-17

Dams in General and a few

Dams in Particular
17.1. . General
17 .1.1. Definition. A dam may be defined as an obstruction or a barrier built across
a stream or a river. At the back of this barrier, water gets collected, forming a pool of
water. The side on which water gets collected is called the upstream side, and the other
side of the barrier .is called the downstream side. The l~ke of water which is formed
upstream is often called a reservoir.
17.1.2. Uses. The water collected in this lake can be used for recreation, or as a
reservoir of drinking water, or it can be tapped off into surrounding farm land for
irrigation. The energy of this collected water can be used to turn a mill to grind wheat
or to turn the blades of a tubrine to generate electrical power. And in times of floods,
the dams can serve as protections for the towns and cities farther down the river.
Apart from these numerous advantages and uses (such as navigation, irrigation,
electricity, flood control, etc.) of a dam, it sometimes helps us in planning war strategy
and helps us in controlling the advancement of enemies and their forces. Dams have
been frequently opened in times of war. The Dutch breached their dikes during Second
World War to bedevil the invading Germans. Chlnese used to destroy their dikes to flood
out the enemy. Russian army retreating from the Nazi marauders, partly destroyed the
famous Dneprostroi Dani in the Ukraine to keep its-power plant from falling into the
hands of Hitler's men.
17.1.3. History of Dam Construction. It is very difficult to say as where and when
the first man-made dam was built. Archaeological evidences help in estimating that the
very first man made dam is at least 3000--5000 years old. Whenever it was built, that
first dam was almost certainly an irrigation dam. Its designer might have observed_
beavers at work or he might have thought of it the some other way. Beavers are mammel
creatures belonging to the family of rats, mice, squirrels. They live under water and are
generally 1.2 m long including more than 0.3 m of tail, and weigh upto 25 to 30 kg.
These rodents produce fur. These creatures create dam type barriers to create a place
where their family can live. They provide themselves with comfortable ponds to live in,
by building dam type barriers across the stream with the help of trees which they
-themsel:ves-cut.-- --- -- - --------------- - --- --
These elegant structures, built out of logs, buttressed with twigs and branches and
sealed with mud and stone help us many a times in controlling silt entry into the stream.
A beaver dam accumulates silt brought down by its stream. When a beaver dam is
breached, the silted water pours through, and the fertile silt is deposited over the wide
area. This creates what farmers call a beaver's meadow, where crops grow particularly
well.

884
 . pA.MS IN GENERAL AND A FEW DAMS IN PARTICULAR 885
Beavers are sometimes encouraged to build dams in areas where man can not reach
easily to construct man-made dams.
17.1.4. Modern Dams. The first modern dam of the world was perhaps constructed
on the Nile river, in Egypt at Aswan. It was completed in 1902 and was a major
engineering project.
This famous Aswan Dam was designed primarily to control the flooding of the Nile
river, to promote irrigation in the Nile Valley, and to further navigation along the river.
Aswan is 1200 km from the mouth of the Nile. The site was chosen because the
river at Aswan is shallow and has a granite bed, on which a firm foundation. could be·
erected.
The first step in damming any major river is to divert the flow of water so as to
permit dam construction. This was accomplished at Aswan, by constructing a circular
earthen barrier around the area chosen from the dam foundations. At low river, this
enclosure was pumped out. All the work had to be completed before the river flooded
again. The foundation was laid round the clock with a huge labour force. So much so
that 3,600 tons of masonry were put in places in a single day.
Ii
This 120' high dam, running for about miles from shore to shore, 100 feet thick
at its base and 24' wide at top, costed about 1.5 crore dollars, when completed in 1902.
A roadway ran along the upper rim. About 1 billion tons of water was its storage ·
capacity, and 180 sluices were constructed into this barrier. Water could be collected
r' during the rainy season and released through the sluice gates during the summer and
drought.
Roosevelt Dam. The next famous dam of the world was completed in 1911 on the
· Salt River of Arizona (U.S.A.) and was called Roosevelt dam.
The Aswan dam was constructed with stone, while the Roosevelt dam was con-
structed with solid blocks of concrete :whic.h..was of.Jhe type .knowaas 'Solid Masonry .
Gravity Dam' : which simply means that it was built with solid blocks of concrete, which
hold back the flow of water by sheer weight. This type of dam is one of the most ancient.
The construction was started in 1905. Despite the numerous troubles in its construc-
tion, the dam was completed in 1911 with a reservoir capacity of billion gallons of i
water. The completed dam, 280 feet high, was 158 feet thick and spanning for a length
of 1,125 feet. Had the dam been built without the benefit of 19th century engineering
advances in design and stress control, it would have had to be 700 to 1000 feet thick at
base ; a far more expensive and cumbersome thing to build.
This dam was a fascinating advancement, but was soon overshadowed by other
vastly greater dams, such as Hoover Dam, (726' high), Bhakra Dam (740' high), etc. All
of them are 'solid concrete gravity type' dams.
------ ---- --- ------- - -- -- - --- -- - ----------- -- --------- - --- -----·- --- ------------- --- ----
17.2. Various Kinds of Dams
Before we describe some of the famous dams of the world, it is worth while to
classify the various types of dams.
Most engineers recognise seven general types of dams. Three of them are ancient
in origin, and four have come into general use only in the last about 100 years or so.
The three older types of dams are :
(1) Earth Dams
 886 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING A.ND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

(2) Rook-fill dams.

