FILTERS (active filters)

A filter is a two-port electronic circuit which removes frequency components from

a signal (time-varying voltage or current) applied to its input port. A high-pass
filter attenuates frequency components below a certain frequency, called its cutoff
frequency, allowing higher frequency components to pass through. This contrasts
with a low-pass filter, which attenuates frequencies higher than a certain
frequency, and a band pass filter, which allows a certain band of frequencies
through and attenuates frequencies both higher and lower than the band.

First-order passive

Figure 1: A passive, analog, first-order high-pass filter, realized by an RC circuit

A resistor and either a capacitor or an inductor can be configured as a first-order

high-pass filter. The simple first-order capacitive high-pass filter shown in Figure 1
is implemented by placing an input voltage across the series combination of
a capacitor and a resistor and using the voltage across the resistor as an output.
The transfer function of this linear time-invariant system is:

V out (s) sRC

=
V ¿ (s) 1+ sRC

The product of the resistance and capacitance (R×C) is the time constant (τ); it
is inversely proportional to the cutoff frequency fc, that is,
 1 1
f C= =
2 πr 2 πRC

where fc is in hertz, τ is in seconds, R is in ohms, and C is in farads. The

filter's frequency response reaches -3dB referenced to the infinite frequency at the
cutoff frequency.

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Operational amplifiers are linear devices which have all the properties required
for nearly ideal DC amplification. They are used extensively in signal
conditioning, filtering or to perform mathematical operations such as add, subtract,
integration and differentiation.

An Operational Amplifier, or Op-amp for short, is fundamentally a voltage

amplifying device designed to be used with external feedback components such as
resistors and capacitors between its output and input terminals. The term negative
feedback refers to sampling a portion of the output signal from an amplifier and
feeding it back either to aid or to oppose the input signal.negative feedback means
that the returning signal has a phase that opposes the input signal.negative
feedback can significantly improve the performance of an amplifier. Basically any
op amp circuit that does not use negative feedback is considered too unstable to
use. Negative feedback is used to stabilize the voltage gain, improve the input and
output impedance and increase the bandwidth of the amplifier.

Characteristics

Followings are the main characteristics of Op-Amp IC 741:

 Input impedance is more than 100KΩ.

 Output impedance is less than 100Ω.
  The frequency range is between 0HZ to 1MZ.
 Low offset voltage and current.
 Voltage gain is about 2,00,000.

Specifications

The followings are the main specifications of op-amp IC 741:

 Power Supply: For proper functionality, it requires a minimum supply of 5V

and can handle up to 18V.
 Input Impedance: About 2 MΩ.
 Output Impedance: About 75 Ω.
 Voltage Gain: 2,00,000 for a minimal range of frequency.
 Slew Rate (Rate at which op-amp can detect voltage change) : 0.5V/µs.
 Input offset: In a range of 2mV-6mV.
 Output Load: Recommended greater than 2KΩ.
 Maximum Output Current: 20 mA.

Single op-amp with finite gain for non inverting amplifier

The Non-inverting Amplifier does not invert the input signal or produce an
inverting signal but instead amplifies it by the ratio of: (RA + RB)/RB or
commonly 1+(RA/RB). The input signal is connected to the non-inverting (+)
input.

Resistor Ra and Rb provide the negative feedback which in turn controls the circuit
overall voltage gain. Part of the output signal is fed-back to the inverting input and
ground through resistor Ra and Rb. The differential input voltage V id between the
op amp input and terminals is zero (virtual ground) and the current through Rb is
found by:

V¿
I=
Rb

Practically no current flows from the inverting input terminal of the op amp, all the
input current must flow through Ra, therefore:

V f =I × Ra

With Vout taken with respect to ground V out is the sum of V Ri∧V RF

V out =IR a + IR b=I ( R a + Rb )

The closed loop gain is calculated by

V out I ( Ra + R B ) R A + R B
Acl = = =
V¿ I RB RB

Input impedance

Since the voltage source has to supply virtually no current to the op amp non-
inverting input terminal, the voltage source V ¿ sees a very high value of input
impedance Z ¿, there is virtually no loading of the voltage source:

Z ¿=R¿ ( 1+ A VOL β ) where R¿represent the open loop input resistance of the op amp and

Z ¿(cl ) represent the closed loop input impedance of the circuit. Because 1+ AVOL β is

very large in most cases Z ¿approaches infinity.

OUTPUT IMPEDANCE

Suppose that there is a decrease in load resistance RL, then more current will flow
through the output impedance of the op amp which in turn decreases the output
voltage. This causes less voltage to be fed back to the inverting input. Because V ¿
remains constant, the differential input voltage V id increases. Since V out =A VOL × V id,
the increase in V id offsets the original decrease in the output voltage.

Z out (OL)
Z out(CL)=
1+ A VOL β

Ri
β=
Ri + Rf

Example 1

Calculate Z ¿(CL)∧Z out (CL) at R¿ =2 M Ω, A VOL=100000∧Z out =75Ω

ZinCL=R¿ ( 1+ A VOL β )

Z out (OL)
Therefore, Z out(CL)=
1+ A VOL β

LOW-PASS FILTER

A low-pass filter (LPF) is a circuit that only passes signals below its cutoff
frequency while attenuating all signals above it. It is the complement of a high-
pass filter, which only passes signals above its cutoff frequency and attenuates all
signals below it.
Low-pass filters can also be used in conjunction with high-pass filters to form
band-pass, band-stop, and notch filters. A band-pass filter passes a range of
frequencies while attenuating all frequencies outside of the band. A band-stop filter
(also called a band reject filter) does the opposite, attenuating signals within its
stop-band while passing all frequencies outside of it. Notch filters are a type of
band-stop filter that attenuate a very narrow set of frequencies, which can be
created from a combination of low-pass and high-pass filters with cutoff
frequencies very close to each other.

