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Recent Advances in Seed Coating Treatment Using Nanoparticles and

Nanoﬁbers for Enhanced Seed Germination and Protection
Article in Journal of Plant Growth Regulation · June 2023

DOI: 10.1007/s00344-023-11038-4
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Journal of Plant Growth Regulation
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00344-023-11038-4
Recent Advances in Seed Coating Treatment Using Nanoparticles

and Nanofibers for Enhanced Seed Germination and Protection
Nur Syuhadatul Husna Binti Husny Zaim1 · Huey Ling Tan2 · Siti Maslizah Abdul Rahman1 · Noor Fitrah Abu Bakar2 ·
Mohamed Syazwan Osman3 · Vijay Kumar Thakur4,5,6 · Norbert Radacsi7
Received: 22 September 2022 / Accepted: 23 May 2023

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2023
Abstract
Seed coating plays a crucial role in agriculture technology as a defence mechanism for crop protection and development.
Conventional seed coating methods typically involve excessive material usage, high production costs and negatively impact
human health and the environment. Orthodox approaches often require the use of bulk and hazardous substances, resulting
in the inefficient delivery of active ingredients. Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising alternative with its small size,
high surface area, and instantaneous reactivity leading to improved efficiency and reduced material usage. Recent studies have
highlighted the use of nanomaterials, specifically nanoparticles and nanofibers which offer significant benefits in boosting
the seed mechanical properties, germination and vigor index by enhancing seed water uptake, and nutrient absorption due
to their permeability, small size and high surface area. Nanomaterials can provide better seed protection against biotic and
abiotic stresses, including pests, diseases, and environmental factors such as drought and salinity. The controlled release of
active ingredients from nanomaterials enhances plant development by ensuring the seeds receive the necessary nutrients
over an extended period. Nanomaterials impregnated with biochemical agents, such as hormones and enzymes, can enhance
the viability of these agents and improve crop growth by enabling a systematic release mechanism. This review provides
an overview of the latest developments and understanding of how nanomaterials can be applied for seed coating purposes,
including their mechanism of action and potential benefits. It is expected to provide valuable insights for researchers and
practitioners in the field of agriculture and contribute to the development of sustainability.
Keywords Seed coating · Nanoparticles · Nanofibers · Electrospinning · Controlled-release delivery
Introduction
Currently, the global population is estimated to be 8 bil-