(3) Solid masonry gravity dams.·
These types are discussed below :
. (1) Earth Dams. Earth dams are made of soil that is pounded down solidly. They
are built in areas where the foundation is not strong enough to beat the weight of a
concrete dam, and where earth is more easily- available as a building material compared
to concrete or stone or rock. ·
Some important earth dams of the world are :
(i) .Green mountiiin dam on Coloracio river in U.S.A.
(ii) Swift dam in Washington inU.S.A.
(iii) Side flanks of Nagarjun Sagar dam in India.
(iv) Trinity Dam in California in U.S.A.
(v) Maithan Dam in India (which is partly Earthen and partly Rockfill).
(2) Rockfill Dams. Rock.fill are formed of loose rocks and boulders piled in the
river bed. A slab of reinforced concrete is often laid across the upstream face of a rockfill
dam to make it water-tight. .
Some important rock-fill dams of the world are ;
(i) The Salt Springs Dam in California (345' high) in U.S.A.
(ii) The San Gabriel No. 1 Dam (321' high) in U.S.A.
(iii) Cougar Dam on Mc-Knezie River in Oregon (445' high) in U.S.A.
(3) Solid-masonry Gravity dams. These are familiar to us by now, after we have talked
about Aswan, Roosevelt, Hoover, and above all Bhakra dam.
These big dams are expensive to be built but are more durable and solid than earth
and rock dams. They can be constructed on any dam site, where there is a natural
_foundation strong-enough-to bear the great-weight oHhedam: -- -·-· - ----- -c- -- - - -
These three types of dams were all found in ancient days. In recent times.four other
types of dams have come into practice. They are :
(4) Hollow masonry gravity dams ;
(5) Timber dams ;
(6) Steel dams ; and
(7) Arch dams.
(4) The hollow masonry gravity dams. These are essentially designed on the same
lines on which the solid masonry gravity dams are designed. But they contain less
concrete or masonry ; about 35 to 40% or so. Generally, the weight of water is carried
by a deck of R.C.C. or by arches that share the weight 'burden. They are difficult to build
and are adopted only if very skilled labour is easily available, otherwise the labour cost
_.-is-too-high-to-build its-complex structure,
(5) Steel dams. These are not used for major works. Today, steel clams are used as
temporary coffer dams needed for the construction of permanent dams. Steel coffer dams
are usually reinforced with timber or earthfill.
(6) Timber dams. These are short lived, since in a few years time, rotting sets in.
Their life is not more than 30 to 40 years and must have regular maintenance during
that time. However they are valuable in agricultural areas, where a cattle raiser may
need a pool for his live stock to drink from, and for meeting other such low-level needs.
 DAMS IN GENERAL AND A FEW DAMS IN PARTICULAR 887
(7) Arch dams. Arch dams are very complex and complicated. They make use of ·
the horizontal arch action in place of weight to hold back the water. They are best suited
at sites where the dam must be extremely high and narrow, Some examples are :
(i) Sautet dam on the Drac River in France, 414' high, but only 230' long at top
· and 85' long at bottom of the gorge, 56' thick at bottom and 8' thick at top.
(ii) The Tignes dam in France (592' high).
(iii) Mauvoisin.dam on the Drause River in Switzerland, (780' high).
(iv) Idduki dam in Kerala State, across the Periyar river, which is the only arch dam in
India. It is 366 m (1200') long double curvature arch dam, made in concrete, .and
has a height of about 170 in (560').
17 .3. Prqblems in .Dam Construction
Dams are extremely useful things. Anyone who lives in Punjab or at Asansol in
West Bengal, knows how valuable dams are. The farmers of Punjab and people getting
electricity from the Bhakra sing praises for it. The people of areas benefitted by various
dams and other ancillary works on Damodar river are really thankful to those human
beings who have miraculousy harnessed the Damodar river for them. The prosperity and
welfare of millions and billions of people depend directly on these towering handsome
dams with which the nation's rivers have been harnessed.
But dams can cause problems too. Dams have drawbacks and disadvantages also.
Let us here discuss some of the negative features of dams and let us see what can be
done to overcome them. There are four major problems, in general, which are posed by
such huge constructions. They are:
(1) Fish Problem ;
(2) Submergence Problem;
(3) Failure Problem; and .
(4) Bomb Problem
They are described below:
(1) Fish Problem. On large rivers, in late summer season, fish move from
downstream to upstream to lay their eggs. These eggs are fertilised by male fish. The
old fish may get exhausted and the new born fish again move downstream. They, after
two to three years, return to their ancestral spawning place and may die after getting
exhausted, while the newborns move downstream. The cycle goes on for years.
The fish which move to their ancestral spawning place (upstream) are called
anadromous fish. Salmon· and Hilsa are typical examples of such a fish. These are
commercially valuable fish, and important industries are dependent on them.
When a dam barrier is constructed on a river; these fish can not move upstream to
--~lay. their eggs; because it is impossible for these fish to -overtop sucha barrier. But
surprisingly, even when they find a barrier in their path of advancement towards their
..ancestral spawning ground, these fish do not return to their downstream dwelling place
(i.e. sea). However, they go on fighting against the barrier, trying furiously to overtop
it, till they get exhausted and die down. This results in a serious large scale killing of
fish, causing great damage to fish industry and economy of the nations.
In the beginning, much attention was not paid to this problem; but a little later, it
was realised, and serious attempts were made to find out. solution to the problem.
 888 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