A low-pas filter can be made with an op amp as the active element and resistors
and capacitors as passive components.
 Figure 1Low-pass filter

Note:Z1=R20, Z2=C6, Z3=R22, Z4=C10, Z5=R23

The low-pass filter has impedance of Z1 -Z5 where Z1, Z3 and Z5 are resistors and
Z2 and Z4 are capacitors. The characteristics of the filter are determined by the
type and value of the impedance used. The input output relationship is represented
by:

Vo Z 2. Z 4. Z 5
=
V ¿ Z 1. Z 3. Z 5+ Z 1. Z 2. Z 5+ Z 1. Z 2. Z 3+ Z 2. Z 3. Z 5−Z 2. Z 1. Z 4

The relationship assumes that the input impedance of the operational amplifier is
infinite ( the inverting input can be considered to be a virtual ground. By applying
the superposition principle the equation given can be obtained.

By changing the general impedance Z n of the formula to be the component used,

the general formula for the low-pass filter can be obtained by :

1
Vo R 20∗R22∗C 6∗C 10
=
( )
V¿ jω 1 1 1
−ω2 + ∗ + + + R 20∗R23∗C 6∗C 10
C1 R20 R 22 R 23

Where ω is the angular frequency of the input signal.

The cut-off frequency F C of the filter is determined by the value of the passive
components:

1
F C= the gain of the filter at the frequency f Hz dc is given by:
2 π √ R 2∗R3∗C1∗C 2

−R3
Go=
R1

HIGH-PASS

It is called a high-pass filter because it allows high-frequency signals to pass

through, while attenuating (reducing the amplitude of) lower-frequency signals.

The ideal high-pass filter is a circuit with zero amplification for all signals below a
certain frequency Fc, while the amplification is constant and non-zero for all signals
with frequencies higher than Fc. The circuit comprises of an op amp, resistors and
capacitors.

To determine the characteristics of the filter, a consideration is taken between input

and output relationship. Consider Z1, Z3 and Z5 to be capacitors while Z2 and Z4
are resistors.
Changing the general impedance s Zn of the formula to the impedance s of the
components used, the general formula of a high-pass filter can be obtained

C1 2
ω
V out C3
=
V¿
−ω2 +
jω
(
×
C1
+
1
+
1
+ )1
R 2 C 2+C 3 C 2 C 3 R 1∗R 2∗C 2∗C 3

Where ω is the angular frequency of the input signal

The cut-off frequency Fc of the filter is determined by the passive components.

1
F C=
2 π √ R 1∗R 2∗C 2∗C 3

The gain Go of the filter at the frequency F= infinite (frequencies within the pass-
band region) is given by

−C 1
Go =
C3

Calculate the cut-off or “break-point” frequency ( ƒc ) for a simple passive high

pass filter consisting of an 82pF capacitor connected in series with
a 240kΩ resistor.

1 1
f C= = =8087 HZ
2 πRC 2 π × 240,000× 82 ×10−12

BAND-PASS FILTER
The ideal band-pass filter has a zero amplification for all signals whose frequency
is bellow a certain frequency and those with frequency above the range. Between
the frequencies the amplification is constant. A Band Pass Filter is a circuit which
allows only particular band of frequencies to pass through it. This Pass band is
mainly between the cut-off frequencies of F L ∧F H . Where fL is the lower cut-off
frequency and fH is higher cut-off frequency.

The gain of the filter is maximum at resonant or centre frequency.

For low pass filter this pass band starts from 0 Hz and continues until it reaches
the resonant frequency value at -3 dB down from a maximum pass band gain.

Where as in the case of high pass filter this pass band begins from the -3 dB
resonant frequency and ends at the value of the maximum loop gain for active
filter. Combination of low pass and high pass responses gives us band pass
response as shown below:
Depending on the quality factor the band pass filter is classified into Wide band
pass filter and Narrow band pass filter. The quality factor is also referred as
‘figure of merit’. By cascading High Pass Filter and Low Pass Filter with an
amplifying component we obtain band pass filter.

The amplifier circuit between these high pass and low pass filter will provide
isolation and gives over all voltage gain of the circuit. The values of the cut-off
frequencies of both the filters must be maintained with minimum difference.

If this difference is very small, there may be a possibility of interacting of high

pass and low pass stages. Thus, in order to have proper levels of these cut-off
frequencies an amplifying circuit is necessary.
This filter is a band-pass if Z1, Z2 and Z4 are resistors and Z3 and Z5 are
capacitors. The general output/input relationship is given by:

jω
Vo R 1∗C 1
=
Vin
−ω2 +
1
(
∗
1
+
1
)
+
1
∗
1
+
1
R 3 C 1 C 2 R 3∗C 1∗C 2 R 1 R 2 ( )
where ω is the angular frequency of the input signal

The center frequency F o

1
F o=
2π
√ 1
(
∗
1
+
1
R 3∗C 1∗C 2 R 1 R 2 )
The gain of the filter at center frequency is given by:

−R 3
∗1
R1
Go =
C1
1+
C2