lion people, and it is projected to increase to 10 billion
by 2050 (Cardarelli et al. 2022). According to a recent
Handling Editor: M.Iqbal R. Khan.
4
* Huey Ling Tan Biorefining and Advanced Materials Research Center,
[email protected] Scotland’s Rural College (SRUC), Kings Buildings, West
Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK
1
Faculty of Plantation and Agrotechnology, Universiti 5
School of Engineering, University of Petroleum and Energy
Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Melaka, Kampus Jasin,
Studies (UPES), Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248007, India
77300 Merlimau, Melaka, Malaysia
6
2 Centre for Research and Development, Chandigarh
School of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering,
University, Mohali, Punjab 140413, India
Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor,
7
Malaysia School of Engineering, Institute for Materials and Processes,
3 The University of Edinburgh, King’s Buildings,
EMZI‑UiTM Nanoparticles Colloids and Interface Industrial
Edinburgh EH9 3FB, UK
Research Laboratory (NANO‑CORE), School of Chemical
Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi
MARA, Cawangan Pulau Pinang, Kampus Permatang Pauh,
13500 Permatang Pauh, Penang, Malaysia
13
Vol.:(0123456789)
report by the United Nations, the global population is nano-pesticides such as Kocide 3000 that contains (Cu(OH)2
expected to reach 11.2 billion by the year 2100 (Omran NPs) (Simonin et al. 2018; He et al. 2019).
and Baek 2022). The increasing population has led to a Engineered NMs such as NPs and NFs are known for
significant rise in the demand for food and dietary needs their nanoscale size with a large surface area that provides
(War et al. 2020). Overwhelming crop production by the more extensive surface reactivity. Instant reactivity by NMs
agriculture industry has led to sustainability issues that is believed to be capable to combat primary agriculture chal-
adversely affect human health and the environment. The lenges such as nutrient deficiency, pest, and disease con-
accumulation of agrichemical residues in the human body trol and enhance the plant growth rate (Mittal et al. 2020).
is a major concern, and the overuse of chemicals has also Highly reactive NPs tend to hetero-aggregate in an environ-
led to issues such as nutrient leaching, eutrophication, soil mental medium, resulting in an effective seed coating agent
pollution, and the release of greenhouse gases (Rahman by preventing the burst release of the compound to the envi-
and Zhang 2018; Kumar et al. 2019a, b). Therefore, it is ronment (Espirito Santo Pereira et al. 2021). A recent study
crucial to prioritize sustainability and strike a balance of seed coated with ZnO NPs in a polymeric coating on fod-
between production and environmental aspects to ensure der maize resulted in improved seed vegetative growth, and
future generations have access to adequate and nutritious fodder yield (Tondey et al. 2021). The use of ZnO and TiO2
food while preserving the health of our planet. Sustain- NPs in seed gel coating provides a breakthrough in overcom-
ability, as defined by the commission on environment and ing seed dormancy by accelerating the germination rate of
development report (WCED) or the Brundtland report, Solanaceae crops (Younes et al. 2020). The antimicrobial
refers to the ability to meet the needs of the present gen- properties against E. coli and S. aureus strains were also
eration without compromising the ability of future genera- studied using ZnO and Ag NPs in providing new agricultural
tions to meet their own needs, while minimizing negative therapy for crop protection (Jatoi et al. 2019). Furthermore,
environmental effects (Pirzada et al. 2020). the use of silica NPs in combination with chitosan as seed
Embracing sustainable and low-input technologies is coating has been shown to reduce the disease severity index
crucial for the agriculture industry to ensure long-term pro- of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. niveum by 27% and increase
ductivity (Sarkar et al. 2020). The conventional approach crop yield by 70%. The application of NPs in agriculture has
to agronomy involves the heavy use of fertilizer or spray- notable benefits, including improving crop nutrient systems,
ing techniques on the crop’s physiological parts (Fertahi enhancing plant metabolic activity, promoting crop growth
et al. 2021). However, a minimal input approach with high and development, and increasing overall crop production
efficiency can be achieved in agriculture by utilizing seed (De La Torre-Roche et al. 2020).
coating to improve seed quality, plant protection, develop- Another application of nanotechnology for seed coating
ment, and total crop yield (Marcos-Filho 2015). By adjust- involves the use of NFs as the coating material. NFs are typi-
ing input application rates to maximize efficiency, seed cally produced using the electrospinning method, which uses
coating with agronomic inputs such as macro and micro- high voltage to draw NFs from polymeric solutions (Meraz-
nutrients, pesticides, plant growth regulators (PGRs), and Dávila et al. 2021). This technique offers an efficient seed
plant growth-promoting microorganisms (PGPMs) can be coating system for agricultural industries with minimal input
utilized. However, the use of toxic chemicals in seed coating for crop cultivation in terms of fertilizer and pesticide appli-
production can lead to undesirable impacts on seed quality, cation (Farias et al. 2019). The use of ultra-fine NFs for seed
crop production, and the environment (Hitaj et al. 2020). coating enhances crop development and productivity due to
Therefore, the evolution of nanotechnology has led to the the characteristics of NFs which can modify the desorption
development of sustainable pathways for seed coating, utiliz- of incorporated adhesives and serve as an input carrier for
ing namomaterials (NMs) and nanoscale coating technology transporting nutrients (Raja et al. 2020). In a recent study
to improve seed germination, crop protection and enhanced conducted by Xu et al. (2020), cellulose acetate (CA) NFs
crop yield with minimal environmental impact (Usman et al. doped with CuO NPs were utilized, resulting in an enhanced
2020). Nanomaterials such as nanofibers (NFs), inorganic germination rate of tomato and lettuce, reaching 90% and
nanocarriers, and metallic-based nanoparticles (NPs) have 100%, respectively (Xu et al. 2020). The unique features of
exhibited tremendous potential in seed coating and other NFs make them suitable for producing an efficient localized
agriculture applications (Espirito Santo Pereira et al. 2021). delivery system for seed coating (Wen et al. 2017). The use
Nanoparticles (NPs) have been formulated and applied in of NFs and NPs for seed coating offers sustainable benefits
various commercial products. Some examples include nano through control release mechanisms, nano-agrichemical
fertilizers such as Saula Drip which contains Fe, Zn, Mg, delivery system for seed uptake, and optimal utilization of
Co, B NPs and NovaLand-Nano that contains Cu, Mn, Zn, fertilizers and active ingredients (AIs) (Fertahi et al. 2020).
Fe, Mo, N Cu(OH)2 NPs. There is also nano herbicides like Thus, NMs have the potential to reduce the use of chemicals
NANOCU® with Co NPs as the active ingredient as well as in crop cultivation and other costly agricultural activities.
13
This review highlights the utilization of nanotechnology, SafeGuard contains beneficial bacteria that can protect
specifically NPs and NFs as seed coating agents to improve seeds from soil-borne pathogens and promote plant growth.
seed germination, development, and protection with numer- Designed for sugar beet seeds includes micronutrients, fun-
ous other agronomic benefits, while minimizing the environ- gicides, and insecticides that can improve germination and
mental impact caused by conventional seed coating methods. early plant growth. (Afzal et al. 2020).
This review also discusses the mechanisms of action of these In the conventional seed-coating process, three main
nanomaterials in seed coating, their potential applications types of equipment are commonly used either independently
in agriculture, and the challenges that need to be addressed or in tandem: rotating drum (a), rotary coating (b), and fluid-
for their effective implementation. Additionally, the review ized bed (c). These machines are used to perform five dif-
also highlights the potential risks associated with the use ferent coating methods including dry powder, seed dressing,
of nanomaterials in agriculture and the need for further film coating, encrusting, and pelleting (see Fig. 1) (Pedrini
research to ensure their safe and sustainable application in et al. 2017; Rocha et al. 2019). The most common seed coat-
seed coating. ing method is seed dressing by applying a minimal coating
of chemicals in the form of slurry or powder onto the seeds
(Afzal et al. 2020). Seed pelleting, as in Fig. 1a, involves
Conventional and Advanced Seed Coating coating seeds with a binder or inert filler to increase the seed
Techniques volume and shape. This method is conducted especially on
smaller seeds, for better seed handling and sowing (Sharma
Seed coating is one of the widely used seed treatment et al. 2015). Seed encrusting, refers to the application of an
methods in the agriculture and horticulture industries. The additional thin layer of adhesive agent for precise mechani-
global seed coating market is expected to reach 1.63 billion cal seed metering, resulting in a higher volume, uniform,
by 2020 (Pirzada et al. 2020). Seed coating and treatment and smoother coated surface (Gautam and Gautam 2021).
are techniques employed to improve seed quality, particu- Film coating is a gentle seed coating method carried out by
larly its physiological and pathological properties (Rocha dispersing the seed in the liquid adhesive as an external layer
et al. 2019). Seed coating is the practice of covering the with minimal changes in the seed size, weight, and shape
seeds with adhesive agents such as macro and micronutri- (O'Callaghan 2016). Film coating allows precise treatment
ents, pesticides, plant growth regulators (PGRs), and plant and reduced dust production, making it an improved version
beneficial microbes (PBMs) to improve seed protection and of slurry coating (Handiganoor et al. 2018). The electrospin-
performance (Pedrini et al. 2017; Tamilarasan et al. 2019; ning technique, as in Fig. 1d, is one of the most advanced
Coninck et al. 2020; Abeywardana et al. 2021; Gautam and seed coating methods to produce NFs from polymeric sub-
Gautam 2021). It is also recognized as a part of Integrated stances with numerous agronomical inputs as seed coating
Pest Management (IPM) in agricultural practices, in which agents (Wen et al. 2017).
pesticides are utilized to protect seeds from pests and dis- Nanomaterials can be applied to seeds through conven-
eases for enhanced crop germination and prevent further tional or electrohydrodynamic techniques such as electro-
losses in agricultural production (Lamichhane 2020). Seed spinning and electrospraying (as summarized in Table 3) to
coating technology has evolved quickly over the last two produce ultrafine material such as micro- or nanofibers and