Sometimes, fish were trapped on one side of the dam and passed on to the other side by
giant steel and plastic nets. An external arrangement called Fish Ladder was also
devised.
Fish Ladder. Just as river-going vessels can bypass a dam by using a navigation
lock, so a series of 'locks' enable the fish to get over the dam. A separate channel is
created, consisting of a series of little dams that form a row of pools, rising up over the
big dam to reservoir level. The salmon, entering the lowest rung of the ladder at the
base of the dam, could leap from pool to pool until they had crested the dam. Then, they
could continue on through the reservoir to the spawning grounds. The new born fish
called finger lings could later return to the sea (downstream) in the same fashion via the
ladder. A section, plan and photographic view of a fish ladder has already been shown
in the chapter on Weirs.
In the beginning, the fish ladders worked better in theory than in practice. The fish
seemed to prefer to mill ground in splashing water under spillway, instead of entering
the ladder. This difficulty was overcome by careful design that put the fish ladder in the
place where it was most likely to attract the fish. Another problem was that the slow
moving water was stranger to fish and they tended to collect in the lower pools without
going onward.
Millions and billions were spent into fish-ladder research. Improvements in design
made the fish ladder more attractive to fish, more like the rapids they were accustomed
to.
Fish ladders are not always practicable from engineering stand point. In such cases,
other steps have to be taken to protect the fish.
Meanwhile, other experiments are going forward to see if fish can be successfully
induced to spawn in waters other than their own ancestral spawning grounds. In the long
run, it may save millions of currency to construct fish hatcheries instead of fish-ladders.
There are many possible solutions to the problem of anadromous fish, and research is
being undertaken in different regions of the world to find out a better soiution to the
problem.
(2) Submergence Problem. Whenever a dam is constructed across a river to store
water on the upstream side, a large area gets submerged due to the rise in the water
levels. The entire area which gets submerged, forming a reservoir, has to be calculated
and acquired before a dam can be constructed. The owners of the land have to be
persuaded, adequately compensated, and well settled somewhere else, before, the work
can be taken up in hand. Hence it is necessary to investigate the probable damage caused
by this submergence.
(3) Failure Problem. We try ourbest to build dams to last as long as possible.
-- -Evefyperson-Wli0s-6ever bas-work:ea on -dam-
a dam -fiol:£s-t&at th-e will Tlve as
long as
the pyramids of Egypt. But many a times, the dam give way under the continued insistent
pressure of the water penned up behind them. This failure of the dam may be caused
either due to bad workmanship or due to faulty design or due to the occurrence of
unanticipated floods.
Luckily, these disasters have been comparatively rare in this century. Dams used to
give way easily in olden times, but due to engineering advancement in modern times,
their failure has been considerably reduced. ·
DAMS IN GENERAL AND A FEW DAMS IN PARTICULAR 889
These huge structures are now properly designed, keeping in view the various forces
which they are going to face. Proper and rational design, good supervision and constant
vigil and watch during maintenance period ensures their safety and makes us fairly
confident of it. Bhakra Dam on Satluj River in India and Boulder Dam on Colorado
River in U.S.A. cannot fail in one attempt, h.ow furiously these rivers may try to move'
their foundations. We are fairly confident of this, but sometimes the confidence is rudely
and cruelly repaid with tragedies. .
Dams may sometimes fail due to excessive and unanticipated earthquakes. The
Koyna Dam in India was at the verge of failure in 1968 earthquake. Thanks to the efforts
of the Illiiian engineers who saved that dam by toiling hard day and night. A very .
confiden't dam called Vega de Tera Dam is Spain failed in January 1959. The people
were tucked in the town of Rivaldelago. The disaster caused was tremendous. Rival-
delago was flattened. Telephone poles were snapped like matchsticks. Within moments,
123 villages were drowned. Several hundred luckier ones were saved, but were rendered
homeless. This was a case where a dam had simply not been built strong enough to bear
the full weight of its intended reservoir. Heavy rains wrecked it. Faulty design and bad
engineering must be blamed.
Another important dam called The Malpasset Dam, a 200 feet high arch dam on
the Reyran River, was completed in 1954. This dam gave way in December 1956,
causing 421 persons to die in floods. Investigations revealed that the. dam had failed
because the foundation rock has shifted along a thin clay seam in the left abutment,
making the dam unstable and vulnerable to any serious stress.
We learnt from our mistakes;and several other dams of the same type, then under
constr.uction in Europe, were quickly resurveyed to find the possibility of such a geo1ogi-
cal formation. This was .very very small comfort to the relatives of those who died when
Malpasset failed; but at least, we should learn from our mistakes and there should be
no such repetitions.
- (4) The Bomb Problem. The dams create dangers in wais, especially in modern .
atomic age. One single atom bomb may cause the failure of Hoover Dani (Boulder Dam)
or Bhakra Dam. The resultant failure of such a dam will create catastrophes, but also,
it will get contaminated by radioactivity from which there could be no escape.
This is an important point which is generally stressed by opponents of big dams.
But the only answer to this argument is that it would not be advisable to deprive
ourselves of the benefits of big dams simply because they are hazards in war time. After
all, an atom bomb dropped in Calcutta, Delhi, or New York would also cause tremen-
dous damage and catastrophe, but this does not mean that we should not develop big
cities.
Atomic war is dangerous to every aspect of living and not only to the construction
of dams. We don't refuse riding in automobiles or ae~pl_~!1~~ b~C~l!~~ ~Lthf'._ f~~.r: __()f____ _
acCideniS. -cerrain--risFhas-io Iie-accepteC! if !'hire- is-to be progress.
So, without denying the very great damage that could be caused by atomic ex-
plosions at our dams, we must go on buildfo.g dams. We need them and we must devote
our energies to the cause of continued peace, so that bombs will never be able to fall.
We may also take more precautions, and anticraft guns and radars can be established at
and in the vicinity of such important works. The use of atomic energy for peaceful ·
purposes and a general feeling of brotherhood is the only possible way to reduce such
threats.
 \
890 IRRIGAT~ON ENyINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

