustainable consumption patterns, resource efficiency, and conservation efforts through
public awareness and policy interventions.

Q.3 Explain the challenges of Urbanization/Define

Urbanizations and discuss various problems of
Urbanization
Challenges of Urbanisation/Problems of Urbanisation:

1. Environmental Concern: Vulnerability to risk posed by the increasing man-made and

natural disasters. According to UNDP, 70% of Indian population is at risk to floods and 60%
susceptible to earthquakes. The risk is higher in urban areas owing to density and
overcrowding. Urban areas are becoming heat islands, ground water is not being recharged
and water crisis is persistent. Here making, water harvesting compulsory will be beneficial

2. Urban Crime: Prevention of urban crime is another challenge before the government of
States having a greater number of urban areas and particularly metropolitan cities. The
mega cities are facing increased criminal activities on account of unchecked migration,
illegal settlements and diverse socio-cultural disparities, organized groups, gangsters,
professional criminals for wishing a lavish life in metropolis. The cities of Delhi, Mumbai and
Bengaluru have accounted for 16.2 percent, 9.5 percent and 8.1 percent respectively of the
total crime reported from 35 mega cities. Prevention of crime in mega cities is a challenge
before the city government in India.

3. Poverty: Roughly a third of the urban population today lives below the poverty line. There
are glaring disparities between haves and have-nots in urban areas. The most demanding of
the urban challenges, unquestionably is the challenge posed by poverty; the challenge of
reducing exploitation, relieving misery and creating more human condition for urban poor.
There is rise in urban inequality, as per UN habitat report, 2010, urban inequality in India
rose from 34 to 38% based on consumption in period of 1995 to 2005.

4. Provision of Employment: Providing gainful employment to the growing urban population

is a major challenge before the government. It is generally observed that the literate and
semi-literate migrants are absorbed with minimal works, carrying lower wage and more
hour of work. The Un Habitat Report (2003) has rightly remarked "The cities have become a
dumping ground for surplus population working in unskilled, unprotected and low wage
informal service industries and trade".

Q.4 Write Short notes on:

1. Trends Supporting Urbanization in India

Here are some key points regarding urbanisation and planning in India:

 Private cities are now expanding due to the support of private companies. Private
developers are building private housing projects that will exponentially grow in the
years to come.
 The Delhi-Mumbai Corridor is an infrastructure programme set to develop 'Smart
Cities' and combine next-generation technology with infrastructural development.
 The transport and logistics sector of India underlines the importance of
interconnecting the different modes of transportation: road, rail, sea and air. An
efficient multi-modal system is relevant in the development and successful growth of
the infrastructural systems.
 Special Economic Zones dot the landscape of India. Each of these zones is focused on
a particular sector such as IT, apparel and fashion, or petroleum and petrochemical
industries.
 Industrial townships are built to house employees close to the factories and
manufacturing plants at which they work. After the success of the pioneering
industrial township Tata's Steel Town - the government is planning on developing
more like it.
 India's expected economic growth opens up expansion prospects for Indian airports.
Domestic and international passengers are inevitably predicted to double in number
in the years to come.

2. Steps taken by Government to improve Urban

Development
Steps Taken by Government to Improve Urban Development:

Successful/Unique/Innovative Examples of Urban Development Model:

1. 'Kudumbashree' Model: It is social empowerment scheme, launched by the Government

of Kerala in 1998 for wiping out absolute poverty from the State through concerted
community action under the leadership of Local Self Governments, Kudumbashree is today
one of the largest women-empowering projects in the country. The programme has 41 lakh
members and covers more than 50% of the households in Kerala. Built around three critical
components, micro credit, entrepreneurship and empowerment, the Kudumbashree
initiative has today succeeded in addressing the basic needs of the less privileged women,
thus providing them a more dignified life and a better future. Literal meaning of
Kudumbashree is prosperity (Shree) of family (Kudumbam).

2. Chhattisgarh PDS Model: State government has started managing information systems. It
began with computerization of Fair Prices Shops (FPS) and data related with stocks and sales
to enable swift allocation of grains. Mobile based applications including SMS alerts for
interested beneficiaries were offered which improved the access to information about food
grains lifted from godowns and their delivery at ration shops. In Raipur, individuals are given
the choice of the fair price shop of his/her liking, flexibility of buying in smaller quantities
rather than in only on transaction, etc. Portability of ration card across the shops helped to
improve customer satisfaction.

3. Solid Waste Management in OKHLA: Waste management is the concern for any urban city
with respect to its safe disposal, recycling of waste products and also generating energy
from wastes. Timarpur Okhla Municipal Solid Waste Management project is the first
commercial waste-to-energy facility in India that aims to convert one-third of the Delhi
garbage into the much-needed electricity, enough to serving 6 lakh homes. It has become
the first to get carbon credits from United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change in the country in 2013.

4. Delhi Metro: It is one of the world-class metros. To ensure reliability and safety in train
operations, it is equipped with the most modern communication and train control system.
For its energy efficient practises, it has earned carbon credit points from UN.

5. Community Policing for Security: Community Policing for Students, adopting Student
Police Cadet model of Kerala which is a school-based youth development initiative that
trains high school students by inculcating in them respect for law, discipline, civic sense,
empathy for vulnerable sections of society and resistance to social evils.

The Kerala model, which is meant for all government, government-aided and private
unaided schools, imparts training to students through various camps and classroom
activities involving local police personnel who interact with them at regular intervals with
instructions on certain dos and don'ts.

The concept of the community policing is aimed at associating citizens with the local police
in solving neighbourhood problems in enforcing laws, preventing and detecting crimes,
restoring order and peace in the area and reducing crimes against women and weaker
sections.

Locating and reporting to the police about strangers and other persons of doubtful
character, assisting local police in patrolling at night in crime prone areas, ensuring timely
flow of crime related intelligence from the community to the police and ensuring communal
harmony through collective efforts particularly during festivals, religious processions and
public functions are some of the key functions of 'community policing'