decades and now delivers a cost-effective method for seed micro- or nanoparticles (Khoshnoudi-nia et al. 2019)(Pir-
improvement, particularly for bigger seeded agronomic and zada et al. 2020). These NMs can be applied directly to the
horticultural crops (Zeng et al. 2010; Pirzadah and Hakeem, seeds through seed dip coating, seed priming, or seed dress-
2020). BASF FE has been a key player in the seed coating ing or encapsulated with a binder such as a polymeric sub-
industry for more than 100 years. The company had success- stance through the electrohydrodynamic methods (Nachev
fully developed a seed treatment product—Poncho/VOTiVO et al. 2021). Nanomaterials are of particular interest for agri-
that includes polymer coating, insecticides (clothianidin) cultural applications due to their high reactivity, large sur-
and plant-beneficial microorganisms such as Bacillus fir- face area, high capacity for plant absorption, and remarkable
mus I-1582. Corn seeds treated with Poncho/VOTiVO before ability to penetrate pathogenic organisms for crop protection
planting showed an improved protection against pests such and development (Banerjee et al. 2019).
as wireworms, cutworms and corn rootworms. These seeds
also had better resistance to diseases such as Pythium and
Fusarium. The microbial seed treatment helped to promote Nanomaterials‑Based Seed Coating
early root treatment, leading to better crop yield than the
untreated control (Holfus et al. 2021). The other global The use of nanotechnology, particularly NMs in agricul-
market player, Germains Seed Technology has a range of tural industries, is considered a significant breakthrough
seed treatment and coating products for example ProBio in boosting agriculture production, which must increase by
13
Fig. 1 Equipment use for seed coating a rotating drum, b rotary coating, c fluidized bed, d electrospinning for five coating methods:dry powder,
seed dressing, film coating, encrusting, and pelleting. (Pirzada et al. 2020)
25–70% to meet the global demand (Espirito Santo Pereira There are two conventional approaches to produce NPs
et al. 2021). The application of NMs in agriculture pro- which are the “top-down” and “bottom-up” techniques
duction often involves the use of NPs such as FeO2, SiO2, (Khandelwal and Joshi 2018). NPs can also be produced
AlO2, TiO2, CeO2, and ZnO2, which act as micronutrients through precipitation, chemical synthesis, solvents, micro-
and antimicrobial agents in crop cultivation systems (Amin wave synthesis, hydrolysis in polar organic, water-in-oil
et al. 2021). Application of NMs in seed coating aims to microemulsion, hydrothermal synthesis, microwave-assisted
facilitate efficient nutrient delivery, combat environmental reaction, and various green synthesis methods (Ivanova et al.
stress and provide protection against pests and diseases 2016). Organic NMs can be obtained through the “green
(Xu et al. 2020; Chugh et al. 2021; Farhana et al. 2022; synthesis” of NPs from plant part, algae, microbes (fungi
Cembrowska-Lech and Rybak 2023). Unique characteris- and bacteria), and enzymes (Cooper et al. 2018; Saravanan
tics of NMs, such as nano-scale size, large surface area, et al. 2021; Ndaba et al. 2022). Plant parts have been uti-
high reactivity, biocompatibility, and biodegradability, lized for the biogenic synthesis of NPs, including Neem
make the NMs an environmentally friendly material for leaf extract (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) for CuO NPs,
seed coating applications (Abrahimi et al. 2023). Nano- Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don fresh green left, seaweed
scale size of NPs contributes to the proficiency to traverse for ZnO NPs, dried strawberry leaf for various NPs (Zn,
physiological and biological barriers (Jain et al. 2018). MgO, AgNO3, C-ZnO, NC-ZnO, Fe, and Cu) and Zingiber
Furthermore, the large surface area of NPs allows for high officinale for AuNPs (Abd El-Aziz and Al-Othman 2019;
reactivity of the applied NPs, thus reducing the amount Ahmad et al. 2020; Itroutwar et al. 2020; Pelegrino et al.
of application compared to conventional bulk fertilizers 2020; Bayat et al. 2022; Mishra et al. 2023). This biogenic
(Achari and Kowshik 2018). The high reactivity of NPs synthesis method is cost-effective, eco-friendly, and pro-
increases crop uptake, thus preventing leaching and tox- duces stable and highly biodegradable NPs (Mohammadi
icity in the soil environments (Rajput et al. 2018). Nano- and Ghasemi 2018). The presence of natural biological
technology as seed coating has many positive attributes agents such as flavonoids, phenols, terpenoids, and proteins
compared to conventional methods in terms of crop pro- prevents NPs agglomeration (Kankonkar 2022), allowing
duction, nutrient uptake, nutrition status, input dose and for small-size particles that are less toxic due to reduced
efficiency, treatment duration and effectiveness, disease agglomeration-induced damage to proteins and DNA (Bayat
index, stress tolerance, soil, and microbial health, energy et al. 2022). Biogenic synthesized NPs have a lower toxic-
demand, effect on the environment, wastage of input, and ity profile compared to chemically synthesized NPs, allow-
production of greenhouse gasses (Singh et al. 2021). ing lower concentrations during seed coating (Sharma et al.
13
2020). However, further research and advanced technologies in agriculture applications (Seabra et al. 2022). The nano-
are necessary for large-scale production of biosynthesized delivery mechanism featured by nanofibers is an advanced
NPs, which is still considered an emerging field but gaining method for loading diverse bioactive materials (El‐aassar
attention due to its sustainability approach. et al. 2021). Nanotechnology has also advanced the seed
The sowing stage is the most critical in agriculture culti- coating process by doping NPs on NFs using an electrospin-
vation as seeds are susceptible to environmental stress that ning technique. The effectiveness of NFs production relies
might affect crop germination and development (Siddique on the formulation of polymeric materials (Zahmatkeshan
and Kumar 2018; Espirito Santo Pereira et al. 2021). Apply- et al. 2019). The incorporation of NPs into nano-fertilizer
ing NMs in seed coating has been investigated by numer- with polymer improves seed resistance to pests and diseases
ous studies, such as nutrient-loaded nano fertilizers, plant during the initial growing stage, resulting in enhanced seed
growth-promoting NMs, nano pesticides, and NFs (Mohan- vigor and protection against accelerated deterioration and
raj et al. 2022; Mishra et al. 2023). NPs are typically incor- fungal invasion (Ovalesha et al. 2017). The biopolymeric
porated into seed coating using seed priming, foliar spray- coating is one of the sustainable approaches used in seed
ing, and seed dressing method (Das et al. 2018; Choudhary coating methods as they contribute to soil quality improve-
et al. 2019; Pedrini et al. 2020). NPs can enter cells through, ment and are biodegradable, non-toxic, and biocompatible
endocytosis by an infolding act of cell membrane in entrap- (Zvinavashe et al. 2019; Fertahi et al. 2021). In conclu-
ping extracellular components, or transmembrane protein sion, using NMs in seed coating has tremendous potential
transportation, with their entry mechanism depending heav- to revolutionize the agriculture industry by enhancing seed
ily on their particle size and surface area (Ditta and Arshad and yield performance. Nevertheless, for large-scale produc-
2016; Banerjee et al. 2019; Nile et al. 2022). The nanoscale tion and commercial purpose, these materials need to be
size of NPs allows them to penetrate the thick, lignified testa thoroughly studied and evaluated for optimal concentration,
of seeds and enter the seed coat through the embryonic tis- compatibility with seed types, pest and disease resistance
sues, triggering aquaporin production to increase water rates, and environmental impact.
uptake and initiates the metabolic reaction required for seed
germination (Renard et al. 2020; Szőllősi et al. 2020). Dur-
ing the imbibition phase, NPs can diffuse into the seed coat Metallic NPs as Antimicrobial Agents
with void spaces in parenchymatous tissues and assist in
the pathway toward seed cotyledons, enhancing leaf emer- The global agriculture industry suffers from an annual
gence (Das et al. 2019). The penetration of NPs into the seed crop loss of 60 billion dollars caused by pathogens, mainly
coating increases the water intake and triggers the enzyme viruses (Cai et al. 2019). To tackle this issue, metal-based
that breaks seed dormancy, thus improving seed germina- NPs have been introduced as a potential agricultural ther-
tion potential (Bayat et al. 2022). Seed architecture plays a apy against pathogenic infestation (Vargas-Hernandez et al.
crucial role in the uptake of NPs, with dicot seeds show- 2020). Metal-based NPs possess properties such as solubil-
ing higher uptake due to their higher permeability resulting ity, biodegradability, thermal stability, permeability, small
from lipid-based liquid crystalline nanostructures that act as size, and large surface area, making them highly promising
delivery vehicles for the NPs. On the other hand, monocot candidates for antimicrobial agents in agriculture applica-
seeds have a cell wall composed of pectin polymer that is tions (Achari and Kowshik 2018). The utilization of NPs
less tightly bound to cellulose, leading to a lower propensity can induce cytotoxicity and genotoxicity effects in micro-
for NPs uptake. (Mittal et al. 2020). organisms through various active mechanisms, as depicted
Nanotechnology provides a novel pathway for deliver- in Fig. 2. Metallic NPs can easily diffuse through the cell
ing agronomic inputs with sustained, localized, and system- walls/membranes of microorganisms due to their nanometric
atic release (An et al. 2022). Nitric oxide (NO) has been size and destroy cell components such as cell membranes,
described as playing myriad roles in agriculture applica- mitochondria, nucleus, and DNA, resulting in microbial
tions (Gupta et al. 2022a, b). Research has indicated that NO toxicity (Panpatte and Jhala 2019). Certain NPs such as
enhances the antioxidant defense system and non-enzymatic ZnO, NiO, and AgO exhibit exceptional catalytic proper-
antioxidants, providing crop growth and protection against ties through alternative pathways. When these NPs degrade,
biotic and abiotic stress (Prajapati et al. 2022; Camargo et al. their metallic ions can oxidize cellular proteins like hor-
2021). However, the susceptibility of NO donors to environ- mones and enzymes in microorganisms. This can directly
mental factors can lead to excessive release and oxidation, restrict cellular functions or result in the overproduction of
compromising their efficacy and posing potential environ- reactive oxygen species (ROS) (Cai et al. 2020). Similarly,
mental risks. Hitherto, Chitosan NPs have been described NPs can also induce the excessive production of ROS by
as the only pioneer in providing a sustainable and cost- directly catalyzing the reaction between O2 and H2O within
efficient delivery mechanism for nitric oxide (NO) donors the microbes. This excessive amount of ROS further disrupts
13
Fig. 2 Antimicrobial mecha-