17. 4. Selection of the Type of Dam and Their Classifications

(1) Classification. Dams can be classified in various ways depending upon the
purpose of the classification.
(1) Classification According to the Material used for Dam Construction :
The dams classified according to the material used for construction are: Solid·
masonry gravity dams, Earthen ·dams, Rockfill dams, Hollow masonry gravity dams,
Timber dams, Steel dams, and R.C.C. Arch dams. They have already been explained in .
. a _previous _article.
(2) Classification According to Use
(i) Storage Dams. They are constructed in order to store water during the periods
of surplus water supply, to be used later during the periods of deficient supply. The
stored water may be used in different seasons and for different uses. They may be further
classified depending upon the specific use of this water, such as navigation, recreation,
water supply, fish, electricity, etc.
(il) Diversion Dams. These small dams are used to raise the river water level, in
order to feed an off-taking canal and or some other conveyance systems. They are very
useful as irrigation development works. A diversion dam i~_generally called a weir or
a barrage.
(iii) The Detention Dams. They detain food-waters temporarily so as to retard flood
runoff and thus minimise the bad effects of sudden flood.
Detention dams are sometimes constructed to trap sediment They are often called.
debris dams.
(3) Classification According to Hydraulic Designs
(i) Overflow Dams. They are designed to pass the surplus water over their crest.
They are often called Spillways. They should be made of materials which will not be
eroded by such discharges. . · ·
(ii) Non-overflow Dams. They are those which are not designed to be overtopped.
This type of design gives us wider choice of materials including earthfill and rockfill
dams. ·
Many a times, the overflow dam and the non-overflow dam are combined together
to form a composite single structure.
(iiz) Rigid Dams and Non-rigid Dams. Rigid dams are those which are constructed
of rigid materials like· masonry, concrete, steel, timber, etc.; while non-rigid dams are
constructed of earth and rock-fill. They have already been explained.
17'.5. Factors Governing the Selection of a Particular Type of Dam
. Whenever we decide to construct a dam at a particular place, the first baffling
i---c-problem-which-faces-us-,-is-to choose-thekind of the dam. Which type will be· the most-··
i suitable and most economical? Two, three kinds of dams may be technically feasible,
but only one of them will be the most economical. Various designs and their estimates
have to be .prepared before signalling one particular type. The various factors which
must be thoroughly considered before selecting one particular type are described below:
(1) Topography. Topography dictates the first choice of the type of dam. For
example:
(i) A narrow U-shaped valley, i.e. a narrow stream flowing between high rocky
walls, would suggest a concrete overflow dam.
 DAMS IN GE~RAL AND A FEW DAMS IN PARTICULAR 891
(ii) A low, rol~ing plain country, would naturally suggest an earth fill dam with a
separate spillway. I
I
(iii) The a~ailability of a 'Spillway Site' is very important while selecting a par-
ticular kind of 1dam. ·
./
(iv) A narrow V-shaped valley indicates the choice of an arch dam. It is preferable
to have the top width of the valley less than one-fourth of its height. But a separate site
for the spillway must also be available.
(2) Geology and FoundationCoriditions.-The foundations have to carry weightof
the dam. The dam site must be thoroughly surveyed by geologists, so as to detect the
thickness of the foundation strata, presence of faults, fissured materials,, and their
permeability, slope, and slip, etc.
The various kinds of foundations generally encountered are discussed below:
(i) Solid Rock Founddtions. Solid rock foundations such as granite, gneiss, etc. have
a strong bearing power. They offer high resistance to erosion and percolation. Almost
every kind of dam can be built on such foundations. Sometimes, seams and fractures
are present in these rocks. They must be grouted and sealed properly.
(ii) Gravel Foundations. Coarse sands and gravels are unable to bear the weight of
high concrete gravity dams and are suitable for earthen and rock-fill dams. Low concrete
gravity dams up to a height of 15 m may also be suggested on such foundations.
These foundations have high permeability and, therefore, subjected to water per-
colation at high rates. Suitable cut-offs must be provided to avoid danger of undermin-
ing.
(iii) Silt and Fine Sand Foundations. They suggest the adoption of earth dams or
- very low gravity dams (upto height-ef:g mj.-A-reckfiH dam en such-a foundation is not
suitable. Seepage through such a foundation may be excessive. Settlement may also be
a problem; They must be properly designed to avoid such dangers. The protection of
foundations at the _downstr_eam toe from erosion must also be ensured.
(iv) Clay Foundations. Unconsolidated and high moisture clays are likely to cause
enonnous settlement of the dam. They are not fit for concrete gravity dams or for
rock-fill dams. They may be accepted for earthen dams, but that too, after special
treatment. (v) Non-uniform Foundations. At certain places, a uniform foundation of the
types described above may not be available. In such a case, a non-uniform foundation
of rock and soft material may have to be used if the dam is to be built. Such unsatisfac-
tory conditions have to be dealt with by special designs. However, every problem is an
individual problem and a solution has to be. found by experienced engineers. For ex-
____:_ample- -------------- -- - - ----- -
.c. - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -----

- The Jawahar Sagar Dam in Rajasthan offered such a problem. A bed of clay
was encountered, between the base of the dam and solid rock foundation. It was not
economically feasible to remove this clay bed. The solution adopted was to anchor the
base of the dam to the foundations below, by means of prestressed cables.
(3) Availability of Materials. In order to achieve economy in the dam, the materials
\required for its construction must be available locally or at short distances froll1 the
construction site.
 892 . IRRIGATION ENGINEERI1::1G AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

Sometimes, good soil is easily available, which naturally calls for an earthen dam.
If sand, cement and stone, etc., are easily available, one should naturally think of a
concrete gravity dam. If the material has to be transported from far off distances, then
_a hollow concrete dam (Buttress) is a better choice.
(4) Spillway Size and Location. Spillway, as defined earlier, di poses of the surphis
river discharge. The capacity of the spillway will depend on the magnitudes of the floods
to be by- passed. The spillway will, therefore, become much more important on streams
with large flood potential. On such r.iwrs; the spillway may become dominant structure,
and the type of dam may become the. secondary consideration.
The cost of constructing a separate, spilly/ay may be enormous or sometimes a
suitable separate site for a spillway may not be available. In such cases, combining the
spillway and the dam into one structure may be desirable, indicating the adoption of a
concrete overflow dam.
A_t certain places, where excavated material from a separate spillway channel may
be utilised in dam embankment, an earthfill dam may prove to be advantageous. Small
spillway requirement often favou~s the selections of earth fill or rockfill dams even in
.narrow dam sites.
The practice of building a concrete spillway on earth and rock embankments is
being discouraged. these days, because of their conservative design assumptions and the
vigil and watch that has\to be kept during their operations.
(5) Earthquake Zone. If the dam is to be situated in an earthquake zone, its design
must include the earthquake forces. Its safety should be ensured against the increased
stress induced by an earthquake of worst intensity. The type of structures best suited to
resist earthquak_e shocks without danger are earthen dams and concrete gravity dams.
(6) Height of the Dam. Earthen dams are usually not,provided.for h~ights more
than 30 m or so. Hence, for greater heights, gravity dams are generally preferred.
(7) .Other Considerations. Various other factors such as, the life of the dam, the
width of the roadway to be provided over the dam, problem of skilled labour, legal and
. aesthetic point must also be considered before a final decision is taken. Overall cost of
construction and maintenance and the funds available will finally decide the choice of
a particular kind of a dam at a particular place.
17 .6. Selection of Dam Site
The selection of a site for constructing a dam Width
should be governed by ~11'#;fo11owing factors: ---+--t---o t basin-+--+---
(1) Suitable foundations (as determined in
·- tbe-previOufluticl~}must-be-available.- : -
(2) For economy, the length of the dam
should be as small as possible, and for a given
height, it ~hould store the maximum volume of
water. It, therefore, follows, that the river valley
at the dam site should be narrow but should open
out upstream to provide a large basin for a reserc
voir. A general configuration of contours for a
suitable site is shown in Fig. 17.1. :- Fig. 17.1
 "!"
l