nisms of NPs against micro-
organisms. NPs and their
ions (e.g., silver and zinc) can
produce free radicals, inducing
oxidative stress (i.e., reactive
oxygen species; ROS). The
produced ROS can irreversibly
damage bacteria (e.g., their
membrane, DNA, and mito-
chondria), resulting in bacterial
death (Hajipour et al. 2012)
the mitochondria and DNA of the microbes, which leads to production, which regulates plant growth hormone (Dileep
microbial death and protecting plants (Ansari et al. 2020). Kumar et al. 2020). NPs-based fertilizer formulations,
In addition, exposure to metal NPs can increase the whether macronutrient or micronutrient, possesses prop-
defense mechanism of plants by promoting the production of erties like high solubility, stability, controlled and timely
antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), release, improved targeted activity, reduced toxicity, and
catalase (CAT), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX), which can easy application and disposal (Ghidan and Al Antary, 2020).
help to combat environmental stress and disease (Singh et al.
2021). Nanoparticles can also bind to ion transportation Metallic NPs as Micronutrients
channels on the cell membrane due to their small size, high
surface charges, and organic capping molecules, hindering Studies have shown that plant micronutrient deficiency can
the transfer of biomolecules and reducing cell function. This weaken plant immune systems and reduce crop yield and
in turn can result in microbial lethality (Panpatte and Jhala quality (Tripathi et al. 2015; De La Torre-Roche et al. 2020).
2019). The use of metallic NPs -for seed coating is a highly Nanotechnology offers a potential solution to this issue
effective technique for protecting seeds from microbes due through the use of nano-fertilizers, particularly for micronu-
to their multiple antimicrobial mechanisms (Singh et al. trients application (War et al. 2020). Metal-based NPs such
2021). Studies have identified Cu-Chitosan nanoconjugates as FeO/Fe2O3, SiO2, Al2O3, TiO2, CeO2, and ZnO have an
and Ag-NPs as potential candidates for antimicrobial coat- estimated annual production of 270,000 metric tons. How-
ings in pathogenicity assays (Achari and Kowshik 2018). ever, among all NP-based micronutrient formulations, zinc
Nanosilver has also been successfully utilized in agricultural (Zn) and copper (Cu) NPs have shown the most potential in
applications for seed protection against pathogenic infesta- agricultural applications (Zhao et al. 2021). Studies suggest
tion (Yasur and Rani 2013). ZnO and CuO NPs have shown that the seed coating with Zn and Cu NPs improves seed ger-
promising results in improving seed germination rates and mination rates by providing essential Zn2+ and Cu2+ micro-
sowing performance (Gilbertson et al. 2020). The higher nutrients during the critical sowing stages (Gilbertson et al.
seed germination percentage induced by ZnO NPs is attrib- 2020). Both ZnO and CuO NPs have antimicrobial prop-
uted to their ability to stimulate nanoscale zinc in auxin erties and are involved in essential biochemical functions
13
in plants, such as chlorophyll production and carbohydrate (Vercelheze et al. 2019). Table 2 discusses different biopoly-
formation (Liu et al. 2016; Nandhini et al. 2019; Xu et al. mers such as polysaccharides (carbohydrate), polypeptides
2020). ZnO NPs in particular, have been shown to increase (protein), and semi-synthetic biopolymers that can be used
seed germination percentage by regulating the plant growth as seed-coating agents. Polysaccharides are the most promis-
hormone auxin and promoting water uptake by seeds (Dileep ing candidates due to their natural abundance, ability to act
Kumar et al. 2020). In addition, ZnO NPs are biodegrad- as a barrier to gases, and high-mechanical strength (Nechita
able in the soil through dissolution and oxidation, and leave 2020). Polysaccharides (carbohydrates), such as cellulose,
behind stable environment compounds such as carbonate, chitosan, starch, pectin, gums, and alginates are long-chain
phosphates, and sulfates (Chauhan et al. 2021). monosaccharides that are linked together by glycosidic
Various techniques have been employed to introduce NPs bonds (Torres et al. 2019). Cellulose and chitosan are two
into crops, including the direct application of nano-fertilizers of the most common biopolymers on earth (Al-Dhabaan
through foliar sprays, or soil embedding and seed coating et al. 2018). Cellulose is a linear polysaccharide comprised
(Amin et al. 2021). Of these, seed coating with NPs is par- of (1,4)-linked glucose that is well-recognized for its high
ticularly effective in promoting germination and facilitating biocompatibility, thermal tolerance, and mechanical char-
seedling growth, making it a highly emphasized approach acteristics (Friuli et al. 2020; Xu et al. 2020). Meanwhile,
(El-maarouf-bouteau 2022). The continuous cultivation of semi-synthetic biopolymers of microbial origin, such as
land results in the depletion of soil mineral nutrients, leading polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB), polyhydroxy valerate (PHV),
to reduced effectiveness of ionic efficiency with soil effi- and polyhydroxy alkanoates (PHA) have also been investi-
ciency of less than 5% (Achari and Kowshik 2018). The use gated as potential seed coating agents, but their high cost
of synthetic chemicals in agriculture for prolonged periods limits their industrial applications (Krishnamoorthy et al.
has resulted in the accumulation of heavy metal contami- 2016; Elshafie and Camele 2021; Liu et al. 2021). Therefore,
nants in the soil (Ahmed et al. 2021). Helianthus annuus the use of natural biopolymers such as polysaccharides (e.g.
L. has been studied for soil phytoremediation to remove starch and sugar derivatives) is a more cost-effective, envi-
chromium Cr(VI) contamination (Kumar and Seth 2022). ronmentally friendly, and sustainable option for seed coating
High intake of Cr(VI) by crops can result in toxicity, which (Rendón‐Villalobos et al. 2016).
disrupts the stomata mechanism for photosynthesis and hin- The use of NPs and biopolymer based-NFs have outper-
ders crop development. In a recent study, the effect of cerium formed conventional coating methods due to their unique
dioxide (CeO2) NPs have been explored as a potential solu- characteristics, including a larger surface area, continuous
tion to alleviate Cr(VI) toxicity and promote crop growth. nanometric structure, and high porosity that enhance the
These NPs have been shown to enhance the activities of delivery of nutrients to the crop during cultivation (Majum-
antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase dar and Keller 2020). In seed coatings, the polymeric coat-
and ascorbate peroxidase, which work to combat hydrogen ing is widely used for delivering nutrients to improve crop
peroxide (H2O2) stress and ROS caused by ion contamina- quality and protection (Acharya et al. 2020). As presented
tion (Ma et al. 2022). The use of micronutrient NPs presents in Table 2, biopolymers such as nanocellulose, gelatin, and
a promising solution for enhancing crop development and Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) derived from polysaccharides and
sustainability, as it can reduce fertilizer usage, and mitigate polypeptides act as carriers for delivering specific molecules
soil degradation and toxicity (Ghidan and Al Antary, 2020). or organisms to the target in a controlled release manner
Based on the information presented in Table 1, it can be (Vercelheze et al. 2019). Polymeric NFs with high surface
concluded that the application of micronutrients in the form area and porosity are designed to enhance oxygen diffusion,
of seed coated NPs is the most efficient method for delivery ion transportation, and moisture absorption, resulting in
nutrients to crops. faster seed germination, plant growth, and high-yield output
(Mukiri et al. 2021). Additionally, the continuous NFs coat-
ing provides better seed protection due to its high mechani-
Nanofibers‑Based Seed Coating cal strength (Meraz-Dávila et al. 2021). Notably, several
studies have used cellulose as a component of seed film.
Introduction of Biopolymers for Seed Coating For instance, Fruili et al. (2020) used cellulose acetate incor-
porated with bioherbicide for weed control, while Xu et al.
Biopolymers are versatile materials extracted from biologi- (2020) utilized cellulose acetate and gelatin to enhance the
cal sources or synthesized using a biological system (Nada delivery of agrichemical for vegetative crop growth (Friuli
et al. 2016). Biopolymers are ideal candidates as seed coat- et al. 2020; Xu et al. 2020).
ing agents due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, Polymeric NFs used as seed coating material have several
and low toxicity (Chin et al. 2021). They can also serve advantages. Firstly, as shown in Fig. 3, the spore propor-
as carriers for the controlled-released of agrochemicals tion entrapped on the seed surface allows for more efficient
13
Table 1 Summary of nanoparticles-based formulations in seed coating

Nanoparticles Polymer Crop Method of coating Reference
Ag NPs Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) Increased antioxidants in Seed priming Cembrowska-Lech and Rybak
barley combating ROS in (2023)
a salinity stress environ-
ment of barley (Hordeum
vulgare L)
– Increased root length and Seed priming *Song et al. (2022)
activity at (50, 100, and
200 mg/L) and germina-
tion and seedling vigor
index, chlorophyll content
increased with (12.5, 25,
and 50 mg/L) of maize
(Zea mays)
CuO NPs – Increased imbibition Seed priming Sarkar et al. (2021)
potential and germination
promotion at low NPs
concentration 48 ppm by
88.3% of moong bean
(Vigna radiata)
– Induced seed germination Seed priming *Ahmad et al. (2020)
and provided defense
against primary fungal
species in apple cultivation
field (Diplodia seriata,
Alternaria mali, and Bot-
ryosphaeria dothidea)
– Increased seed germination Seed priming *Pelegrino et al. (2020)
rate and radical emergence
and decreased the SOD
level activity of lettuce
(Lactuca sativa L.)
ZnO NPs – Increased radicle and plu- Seed priming *Mishra et al. (2023)
mule length, vigor index,
and dry matter production
at 500 mg/L concentration
of finger millet (Eleusine
coracana (L.) Gaertn)
– Improved maize growth, Seed priming Salam et al. (2022)
photosynthetic machinery,
and biomass in Cobalt
stress environment of
maize (Zea mays)
– Increased the production Seed priming Farhana et al. (2022)
of superoxide SOD,
proteins, phenol, and sugar
and enhance antifungal
percentage by 90% against
Fusarium oxysporum on
chickpea (Cicer arietinum)
– Increased crop growth Seed priming Li et al. (2021)
and physio-biochemical
qualities in paddy (Oryza
sativa)
– Increased vegetative growth Seed priming Tondey et al. (2021)
of Maize (Zea mays)
– Improved zinc deficiency Seed priming *Itroutwar et al. (2020)
and agronomical attribute
of Maize (Zea mays)
13
Table 1 (continued)
– Enhanced soybean germina- Dip coating Montanha et al. (2020)
tion and seedling develop-
ment. Of Soybean (Glycine
Max L.)
– Alleviated transplants traits Dip coating Younes et al. (2020)
of eggplant, pepper, and
tomato crops (Solanaceae
crops)
– Increased germination and Seed dressing Dileep Kumar et al. (2020)
chili seeds' seedling vigour
(Capsicum annum L.)
– Preserved seed viability and Seed priming Rawashdeh et al. (2020)
improved germination
indices of lettuce (Lactuca
sativa)
Gelatinized maize starch ZnO NPs increased resist- Seed priming Wu et al. (2020a, b)
ance to arsenic toxicity,
thus increasing germi-
nation, biomass, and
nutrients uptake by paddy
(Oryza sativa)
– Increased concentrations of Seed priming Rizwan et al. (2019)
Zn in roots, shoots, and
grain decrease Cd toxicity
in wheat (Triticum aesti-
vum L.)
– Promoted growth and Seed priming Nandhini et al. (2019)
induced systemic resist-
ance in pearl millet against
S. graminicola and can be
effectively used to manage
downy mildew of wheat
(Triticum aestivum)
Corn starch/glycerol Effective seed treatment to Dip coating Elhaj Baddar and Unrine
enhance Zn nutrition and (2018)
plant growth of wheat
(Triticum aestivum)
Controlled release and Seed immersion Estrada-Urbina et al. (2018)
lower toxicity compared to
ZnSO4, Red Maize (Zea
mays)
Improved seed germination Seed dispersion Savassa et al. (2018)
and prevent the occurrence
of toxicity due to NPs
application Common (kid-
ney) (Phaseolus vulgaris)
Fe NPs /(Fe3O4) NPs – Increased plant growth rate, Seed priming Feng et al. (2022)
photosynthetic perfor-
mance and the bio-availa-
bility of P and Fe (Fe3O4)
NPs in wheat (Triticum
aestivum)
13
Table 1 (continued)
Increased seed germination Seed priming *Gupta et al. (2022a, b)
by 54% compared to ZnO
NPs 34.7% in lead stress
environment of spinach
(Basella alba)
Increased the internode
length of Venice tomato
(Solanum lycopersicum L.)
Increased internode length Dip coating Zhao et al. (2021)
of Venice tomato (Sola-
num lycopersicum L.)
Enhanced seedling growth Dip coating Duran et al. (2018)
of Brazillian bean (Pha-
seolus vulgaris L.)
SiO NPs Chitosan Provide a defense mecha- Vacuum-infiltration tech- Buchman et al. (2019)
nism against Fusarium nique
wilt up to 27% watermelon
(Citrullus lanatus)
Chitosan Initiate defense mecha- Seed filming Bravo Cadena et al. (2018)
nism against mildew and
improve seed quality of
ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba)
TiO NPs Gelatin Increased seed water uptake, Seed coating Abrahimi et al. (2023)
emergence rate, crop vigor
index, root and shoot bio-
mass, and leaf area under
water stress conditions of
rapeseed (Brassica napus
L.)
Chitosan Enhanced the growth of Dip coating Younes et al. (2020)
transplant seedlings on
Solanaceae crops (egg-
plant, pepper, and tomato
crops)
Initiated defense mecha- Seed filming Tian et al. (2019)
nism against mildew and
improved seed quality of
ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba)
*Indicates the utilization of biogenic synthesis of NPs in seed coating application
retrieval and utilization of the incorporated material by the Electrospun Nanofibers as Seed Coating
seeds. Second, the degree of encapsulation on the seed sur-
face can be used to assess the coating efficacy for a more Electrospun NFs have emerged as an advanced coating
uniform and distributed coating. Third, the mechanical method in the agriculture industry (Badgar et al. 2022).
strength of the NFs is increased through the distributed coat- These NFs can be produced through the electrohydrody-
ing, which reduces the risk of peeling off (Chin et al. 2021). namic atomization of polymeric solutions, making them
As a result, incorporating and delivering agronomic input biodegradable and biocompatible for sustainable use (Fadil
through bio-polymeric-based seed coating demonstrates the et al. 2021). The studies summarized in Table 3, have dem-
versatility and adheres to the sustainability approach, which onstrated the effectiveness of electrospun NFs as a seed coat-
has the potential to be an advanced method for seed coating ing, with vertical electrospinning being the most commonly
(Ovalesha et al. 2017). used method (Krishnamoorthy and Rajiv 2018; Farias et al.
2019). The vertical method produced a wide distribution of
fibers and finer fibers compared to the horizontal process.
The aligned direction of gravitational force and electric field
13
Table 2 Recent development of seed coating formulations incorporating bio-polymers
Biopolymer Method of seed coating Crop Outcome Reference
Zein, Lignin Seed immersion Glycine max (Soybean) Anti-fungal protection against R. solani Kacsó et al. (2022)
without affecting plant physiology
Sodium alginate, Carboxymethylcellulose Seed imbibition Brassica rapa var. chinensis (Pak choy) Increased seed viability range to 89–100% Chin et al. (2021)
(CMC) Arabic gum and Xanthan gum
Silk Spray rotary coating machine Lablab purpureus (Lablab bean seed) Increased germination rate to 68% with a Sonjan et al. (2021)
reduction in fungal contamination
Silk Seed priming Phaseolus vulgaris (Bean) Increased root density and combat salinity Mhada et al. (2021)
stress
Gelatin, Pectin Rotating drum Oryza sativa (Rice) Maintaining survival of encapsulated plant Cortés-Rojas et al. (2021)
germination microbes for up to 60 days
Silk/Trehalose, Pectin/Carboxymethylcel- Dip coating, Spray drying Phaseolus vulgaris (Bean) Successfully delivered rhizobacteria for Zvinavashe et al. (2021)
lulose crop development and induced tolerance
to water stress in semi-arid conditions
Silk solution, Trehalose Seed priming Phaseolus vulgaris (Bean) Preserved stored seeds, survival of incor- Mhada et al. (2021)
porated Rhizobium, combat osmotic
stress, and induce crop development
Chitosan-PEG (Polyethylene glycol) Dip coating Carthamus tinctorius (Safflower) and Preservation of encapsulated Trichoderma Prasad et al. (2020)
Arachis hypogaea (Groundnut) spp in performing the antimicrobial
activity and enhancing seed germination
Cellulose Acetate and Cardanol Spraying Festuca (Tall fescue) Mechanical characterization synthesis Friuli et al. (2020)
coating provides a barrier to pesticide
application
Starch, protein, glycerol Film coating Arachis hypogaea (Peanut) Increased mechanical resistance, enhanced A. Wu et al. (2020a, b)
fluency, and barrier properties
Chitosan Dip coating Cucumis sativus (Cucumber), Solanum Enhanced plant growth and protection Jogaiah et al. (2020)
melongena (Green long) from diseases
Suberin polyphenolics and lignin Seed coating Arabidopsis thaliana (Mouse-ear cress) Reduced embryo oxidation and prolonged Renard et al. (2020)
seed viability
Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) Film coating Triticum (Wheat) Improved emergence rate, fresh weight, Ren et al. (2019)
and root and stem length
Whey protein Seed immersion Zea mays L (Maize) Coating stabilizer with the extension of Kimmelshue et al. (2019)
storage life of four-six months
Silk fibroin (S) and trehalose Dip coating, Spray drying Phaseolus vulgaris (Bean) Accelerated crop growth in a saline soil Zvinavashe et al. (2019)
environment
Pectin Film coating Glycine max (Soybean) Increased the seed’s germination de Castro e Silva et al. (2019)
Alginate/Chitosan (Nanoalg/CS) and Chi- Seed priming Solanum lycopersicum (Tomato) Enhanced plant development and increased Pereira et al. (2019)
tosan/ Tripolyphosphate (Nanocs/TPP) fruit productivity
Chitin, glycerol, corn starch (gelatinized) Film coating Zea mays L (Maize) Minimized the release of dust particles Accinelli et al. (2018)
during mechanical abrasion
13
forced by the vertical position results in further stretching