DAMS IN GENERAL AND A FEW DAMS IN PARTICULAR 893

(3) The general
bed level at dam site
. shoulg preferably be Top of dam
higher than that of the
river basin. This will
reduce the height of
the dam and will
facilitate the drainage
problem.
(4) A suitable site
for the spillway should
be available in the near
vicinity. If the
spiilway is to be com-
bined with the dam, Fig. 17.2
the width of the gorge should be such as to accommodate both. _
The best dam site is one, in which a narrow deep gorge is separated from the flank
by a hillock with its surface above the dam, as shown in Fig. 17. 2.
If such a site is available, the spillway can be located separately in the flank, and
the main valley spanned by an earthen or similar dam. Sometimes, the spillway and
concrete masonry dam may be compositely spanned in the main gorge, while the flanks
are in· earth at low cost.. ·
(5) Materials required for the construction should be easily available, either locally
or in the near vicinity, so that the cost of transporting them is as low as possible.
(6) The reservoir b?sin should be reasonably water-tight. The stored water should
not escape out through its side walls and bed. ·
(7) the value of land and property submerged by the proposed dam should be as
lowaspossible. -- -·- ---- ··---- ----
(8) The dam site should be easily accessible, so that it can be economically con-
nected to important towns and cities by rails, roads, etc.
(9) Site for establishing labour colonies and a .healthy environment should be
available in the near vicinity.

STORIES OF A FEW IMPORTANT DAMS

Before we take up the actual planning and design of concrete gravity dams and
earthen dams in subsequent chapters, let us narrate the stories of certain such important
dams. Thi~ will give us an idea as to what actually happens in the field and to what kind
of difficulties are encountered and· how they are overcome.
17.7. Hoover Dam
·-· -- - -------------··~-------- ------ -----·------
Hoover dam (Fig. 17.3) is a concrete gravity dam, constructed on the Colorado river
in California (U.S.A.). The construction of this dam was taken off the drawing boards
on January 26, 1892 when the Colorado River Commission presided by Mr. Harbert
Hoover discussed its construction in their first meeting. But the actual constructio~--of
this dam could start only in late 1930. The construction took about 2 years of non-stop
work, every minute of the hour, 24 hours a day, and 365 days a year. On the day of
Christmas, the pouring of concrete was tremendous even under searing desert sun by
day and under floodlights at night.
894 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

Fig. 17.3. Photo view of Hoover Dam ..

Name Problem. The name of the Hoover Dam became a political issue. It was first
of all named as Boulder Dam. Later· when Herbert Hoover became the President of
America, its name was changed to Hoover Dam. In 1933, when the Democrats replaced
the Republicans, President Roosevelt changed this name again to Boulder Dam. It was
known as Boulder Dam for 14 years. When again in 1946, Republicans came to power,
the name was once again changed to Hoover Dam, which still exists today;--.: == ····==
Dimensions of the Dam. The original dimensions of the dam are given below in
F.P.S. units:
Height = 726 ft
Span = 1300 ft from rim to rim of the Canyon
Thickness at the base = 660 ft
Thickness at the top = 45 ft
Name of the reservoir formed at
the back of the dam =Lake Mead
Length of the reservoir = 115 miles.
Something about the river. This big dam straddles the Colorado river. The
.Colorado river rises in the State of Colorado, runs down through Utah and intg 1\.rjzon_a,,
then California, emptying finally into the Gulf of California in Mexico.
The Colorado is a river with muscles. It is. a very strong river - containing huge
amounts of silt and mud in it. It cuts numerous deep narrow canyons while it flows. The
mile deep walls of the Grand canyon proves the power of this river.
It is a young river and all such rivers have strong powers for forming deep narrow
gorges (i.e. canyons). They are the most turbulent, and the deepest digging. They are
the best sources of hydro~lectric power. Irrigation or navigation is not possible on this /
kind of rivers, unless, they are tamed. I

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 DAMS IN GENERAL AND A FEW DAMS IN PARTICULAR ·-" 895
Attempts were made to tame.this river by constructing dikes or levees, but failed.
Spring floods of 1904 brought havoc. Another catastrophe occurred in 1916. Gila
River, a tributary of Colorado, flooded at a rate of about 5, 560 cubic metres/sec. The
town of Yuma in Arizona, where the Gila empties into the Colorado, was submerged to
a depth of 1.2 metres.
It was exti;emely desirable to tame this river. But how? A solution was dreamt of.
The idea of constructing a big dam was visualised by Arthur Davis. It was an ambitious
plan.
Planning for the Dam. A scheme was planned: A concretegravity dam, of about
700 to750 feet height was thought. A reservoir at the back of the dam could hold every
drop of water, the Colorado could send in any 2 years of steady flow. It was to be the
biggest man-made lake in the world. It was going to be a multi- purpose dam, generating
about 6 billion Kilo watt-hours of electrical energy each year for the growing cities of
southern California. The reservoir would hold the flood waters, and the spillways would
release the required amounts of water to the downstream farmers.
Flood control, irrigation and electricity were the three main purposes of this project.
Supply of drinking water to 13 cities of California and creation of a recreational and
navigable lake reservoir were the additional advantages.
Selection of a suitable site. A thorough search was made for the spectacular gorges
of the Colorado, seeking the best possible site. They studied 70 such sites before
choosing 'Black canyon' on the border between Arizona and -Nevada, 48 km from the
city of Las Vegas (Nevada).
The preliminary survey of Black canyon took about 3 years. Here, the river flows
through cliffs 1000-2000 feet (300 m to 600 m) high. At the water line, the rock walls
were 350 feet (105 m) apart.
Engineers roamed in heat and sun, testing the rocks, drilling into it, to make sure
that it,could·stand·the burden of enormous weight of the concrete -iliaf woulobe laid
upon it. Their conclusion was that it could. They recommended that the giant dam be
built.
After the technical green-signal was obtained, some political issues such as to who
will be benefitted and up to what extent, were settled with a great difficulty. The rift
between the different States always persists in such huge projects.
Construction of the Dam. The reai work began in late 1930. Herbert Hoover was
the President of America at that time. He himself was an engineer. The work started
under his vigilance, Arthur Powell Davis, 70 years old and about to re!ire, saw his life
long dream fulfilled as he stood high above the Colorado and watched thousands of
workers working hard with picks and dynamite far below.
The dam site was very hot. It was not a congenial surroundings to work. But a dam
- -hQd--to--be--built.:_____ - -·--·- -·--- -----·--·--- - - - - -- --- -~:__ __ ----- --- -- -
First of all, a town was built to house the workers. A permanent city, now called
Boulder-city, was settled at an expenditure of about $70 million. This was spread in an
area of about 300 acres and could accommodate 5, 000 workers.
Whenever a dam is constructed, the water of the river is first of all to be diverted
so that the construction could start. This is called by engineers as 'to turn the river off.'
1.4 tunnels, each 56 feet wide and 4000 feet long were dug into the solid rock of the