and production of ultrafine fibers (Yang et al. 2009). Another
de Camargo et al. (2017)

Kowalczyk et al. (2017)
study utilized an aluminum plate collector which was fixed
with a speaker to generate vibrations through instrumental
Zeng et al. (2018)
beats for seed coating (Hussain et al. 2019). This method

mimics the rotating drum method for efficient mixing and
Reference
uniform coating production (Javed et al. 2022). Xu et al.

(2020) employed a layer-by-layer fibrous coating method,
where the seeds were flipped over after 2 h of fiber deposi-
tion, and coated seeds were collected using a circular punch
encouraged resistance by improving the
Longer storage life while maintaining the

Decreased diseases occurrence in maize
crops by inhibiting fungi infusion and
around each seed (Xu et al. 2020). Meanwhile, Krishna-

activity of plant protective enzymes
Increased seeds vigourvigourvigour
moorthy et al. (2016) conducted a complementary study,

in which the seeds were manually rotated to gain an even
fibrous coating (Krishnamoorthy et al. 2016; Krishnamoor-
thy and Rajiv 2017a, b).
Nanofibers are considered a smart delivery system for
aromatic of walnut
agronomic inputs (Ashfaq et al. 2019) due to their unique

physicochemical properties, including their porous struc-
ture, high reactivity, and variable pore size that make them
Outcome
a suitable composition for seed coating (Noruzi 2016).

One of the challenges with conventional seed coatings is
that they can lead to lower crop germination rates due
to their high coating composition and density, which can
limit oxygen permeability (Gorim and Asch 2015). Oxy-
gen is one of the limiting factors for seed germination as
it is needed for aerobic respiration to produce adenosine
Juglans regia L. (Walnut)
Glycine max (Soybean)
triphosphate (ATP), the energy source needed for embryo

Zea mays L (Maize)
cell division, plant growth, and vigor (Budko et al. 2017).

However, a study by Xu et al. (2020) demonstrated that
polymeric NFs made from cellulose acetate with high
porosity could improve water and gas exchange, allowing
Crop
for adequate oxygen permeability for seed respiration (Xu

et al. 2020).
The primary purpose of seed coating is to facilitate seed
germination and support the growth of the seedling struc-
Method of seed coating
ture (El-maarouf-bouteau 2022). In general, seeds have

a moisture level of approximately 5–15%, which makes
them dormant with little metabolic activity (Louf et al.
Natural polysaccharide polymer from deep- Seed coating
Dip coating
Dip coating
2018). However, when the seed imbibes water, it activates

metabolic activity by regulating plant hormones, includ-
ing Abscisic acid (ABA) and gibberellic acid (GA3), that
promote seed germination and provides the energy needed
Carboxymethyl cellulose/Candelilla wax
for growth (Luna et al. 2011; Vishal and Kumar 2018;

Ujan 2021). Utilization of NFs seed-coating to enhance
seed germination by increasing fluid uptake ability (FUA)
has been proven to be effective through observations of
water absorption. For example, the application of Poly
Carboxymethyl cellulose
(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) granules as a germination substrate

sea aquatic animals
Table 2 (continued)
enhanced FUA (Fadil et al. 2021). Furthermore, Gorim

and Asch (2015) conducted a study that analyzed the
Biopolymer
effect of NFs hydrogel coating on seedling growth, which

resulted in a 75% increase. This shows the efficacy of
fibrous coating in assisting seed germination metabolism
13
Fig. 3 Schematic illustration of polymeric-based nanofibers seed coating
(Gorim and Asch 2015). The mechanical properties of example, in a study, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) was used as
electrospun NFs enable a slow-release mechanism that the inner layer incorporating NPK fertilizer, while Polylactic
can be used in common cultivation areas or even marginal acid (PLA) was used as the outer layer providing a long-term
land (Badgar et al. 2022). CR mechanism due to the hydrophobic nature of PLA that
can act as a physical barrier (Nooeaid et al. 2021). Krishna-
Controlled Release Mechanism of Electrospun Nanofibers moorthy and Rajiv (2018) conducted a study on a blend of
Seed Coatings Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and poly (diethoxy) phospha-
zene (PPZ), which showed that high water affinity of PVP
Seed coating using NFs is a highly effective nano-encap- increased coating dissolution, while PPZ underwent hydro-
sulation approach in entrapping biological, chemical and lytic degradation for up to 12 weeks, serving as a CR mecha-
microbes while retaining input viability, shelf-life, and nism for nutrient supply to crops. Another study by Javazmi
delivering efficiency to the target site (Wen et al. 2017; et al. (2021) explored the use of nitrogen impregnated poly
Mukiri et al. 2021). Nanofibers possess excellent mechani- L‑lactic acid (PLLA) NFs as the inner layer and polyhy-
cal properties, and enable a controlled release (CR) mecha- droxy butyrate (PHB) as the outer layer. They found that
nism which can be classified into two methods: slow-release a triple layer of NFs achieved a 50% controlled release of
(SR) and fast-release (FR) (Rajan et al. 2021; Badgar et al. fertilizer in 39 h, while a single layer achieved 80% release.
2022). Utilizing NFs for the CR in agriculture is a sustain- This approach provides a practical solution for enhanced
able approach to reduce the environmental impact of exces- slow-kinetic release, especially for valuable agrochemicals
sive chemical and fertilizer application while efficiently (Javazmi et al. 2021).
delivering and using inputs (Jayanudin and Lestari 2020). The production of NFs can be optimized by manipulating
The release rate of inputs from NFs can be influenced by precursor solution composition and adjusting the electro-
the polymer properties (hydrophilicity, organic or synthetic spinning parameters, which allows for the control of fiber
nature), fiber structure, and the characteristics of loaded morphology. Numerous methods are available for producing
input. Organic or bio-polymers in comparison are highly NFs, including phase separation, template synthesis, centrif-
degradable due to the presence of carbon in their molecular ugal spinning, drawing, and melt-blowing. However, elec-
structure, which allows further degradation through biotic trospinning is the most versatile and cost-effective technique
and abiotic influences. The high degradability can increase (Patel and Pathak 2021). The basic setup includes a syringe,
the release rate of inputs, particularly when combined with high-voltage supply, collector, and pump as depicted in
a hydrophilic polymer that enhances polymer dissolution Fig. 4 (Mingjun et al. 2019). The electrospinning param-
and the exchange of water. An effective CR mechanism can eters that need to be considered include applied voltage,
be achieved using coaxial electrospinning technology. For solution composition, solution concentration, solution flow
13
Table 3 Summary of biopolymer-based NFs for seed coating using electrospinning technology. Utilization of a range of biopolymers, their cor-
responding solvents and the production of optimum fiber diameter tailored to specific applications are highlighted
Polymer Solvent Fiber Diameter Application Reference
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) Water 268–400 nm Fertilizer (N, P, K), (Mg, S, Mohanraj et al. (2022)
Ca), (Zn, Cu, Mn, B, Fe,)
Cellulose acetate Acetone: Water (9:1 v/v) 526 ± 139 nm Fertilizer (ZnO NPs) Zaim et al. (2022)
Cellulose acetate/gelatin Acetic acid/water (3:1 v/v) 123 ± 34 nm Fertilizer (Co NPs micro- Xu et al. (2020)
nutrient)
Polyvinylpyrrolidone Chloroform/ethanol (4:1 938 ± 259 nm Fertilizer (phosphazene Krishnamoorthy and Rajiv
(PVP)—Poly (diethoxy) v/v) (PPZ—Nitrogen and (2018)
phosphazene (PPZ) phosphorus)
Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) Chloroform/ethanol (4:1 878 ± 192 nm Fertilizer (Urea and cobalt Krishnamoorthy and Rajiv
v/v) nanoparticles (CoNPs)) (2017a)
Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) Chloroform/ethanol (1:4, – Fertilizer (phosphazenes Krishnamoorthy and Rajiv
v/v) (HACTP)) and cobalt (2017b)
nanoparticles (CoNPs)
Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) Chloroform/ethanol (4:1 430 nm to 1500microns Fertilizer (Urea and cobalt Krishnamoorthy et al. (2016)
v/v) nanoparticles (CoNPs))
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) Water 111 to 176 nm Plant growth-promoting Raja et al. (2020)
hormone (gibberellic acid
(GA3) and indole acetic
acid (IAA))
Cellulose diacetate (CDA) Acetone/DMAc (2:1) 335 nm Fungicide (abamectin or Farias et al. (2019)
fluopyram)
Ethyl cellulose polymer Toluene/ethanol 80:20 v/v 130 nm to 210 nm Pesticide (Thiram SC-200® Castañeda et al. (2014)
and Carbex 500 SC®)
Polyethylene oxide (PEO) Water 566.75 ± 145 nm Bioinoculants (Rhizopha- Campaña and Arias (2020)
gus irregularis)
Poly (vinyl alco- Water 100 ± 10 nm Plant growth-promoting Hussain et al. (2019)
hol) (PVA) and bacteria (Bacillus subtilis
Poly(vinylpyrrolidone) and Seratia marcescens)
(PVP)
Corn Starch, Guar Gum, Water – Bioinoculant (Delftia aci- Loyd (2019)
PVA dovorans (B-783), Bacil-
lus amyloliquefaciens (B-
14393), and Pseudomonas
putida (B-8)
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) Water 543.18 ± 21.79 nm and Bioinoculant (Pantoea De Gregorio et al. (2017)
619.23 ± 36.89 nm agglomerans ISIB55 /
Burkholderia caribensis
ISIB40)
rate, collector distance, viscosity, temperature, and humid- (Behera and Mahanwar 2020). In seed coatings, electrospun
ity levels (Mercante et al. 2017; T. M. et al. 2021). These NF polymers act as binders and delivery vehicles for AIs or
parameters are essential in ensuring the consistency of fiber agrochemicals. As the seed germinates, the NFs gradually
production, which affects the profile of electrospun NFs degrade and release their AIs through water absorption and
produced (Balusamy et al. 2019; Tebyetekerwa and Ram- desorption from the seed surface, as shown in Fig. 5 (Ghidan
akrishna 2020). and Al Antary 2020). This approach, known as slow-release
Five mechanisms for achieving controlled release of AIs kinetics, is favorable in numerous fields as it can prevent the
have been proposed, including diffusion, chemical reaction, burst release of material and ensure adequate supply to the
decomposition, swelling, and osmosis (Ganetri et al. 2021). receiver within the required timeline.
Polymers, which are composed of repeating monomers with
functional groups on their sides, such as hydroxyl, aldehyde,
acidic, amine, sulfate, and phosphate groups can interact
with AIs through ionic or covalent bond interactions to
hold them in place and slowly release them from the NFs.
13
by Krishnamoorthy and Rajiv (2018), a fibrous coating was

produced using a blend of biodegradable polymers, poly
(diethoxy) phosphazene (PPZ), and Polyvinylpyrrolidone
(PVP) for cowpea seeds via an electrospinning process
(Krishnamoorthy and Rajiv 2018). PPZ has a hydrophobic
nature due to its polar amide group, while PVP is hydro-
philic and rich in phosphorus and nitrogen substances. The
incorporation of PPZ with low water affinity controls the
release of PVP, extending the seed storage time and viability.
The polymer blend enhances the water contact angle from
18 to 85.4°, indicating hydrophobicity and low wettability
to water. The fibrous coating degrades over 12 weeks, pro-
viding nutrient delivery throughout the cultivation timeline
(Krishnamoorthy and Rajiv 2018). The NFs seed coating
has a higher surface area and dense fibrous porosity, mak-
ing it superior to film seed coating for nutrient delivery. The
Fig. 4 An electrospinning set-up (Meraz-Dávila et al. 2021)
extended nutrient delivery time makes NFs a suitable scaf-
fold for encapsulating agronomical inputs such as fertilizers,
Fertilizer and Micronutrient Encapsulated pesticides, insecticides, and micronutrients.
Nanofibers as Seed Coating Javazmi et al. (2021) also studied the use of fibrous coat-
ing as a scaffold for encapsulating fertilizer. They produced a
Fertilizer applications are crucial for crop growth and yield single layer and triple layers of polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB)
in agriculture. However, intensive crop cultivation to meet NFs with poly L‑lactic acid (PLLA) NFs that were imbued
the demands of a growing global population has led to nutri- with urea fertilizer as the middle layer (Javazmi et al. 2021).
ent depletion and excessive use of synthetic fertilizers, which Urea fertilizer, which is rich in nitrogen, is essential for crop
negatively impact the biological and ecological systems development, especially in assisting the photosynthesis pro-
(Meena et al. 2017). To address this issue, an integrated cess for crop energy production. The incorporation of urea
nutrient management approach with sustainable practices (up to 40%) in the triple-layer fibrous coating demonstrated
is necessary. One solution is the use of engineered NFs to a good fiber coating structure, as evidenced by the presence
encapsulate nutrients efficiently and with control. In a study of void spaces that allow gas exchange. The results indicated
Fig. 5 Schematic illustration of active ingredients-controlled release mechanism from nanofibers seed coating
13
that the single and triple nanofibrous structures are highly improve the germination of aerobic MRIA paddy seeds and
effective for CR urea application in the cultivation field for other crops. Mohanraj et al. (2022) conducted a study on the
up to 3 months (Chen et al. 2012). In addition, Krishnamoor- delivery of multi-nutrients, including primary macronutri-
thy and Rajiv (2017a) used electrospinning to synthesize ents (N, P, K), secondary micronutrients (Mg, S, Ca), and
NFs doped Co NPs and urea to coat cowpea seeds (Krishna- micronutrients (Zn, Cu, Mn, B, Fe,) using polyvinyl alcohol
moorthy and Rajiv 2017a). The study concluded that Co NPs (PVA) in electrospun NFs onto green gram seeds (Co-8)
in 12 mg/kg concentration enhanced the germination rate up (Mohanraj et al. 2022). The NFs produced smooth fibers in
to 95%, increased the root nodules for nitrogen fixation, and the range of 268–400 nm and were found to be successful
induced metabolic activity. Thus, Co NPs limit the excessive in loading nutrients into the fiber system, leading to physi-
use of urea and are highly potential in enhancing crop yield ological changes in the NFs. The study reported that apply-
and establishment, particularly on leguminous plants. A cor- ing PVA with multi-nutrient NFs as seed coating enhances
responding study was also conducted by Krishnamoorthy the crop growth rate, leaf area index, and yield of green gram
et al. (2016), with an additional treatment of the dip-coating seeds (Co-8) (Fig. 6).
method. The results showed that the fiber coating is dis-
tributed more evenly than the dip coating method (Krishna- Hormone‑Encapsulated Nanofibers Seed Coating
moorthy et al. 2016), allowing high gas permeability and
SR fertilizer application (12%) rather than burst occurrence Biological macromolecules like hormones and enzymes are
(50%) by the dip coating method. Krishnamoorthy and Rajiv susceptible to rapid degradation in the environment, which
(2017b) conducted another study and produced an electro- can limit their uptake by plants if directly applied to the
spun seed coating with the addition of 2,2,4,4,6,6-hexa- soil. Thick coatings of hormones on seeds can also lead to
aminocyclotriphosphatriene (HACTP) incorporated with Co prolonged degradation. Furthermore, inefficient hormone
NPs and PVP on cowpea seeds (Krishnamoorthy and Rajiv delivery can result from poorly designed polymer-hormone
2017b). The coating helped in enhancing the seed germina- coatings that restrict the diffusion rate of hormones to the
tion rate by assisting seed imbibition in combating drought seeds. However, electrospun polymers such as carboxym-
stress and reducing the incorporation of substances from ethyl cellulose, chitosan, polylactic acid (PLA), and polylac-
leaching. This was achieved through control kinetics release, tic-co- glycolic acid (PLGA) can effectively encapsulate and
where nutrients can be fully utilized by crop uptake. sustain hormones with a slower degradation period (Badgar
In a study by Xu et al. (2020), seed coatings based on NFs et al. 2022).
made from cellulose acetate and gelatin with CuO NPs were Electrospun NFs, with their 2D nanoscale topography,
used, and the wettability of the coating was modified with increased surface area with high porosity, and hydrophilic
a surfactant (Tween 80). The study found that the addition nature can gradually release hormones to the recipient,
of the surfactant increased the soluble material in the coat- enhancing germination, growth, and yield rates. A study by
ing ratio and enhanced the surface wettability, resulting in Raja et al. (2020) used electrospinning to produce PVA NFs
a faster release of agrichemical bound to the fiber. The use doped with gibberellic acid (GA3) and indole acetic acid
of surfactants also reduced the polymeric surface tension (IAA) on groundnut and black gram. The results showed
during electrospinning, resulting in a smaller fiber diameter that hormone-loaded-NFs had higher germination rates
from 152 ± 37 nm to 123 ± 34 nm. The nanofibrous seed and seedling vigor compared to the control treatment (Raja
coating improved the germination rate from 20 to 90% for et al. 2020). PVA, a hydrophilic polymer was instrumental in
tomatoes, increased total biomass in lettuce seedlings by increasing water absorption and inducing the rate of hydro-
29%, and enhanced the germination rate in disease-growing lytic enzymes needed for crop germination and development.
conditions from 79 to 100% (Xu et al. 2020). Zaim et al. Both studies demonstrated an increase in all studied parame-
(2022) studied the use of NFs as a seed coating, incorpo- ters attributed to the high surface-to-volume ratio of the NFs,
rating ZnO NPs with cellulose acetate bio-polymer (Zaim enabling the reaction and bioavailability of the encapsulated
et al. 2022). Their study showed that adding ZnO NPs to hormone. Plants rely on enzymatic defense mechanisms,
the polymer solution increased its conductivity and led to such as superoxide dismutase, catalase and ascorbate peroxi-
the formation of smaller NFs, measuring 526 ± 139 nm in dase as their primary means of defense against ROS caused
diameter. This prevented the burst release of NPs, which by abiotic stress (Medithi et al. 2020). Recent studies have
was observed with ultra-fine fibers measuring 123 ± 34 nm explored the potential benefits of using lipoic acid (ALA)
in diameter. The NFs produced with 17% of cellulose acetate through foliar application and seed priming to enhance
and 100 mg/L of ZnO demonstrated hydrophobic proper- antioxidant activity and promote crop growth under condi-
ties, facilitating the controlled release of the NPs to both the tions of cadmium toxicity and drought stress (Elkelish et al.
seeds and the environment. These findings suggested that 2021; Yadav et al. 2022). However, enzymes are sensitive
using NFs as a seed coating with ZnO NPs can effectively to environmental factors, which can lead to fast degradation
13
Fig. 6 Seed coating process using electrospun Cu2+-loaded NFs and the NFs-coated seed in promoting germination and protecting against
photo images showing NFs-coated tomato and lettuce seeds. A total fungal pathogen (Xu et al. 2020)
of 775 germinations were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of
periods (Dolinina et al. 2020). Thus, further studies into the and reduces their exposure to the external environment. In a
encapsulation of these materials with engineered nanofibers study by Farias et al. (2019), cellulose diacetate (CDA) NFs
as a protective agent may provide a sustainable approach were produced using a vertical top-down electrospinning
to combating abiotic stress and improving plant resilience. method and incorporated with pesticide AIs, Fluopyram
(Flp), and Abamectin (Abm) to coat soybean seeds (Farias
Pesticide‑Encapsulated Nanofibers Seed Coating et al. 2019). Both Flp and Abm are systematic pesticides
used to control parasitic nematodes and fungi, but they dif-
It is important to control the excessive usage of chemical fer in soil mobility efficiency and water affinity profile. Flp
applications in Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices is more hydrophilic than Abm; resulting in Flp’s release of
that aim to increase and protect crop production. Over 2 mil- 25% compared to Abm’s 5.5% in 2 weeks. The incorpora-
lion tons of pesticides are excessively used annually in agri- tion of AIs into the CDA polymer solution differs in terms
culture, which can harm the environment and living organ- of material interaction and conductivity level (Farias et al.
isms (Elshafie and Camele 2021). To address this issue, 2019). Due to its higher conductivity, Flp resulted in thin-
researchers have developed a novel approach to deliver AIs ner fibers (158 ± 42 nm) compared to Abm (266 ± 100 nm)
(pesticides) in a controlled manner while preventing expo- (Gazquez et al. 2017). The hydrophobic properties of CDA
sure to the external environment by encapsulating pesticides regulate the release of AIs, thereby preventing excessive
with NFs coatings using an electrodynamic method (Pirzada pesticide application and aiding in the germination process
et al. 2020). Pesticides used in agriculture can be inorganic by ensuring the controlled delivery of AIs even in moist
salts or organic natural ingredients that can quickly bind to environments.
electrospun polymeric-NFs via ionic or covalent bonds. This Castaneda et al. (2014) conducted another study that
protective coating allows for a gradual release of the AIs employed the use of Vitavax Thiram SC-200®, and Carbex
13
500 SC® systematic pesticides encapsulated with ethyl cel- at ambient temperature. The study suggests that PGPR-NFs
lulose fibers to control fungal disease in irrigated paddy rice promoted crop development, bacterial viability, and germi-
seeds (Castañeda et al. 2014). The study concluded that the nation rate more effectively than conventional seed inoc-
electrospinning technique allowed the fungicide to be pre- ulation with the bacteria cultures. In another study, poly-
sented as a microcapsule, which efficiently prevented and ethylene oxide (PEO) was used to encapsulate Arbuscular
combated the pathogen compared to control seeds. Luo et al. mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) for seed coating using bean seeds
(2020) supported these findings by suggesting that micro- (Campaña and Arias 2020). The study found that 1 kg of
capsules with dimensional pore sizes similar to the targeted AMF inoculates through NFs could be applied to 4000%
organism can trap and prevent the escape of the organism more seedlings than commercial mycorrhizal inoculants,
(Luo et al. 2020). The phytosanitary assessment indicated which typically inoculate 250 − 300 seedlings per kilogram.
that the (Ansari et al. 2020) treatments effectively promoted Additionally, the inoculated-NFs do not negatively impact
germination and prevented fungi growth (Fusarium, Asper- seed physiology and led to increased crop vigor, biomass
gillus, and Penicillium) in stored seeds of irrigated paddy rates (143%) and flower bud formation (200%). The release
rice. Notably, there were no adverse effects on the physio- of the inoculated PGPM through NFs aligned with the ger-
logical properties of the seeds caused by the treatments. The mination timeline (5 days), and further releases increased
stable formulation structure of pesticides encapsulated with the number of viable soil organisms, contributing to sup-
NFs has been noted to affect their effectiveness in several plementary crop development.
studies, which in turn is influenced by the composition of the Hussain et al. (2019) used the electrospinning pro-
pesticide. In the case of poorly water-soluble pesticides, the cess to create a bio composite consisting of poly (vinyl
inclusion of micelle substances becomes necessary to create alcohol)/poly(vinylpyrrolidone) plasticized with glycerol
an efficient and controlled delivery system to the targeted for encapsulating a microbial consortium (Bacillus sub-
organism (Kumar et al. 2019a, b). tilis plus Seratia marcescens) in Canola seeds (Hussain
et al. 2019). The study aimed to improve the technology
Beneficial Microbes in Nanofibers Seed Coating of creating a more homogenous coating with better seed
adhesion, using a sound-vibrating approach incorporated
Loyd (2019) emphasized the important role of bioinoculants into the electrospinning setup. The electrospinning setup
in enhancing ecological services in agriculture cultivation. utilized sound detection equipment to rotate the seed on
Bioinoculants increase the acquisition of nutrients for crop the collector, ensuring a uniform coating of the NFs while