--
~anyon walls. These bypass tunnels received the flow of the river and carried it down·
~-
 896 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

t
to the downstream, to a point beyond the construction site. About 1 milli~m cubic feet
of rock had to be removed for building these four tunnels.
Then, the Coffer dam was built. A coffer dam is a temporary retaining embankment
·upstream of the site. Huge amounts of rock and earth was heaped up, forcing the river
into four bypass tunnels. The bed of the river was thus laid bare.
Workers then descenqed into this river bed to lay the foundations for the dam. Seven
million tons of concrete had to be laid. It was 660 feet thick at the base.
The dam curves upstream, so that the water load is held back in part by the walls
of the canyon. The completion of the dam took about 2 years of non-stop work.
After completion, the bypass tunnels were blocked up and the water started coming
and collecting against the dam. The lake formed on the upstream side was called Lake
mead. Electrical power houses, which are of the size of 20-storey sky-scrapers were
constructed. The lake, the power houses, the dam galleries etc. are open for visitors and
for inspection. It was a great achievement indeed.
· 17 .8. Bhakra Dam
Bhakra Dam is a concrete gravity dam. It is 740 feet (226 m) high, spanning the
V-shaped gorge in the lower Shivalik hills. The dam is 1700 ft long at the top and only
· 325 ft at the bottom. The thickness of the dam at foundations is 1320 ft and it tapers to
30 ft at the top where a road runs. Bhakra dam was the highest concrete gravity dam of
the world when built, thus surpassing the existing 726 ft (221 m) high Hoover dam. But
the highest concrete gravity dam of the world, at present, is Grand Dixence dam in
. Switzerland (284 m high). Bhakra dam is situated in Himachal Pradesh State of India
near a village use<;l to be called Bhakra. It has been constructed on Satluj river. Satluj
is a river coming from Himalayas. It is a perennial river but carries enormous water
during floods and rains.
Downstream and upstream. views of Bhakra dam are shown in Photo Fig. 17.4.
----- This dam has given tremendous prospedty tcdn&a and has given her'a'liigh name
in the \\'.Orld. The various functions .served by this dam are:
(i) Flood control (ii) Irrigation
·(iii) Electricity (iv) Fish development.
Bhakra Project is not a single Bhakra Dam but consists of the following:
(i) 740 ft high Bhakra Dam (ii) 95 ft high Nangal Dam
(iii) Nangal Hydel Channel (iv) Ganguwal and Kotta Power houses
(v) Bhakra Canal System.
Planning and Construction. The survey works for the construction of this multi-
purpose project started in 1919. From 1919 to 1930, the survey continued and various
sites were considered for various purposes. From 1932 to 1946, the work was inter-
_.-rupted,-andfinally in1946,arailway line was spread in this-area,and-thenthe"-actual-
construction started. ·
After selecting a suitable narrow canyon for the construction of Bhakra Dam, the
dam site was dewatered after the river was 'turned off'. Two diversion tunnels, one in
either abutment were constructed in order to carry the river water: Two coffer dams
enclosing the foundation area, were also constructed. Both the tunnels are 50 ft, in
finished diameter, half a mile long 'and are lined with 3.6 ft thick heavily reinforced
concrete. The work on these two tunnels was started in 1948 and was completed in 1953.
The total expenditure incurred on them was approximately Rs. 3.6 crores. .,

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 Fig. 17.4 (a) Upstream view of Bhakra Dam.

• Fig. 17.4 (b) Downstream view of Bhakra Dam.

Fig. 17.4. Photoviews of Bhakra Dam.

 '~

DAM.S IN GENERAL AND A FEW DAMS IN PARTICULAR 897

After the construction of these tunnels, two earth (rolled) and rock coffer dams were
constructed to enclose the operation area of the dam site. The construction of 215 ft high
coffer dam began in 1956. The water was forced into the tunnels and taken downstream
beyond the construction point. The 15 ft high downstream coffer dam did not lei the
water come back in the pit.
The foundations of these rolled fill earthen dams or dikes were carried down to 60ft
and 70 ft below the river bed level. After the construction of coffer dams, the dewatering
of the area was expeditiously completed and the excavation of the river bed started. The
rock was blasted by an explosive. Desert-shovels were employed for loading the material
in special trucks having capacity of 914 cubic yards. The material was carried and
dumped at the dumping site. The total .excavation was of the order of 700 million cubic
yards. About one million cubic yard was excavated per day.
While the excavation was going on, a large constructional plant, capable of produc-
ing high quality concrete economically and efficiently was also installed. This required
a 4( long belt conveyor system, aggregate processing plant, cement handling plant,
cooling plant, batching and mixing plants, high steel Q:istles, revolving cranes and other
electricity operated cranes, etc. etc. It was an expensive, completely automised concrete
plant. It was capable of handling about 600 tons of concrete per hour.
Then, the actual concreting work of the dam started in November 1956. Huge
electric cranes including 6 cantilever-cranes and 2 stiff-legged-cranes were employed
for concreting of dam.
A very low heat cement was used in the construction of this dam. Because, when
cement sets, it produces a large amount of heat which is liable to cause cracks. in the
structure. So in order to avoid this cracking, steel pipes were embedded in the structure
and ice-cold water was circulated through them.
The first stage of the dam (390 ft.) was completed by 1959. Work in the 2nd stage
was interrupted by a flood in the diversion tunnel that drowned ten workers and damaged
the power house. The tunnel and plugging of the dam was completed in 1962.
Dimensions and other data about Bhakra Dam are given below:
Height of the dam = 740'
Length at the bottom = 325'
Length at the top = 1200'
Breadth or thickness at the bottom = 1320'
Breadth or thickness at the top = 30'
Concrete required for the dam = 55 lakh cubic yard
Electricity generated = 12 lakh Kilowatt
Name of the reservoir formed = Govind Sagar
______1:_e~g!~_9f_~e r~r\T_oir_ ______ ,= 90_ll!il_es __
Maximum depth =. 740'
Minimum depth = 300'
Total irrigation = 1 crore acre of area
Population of these villages = 30, 000
Total storage capacity = 8 million acre ft.
Catchment area = 22, 000 sq. miles
Live storage = 6.35 million acre ft.
No. of Inspection galleries = 46
 898 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
"" '
Power liouses:lBere-are-twopower houses called (i) The Left Power House; and
(ii) The Right Power House. The left power house is more important and was first
constructed.
The left power house is a reinforced concrete structure. It is standing on a stone
consisting partly of clay stone and partly of sand stone. The foundation chosen were
adverse to .the geological conditions required for a good dam site. The permeability of
sand stone is high, and thus there was a. possibility of leakage and danger of undermining
of the foundations. It necessitated a heavily reinforced raft foundation. The left power
house buildingjs seven. storeyed _and its construction_ took abou.Uw_o Jo three years. It
required about 635, 000 cubic yards of concrete, about one million sq.ft. of ~inishing
work and 6, 000 tons of reinforced ste.eL
The machinery used in this power house is of cosmopolitan in nature. The turbines
were supplied by Japan, the generators and transformers by U.K., and over-head cranes
by Yogoslavia. ,
The local manufacture of 10-ft diameter penstocks, made out of 1.75" thick steel
plate was considered as a big engineering feat of the country in such a short period of
· independence. The left power house had costed nearly Rs. 10 crores. The work on right
power house was also completed afterwards ..
Problem of Wood Transport. Like all other perennial rivers of India, the River
Satluj has been the cheapest means of transporting wood from the Himalayan forests
down to the plains. But since the dam is very high above the river water level, it has
become impossible to use this river for this purpose.
·The problem is overcome by bringing logs of woods from Govind Sagar to Nangal
St
railway station by means of an aerial rope-way. This is about miles long. A wooden
log loom has been put across Govind Sagar to obstruct timber. From there, the timber
is taken by the inclined carriage way to the loading station on the upstream of the right
-side.- c -- "-;:: ----- ----. -- -- ---- ----- -- - ..------...·--- - -- -- c-- -

17.8.1. Nangal Dam. Nangal Dam is 95 ft high subsidiary dam, 8 miles down-
stream of Bhakra on Satfuj. It falls within the jurisdiction of Punjab State in India. The
length of the dam is 1, 000 ft. The object of this dam is to head up water of the river
Satluj and then divert it into the'canal off-taking from the left bank of the fiver. The
canal is called Nangal Rydel Canal, and is a 40 miles long concrete lined canal.
This dam has 29 strong gates ~of span 30 ft each. An enormous tunnel Galled the
Inspection gallery has been made in the river Satluj in the lower portion of this dam.
This was the first tunnel constructed by the Government under Bhakra Project Scheme.
In order to enter into this tunnel, one has to go 70 ft down. The tunnel goes across Satluj
River.
Bhakra Nangal Project is something tremendous, stupendous, something which
----shakes-up-and--thri-I-ls us-when-we -see it- It marks the India's-progress after her Inde- --
pendence. It is something which cannot be forgotten easily, if we see it once.
17.9. Nagarjuna Sagar Dam
The multipurpose Nagarjuna Sagar dam is located across Krishna River, near Nan-
dikonda village in Nalgonda District (Andhra Pradesh). It is named after Buddhist
Savant, Acharya Nagarjuna, who lived at the spot about 2,000 years ago to fulfil a
mission.
T
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DAMS IN GENERAL AND A FEW DAMS IN PARTICULAR . 899
This Dam irrigates in Guntl.ir, Kurnool, Nellore, Nalgonda, Khamman and Krishna
Districts. Its irrigation Potential is about 35 Jakh acres of land and electrical potential
is 1 lakh kilowatt hours of firm power (guaranteed-power generation) and 4.6 lakh
kilowatt hours of seasonal power.
A photoview of this dam is shown in Fig. 17.5.
Salient Features of the Dam. The river gorge is blocked by a masonry dam 409 ft
(124.6 m) high above the deepest foundation level and 4756 ft long. The full reservoir
level is +590.0 ft above the mean sea level (M.S.L.). The most unique feature of this
dam is the adoption of Stone masonry for its construction, deviating fromthe traditional
concrete. The use of stone had resulted in a large saving and had created huge employ-
ment potential for a large labour force. Hence, Nagarjuna Sagar Project ranks first in
the man-power utilisation among the modern gigantic projects of its own kind in the
world. It was designed and executed entirely by Indian engineers. On either side of the
masonry dam, earth dams have been constructed for a length of about two miles, the
maximum height being ·85 ft. The spillway crest has been installed with 26 Radial gates
each of size 45'x44'. Other component-works of this mighty dam include 8 penstock
pipes on the left side, three Power sluices and 9 irrigation sluices on the right side, two
chute sluices and a diversion-cum-irrigation tunnel. Two canals-off-ta~e on either side
of the dam for irrigation. The expenditure on the project was of the order of Rs. 80
crores. The crest level of the dam is +605 ft and the crest level of spillway is +546 ft.
Various details of the -dam are given below: ·
(1) Location. Lat.= 16°34' North, Long.= 71°19' East, 1~ mile downstream of Nan-
dikonda village Miryalaguda Taluk, Nalgonda District, 90 miles from Hyderabad.
(2) States Covered. ANDHRA PRADESH
(3) Hydrology,·
(a) Water-shed area at dam site ... 83,087 sq. miles
/(b) Maximum! flood discharge (observed) ... 11.7 laKh cumecs.
(4) Reservoir
(a) Full Reservoir level ... + 590'.0
(b) Maximum water level ... + 594'.0
(c) Gross siorage capacity ... 9 .3 7 M.a.ft
(d) Net (live) storage capacity ... 5.51 M.a.ft
(e) No. of villages submerged ,.. 57
if> Population displaced ... 4,824 families
(5) Masonry dam
(a) Total length- - -..-.-4,-7.56 ft--·-·
(b) Spillway length ... 1545 ft
(c) Non-overflow length including power
dam ... 3,211 ft
(d) Height of dam (maximum) ... 409 ft
(e) Base width (maximum) ... 320 ft
if> Top width ... 28 ft
 900 el IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
l
(g) Top level ... + 605'.0
(h) Top of crest in spillway ... + 546'.0
(i) Chute sluices 2 No. 10' x 25' provided in
blocks 25 and 51 with sill level elevation ... +450'.0
(j)8 No. of 16' diameter penstocks provided
one in each in blocks 16 to 23 with
central line in elevation ... +405'.0
-- ---- (k) 3 No. power sluices 15' x 38' provided
(two in block 71 and one in block 7'2)
with sill level at elevation ... + 479'.0
(/) Radial Crest Gates 26 No. 45' x 44', with
crest elevation ... + 546'.0
(m) Thickness of spillway pipes ... + 15'
(n) Nine No. sluices 10' x 15' are provided
for right canal head regulator with sill at
elevation ... +489'.0
(6) Quantities of Work

(a) Excavation for foundations ... + 42.07 M. cft

(b) Volume of masonry and concrete ... 198 M. cft
(c) Quantity of cement ... About 11 lakh tons
(d) Quantity of steel ... About 60,000 tpns
(7) Earth Dams
(a) Length of Left Earth Dam : .. 8,400ft
(b) Length of Right Earth Dam ... 2,800 ft
ll,200 ft
{c) Maximum height above foundation level ... 85ft
(d) Top width .;. 30 ft
(e) . Top level. ... 610'
(j) Excavation of foundation ... 9.2 M. cft
(g) Earthwork for embankment .... 88 M. cft
(8) Irrigation-cum-Diversion Tunnel (horse-shoe in Section)
- - - --~~---!-~~~.!~ ____-_-_. ___ -
... 2,590 ft
----- ·-------- - - - - - - --~

(b) Diameter ... 27 ft

(9) Power Plant
(a) Left side 8 No. of penstocks 16 ft.
diameter to'develop ... 31~.kh kW
(b) Right side 3 power sluices of size
15' x 38' to develop ... 0.6 lakh kW
(10) Man-Power ' ... 50,000
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DAMS IN GENERAL AND A FEW DAMS IN PARTICULAR 901
Organisation. In the earlier years of construction, a Control Board was the.orverall
incharge of the Nagarjun Sagar Project including technical, financial and administration
aspects. The project was then located in the Andhra Pradesh and the Hyderabad States.
After the reorganisation of States, the project came entirely in Andhra Pradesh State.
The State Government assumed its full responsibility w.e.f. 1.8.1959. The Control Board
became an advisory Body to the State Government, whose advice is accepted as a matter
of convention.
The programme of construction of dam and canals was so adjusted that partial
benefits started accruing even from 1967. The reservoir was able to deliver water to first
crop of Krishna delta in time for raising substantial acreage in 2nd crop. Letting out
waters in the two canals was inaugurated, by Smt. Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister'
of India, on 4.8.1967.
Rehabilitation. The man-made lake of Nagarjuna Sagar fully submerged lands of
52 villages and partially submerged that of 5 villages.
About 4,900 families were displaced and rehabilitated in 24 Rehabilitation centres.
Good facilities, liberal compensation and other amenities were provided to those who
had to be uprouted.
Nagarjunakonda Excavations. As the Nagarjuna Sagar reservoir was to complete-
ly submerge the famous relics of Nagarjun~ Konda, which was the seat of Ikshwaku
Kings and one of the principal centres of Mahayana System of Buddhism, the whole
area was excavated by the Archeological Department of the Governmernt of India. The
more important of the relics were located in a museum constructed for the purpose, on
the top of an adjoining hill. Practically, all the relics had been unearthed and shifted to
the museum. Expenditure to the extent of 12 lakh rupees was debited to the Project and
the balance was met by the Archeological department.

. PkOBLEMS -- .
1. (a) What is meant by a "dam and a reservoir" ? What are the different meterials that are commonly
used for dam construction and what are their comparative advantages and disadvantages ?
(b) Discuss the geological and tropological features which affect the selection of the type of dam.
2. (a) What are 'arch' and 'buttress' dams ? Illustrate with sketches and mention site conditions
favourable for construction of such dams.
(b) Discuss the factors which are considered in the .selection of the site for a proposed dam. It is
assumed that the type of the dam has already been selec.ted for the project.
3. (a) What useful purpose is served by a dam ? What are the illeffects of dam construction ?
(b) How do you classify dams according to:
(i) their use ;
(ii) their hydraulic designs ;
(iii) their materials of construction.
(c) Dis·cuSflhe.VarioOS factors wtiich govern the selection of a particular type of dam for a-particular
project.
4. "Dams are the sources of sorrow and grief'. Debate the above statement giving points in favour
as well as against it.
5. Narrate briefly the story of construction of any m~jor dam of India.