growth and protection. (Loyd 2019). In conventional seed minimizing the amount of biomaterial usage. The result-
coating, plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) are inocu- ing NFs, containing the encapsulated microorganism, had
lated onto the seed through liquid spraying and applied to increased fiber width and provided space for the organ-
sand or polymer coatings (Bashan et al. 2014). However, ism’s survival. The inclusion of glycerol in the bio-com-
environmental factors such as changes in humidity and tem- posite was found to enhance seed storage life by prevent-
perature, the toxicity of carrier molecules, and the water ing drying owing to its hydrophilic nature. The fibrous
permeability of coating pose significant challenges that can coating with the bioinoculant improved seed performance
reduce the viability of PGPB (Cornejo et al. 2017). Encapsu- by enabling the targeted delivery of the microorganism
lating PGPB using biodegradable polymers and electrospun- to the root-soil interface. Mukiri et al. (2021) conducted
NFs is a promising alternative. Electrospun NFs have high another study that utilized nanofibrous seed coating with
porosity, air permeability, water uptake, surface area, and PVA polymer to incorporate Methylobacterium aminovo-
nanometric thickness which enhance the shelve-life, prolif- rans into groundnut Arachis hypogaea. The study found
eration rate, and inoculation rate of PGPB. The effectiveness that PVA polymer was effective in extending the shelf life
of bio-primed NFs seed coating was demonstrated in a study of the microbes for up to 3 months without significant loss.
by De Gregorio et al. (2017), where rhizobacteria (PGPR) The nanofibrous seed coating also facilitated the targeted
were immobilized. The study explored the effectiveness of delivery of the microbes to the roots, resulting in improved
Caribensis ISIB40 and P. agglomerates ISIB55 incorpo- seedling germination and crop vigor (Mukiri et al. 2021).
rated in polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) on two variants of soybean
seeds, as shown in Fig. 7 (De Gregorio et al. 2017). The Advantages and Disadvantages of the Seed Coating
study aimed to determine the ability of nanofibrous coating Methods
in maintaining biological stability, rhizobacteria viability,
seed storage, and germination rate. The results of the study Seed coating is the first defense lineup in combating biotic
showed that in the NFs PVA coating, the bacterial survival and abiotic stress during the initial sowing phases. Abi-
rate was maintained for up to 10–15 days. Moreover, the otic stress, such as drought, cold, and salinity can cause
rhizobacteria were able to be kept dry for a longer period a higher than 50% reduction in crop development and
13
Fig. 7 A Photographs of untreated soybean seeds, inoculated seeds (ISIB55) or B. caribensis ISIB40 (ISIB40) cultures and coated seeds
with rhizobacteria cultures, and coated seeds with nanofibers-immo- with nanofibers-immobilized Yeast Mannitol Broth medium (YMB-
bilized rhizobacteria. B Scanning electron microscopy micrographs PVA), nanofibers-immobilized ISIB55 (ISIB55-PVA) or nanofibers-
of untreated seeds, inoculated seeds with P. agglomerans ISIB55 immobilized ISIB40 (ISIB40-PVA) (De Gregorio et al. 2017)
total yield (Vishal and Kumar 2018). Sufficiently supply- Seed coating with "germination boosters" adhesives such
ing critical nutrients needed with AIs for seed protection as macro and micronutrients induces seed vigor, provid-
induces a better germination rate and crop establishment ing high uniform crop development that favors industrial
(Elshafie and Camele 2021). Modern seed coating sup- crop production (Pedrini et al. 2020). Moreover, the direct
plies can provide significant benefits in terms of efficiency application of agronomical input to the seeds provides an
for controlling early-season pests or diseases. They can efficient delivery system for varieties of crops. In contrast
achieve this with much lower application rates compared to the conventional method, for instance, aerial spraying
to many foliar or soil-applied alternatives (Ahmed and to the plants part is more favorable to leafy crops but less
Kumar 2020). Film coating with biological agents, either efficient for cereal crop production (Bindraban et al. 2015).
in combination or with synthetic pesticides, is expected Diverse seed-coating methods expose the seed to
to reduce environmental impacts compared to the direct mechanical damage as it will influence the seed quality due
application of the same agent in the field (Accinelli et al. to the bruising, internal physiological damage, and exter-
2018). The rotating pan method is widely used in the nal breakage caused by the impact and abrasions during
industry for seed coating due to its characteristics that can machinery processes (GU et al. 2019). Furthermore, the
be easily modified and controlled, including the rotational conventional method of seed coating by directly immers-
speed, dimension, and spray flow (Rocha et al. 2019). ing seeds in fertilizer solutions can lead to interference
13
from partially dissolved granules, which can cause dam- et al. 2022). Numerous studies have demonstrated that the
age to the coating when separation occurs after drying cytotoxicity and genotoxic effects of AgNPs on seed germi-
(Fertahi et al. 2021). Seed coating through fluidized bed nation of Allium cepa were caused by AgNPs with smaller
faced uniformity issues due to the coating agglomeration diameters and larger surface areas that interacted compul-
from unstable spraying rate. Thus, a uniform coating can sively with the plant system (Scherer et al. 2019). Addition-
be obtained by adjusting the intensity of the film coating ally, the application method of NPs also can cause toxicity.
and optimizing the spraying rate to ensure a more precise For instance, when 100 mg/L of Fe2O3 NPs were applied
and consistent application of the coating (Lipin and Lipin to C. maxima through a foliar application, it induced crop
2022). Nevertheless, achieving a uniform coating often stress and caused high wax formation that repelled Fe intake
requires a large amount of coating material, which can be (Hu et al. 2017). Furthermore, the application of NPs can
costly (Fertahi et al. 2020). This cost–benefit trade-off is a adversely affect the growth of beneficial bacteria, such as
constant debate in the agriculture industry as compared to pseudomonas putida KT2440, which is naturally needed for
untreated seeds (Lobo et al. 2019). The improper coating crop growth (Ivanova et al. 2016). To counteract the toxicity
formulation can also adversely affect the coating structure of NPs, organic compounds such as humic acid, fulvic acid,
and eventually cause seed deterioration. The dip-coating and perfluoro carboxylic acid can be added (Shang et al.
method is a commonly used and cost-effective technique 2017; Li et al. 2021). Organic compounds have been found
in agriculture, which requires less time. However, con- to neutralize NPs toxicity by minimizing their aggregation,
cerns have been raised regarding the potential for pore- lowering the dissolution rate, and decreasing ROS produc-
clogging and reduced gaseous exchange rate in seeds due tion. Additionally, the cytotoxicity of carbon nanotubes to
to this method. Unfortunately, dip-coating also adversely microbes can be decreased by introducing natural suspended
impacts the germination rate as it covers the pores and solids to facilitate hetero-aggregation between carbon nano-
micropyle unevenly, resulting in an uneven distribution on tubes and suspended solids. In addition to toxicity concerns,
the seed surface (Krishnamoorthy and Rajiv 2017a). The the over-application of NPs due to improper dosage can dis-
film-coating method considers the possibility of includ- turb crop growth and even cause lethality, as highlighted in
ing microorganisms that could potentially trigger allergic previous studies (Achari and Kowshik 2018; Savassa et al.
reactions as well as the distribution of pesticides through 2018).
dust (Accinelli et al. 2018). To reduce the dust-off, the Electrospun seed coating is a cutting-edge nanotechnol-
number of AIs needs to be adjusted appropriately with ogy that employs polymeric material to produce nanofi-
the containing biological agent and synthetic pesticides brous coatings using a strong electrostatic field (Pirzada
(Accinelli et al. 2018). et al. 2020). The application of this technology is believed
NMs application in advanced seed coating methods is to have a robust approach owing to its advantages in precise
still under investigation due to concerns about their poten- control and targeted agrichemical delivery, which helps in
tial negative impact on the environment and living organ- crop growth, development and protection (El-Shafie 2020).
isms. This is due to the nanoscale size of the material, Electrospinning can also produce seed encapsulation by
which makes them highly susceptible to environmental entrapping bioactive components with polymeric material
exposure and requires careful handling. Furthermore, the into NFs for a safe, effective, and precisely targeted delivery
toxicity of NPs can be influenced by factors such as their (Wen et al. 2017). These coatings can be used for multiple
concentration, size, and mode of application. The germi- cropping cycles and reducing the need for additional ferti-
nation study demonstrated that ZnO NPs could enhance lizer applications. Additionally, they play a crucial role in
seed germination, but their excessive use at concentrations mitigating toxicity, particularly for seedlings, by minimiz-
of 100 − 200 mg/L could lead to phytotoxicity in crops ing the damaging effects of high ion concentrations during
(Zhao et al. 2021). Similarly, concentrations of F e2O3 NPs various developmental stages and preventing osmotic stress
above 100 mg/L were toxic to C. maxima, while G. max (Rop et al. 2018; Javed et al. 2021). Moreover, nanofibrous
required concentrations of 500 − 1000 mg/L to promote crop seed coating can be stored in an air-tight container for up to
growth (Achari and Kowshik 2018). Improper coating for- 6 months without damaging the seed (Krishnamoorthy et al.
mulation could also adversely affect the coating structure, 2016). Unfortunately, the CR behavior of fertilizer through
leading to seed deterioration. NPs may block seed pores, seed coating may lead to the slow release of nutrients due
inhibiting water and nutrient uptake, and causing local- to the dense coating on the seed surface. In addition, NFs
ized or excessive ROS accumulation (Kacsó et al. 2022). seed coating might adversely affect the environment by
In response to these stressors, cell-to-cell communication using non-biodegradable polymers or toxic solvents as the
can be interrupted, leading to the breakdown of hydrolytic binder. These polymer seed coatings can often take a long
bonds between the endosperm cell to break, and eventually time to degrade and can interfere with the marine life and
reducing seed viability, germination, and crop vigor (Nile soil environment (Rendón-Villalobos et al. 2016). Therefore,
13
it is necessary to develop a suitable formulation to achieve of application, and type of NPs used will influence the out-
the desired concentration accurately (Jayanudin and Lestari come. As a result, guidelines for applying NPs that consider
2020). Seed coatings offer a promising way to improve crop these variables must be developed to gain positive results and
growth and productivity, but there is no “one-size-fits-all prevent harm to the crop and individuals in contact with the
solution” that suits all cultivators. The choice of coating substance (Nooeaid et al. 2021). It is reported that exposure
technique will depend on the cultivator's objectives, such to carbon nanotubes, or silica NPs is cytotoxic, resulting in
as optimizing yields or reducing environmental impact, as human lung failure and bioaccumulation of substances in
well as the specific crop species, regional climate, and soil human tissues and organs (Singh et al. 2017). A recent study
conditions. Seed coating incorporating NPs is an innovative suggests that the toxicity of applied NMs depends on various
way to optimize seed coating performance in terms of crop factors, including the shape of the particle, amount of affected
enhancement and protection. However, further scientific surface area, concentration and aggregation effect, exposure,
studies are needed to determine the optimal formulation, the applied dosage, pre-exposure effect, the crystal structure,
concentration, and techniques to meet various agricultural and reactivity of the particle surface (Jeevanandam 2018).
demands simultaneously. This could entail analyzing data Thus, further investigation and exploration into the applica-
from multi-regional and field studies that evaluate the effi- tions of NPs in agriculture and other industrial and economic
cacy of different formulations and coating techniques under settings are necessary. While technological advancements can
various growing conditions. enhance productivity, it is important to recognize the poten-
tial hazards of using these materials. Given our current under-
standing of handling macromolecules and their environmental
Challenges in the Application impact, responsible management of these substances is crucial.
of Nanotechnology in Agriculture
Although the fibrous coating method using NFs has been Conclusions and Outlook
extensively reviewed in this paper, the low production rate of
existing electrospinning equipment poses a significant chal- This review discusses the latest advances in seed coating tech-
lenge for industrial applications. To establish a high product niques using NMs, particularly NFs and NPs combined with
output, large-scale fiber production is required, which could be sustainable polymeric binders. It also discusses the advantages,
achieved through the bowl electrospinning method, according and challenges of using various NMs-based seed coatings in
to Krishnamoorthy and Rajiv (2017a) or by utilizing multiple agriculture. The use of NPs in seed coating can enhance seed
needles/ spinnerets in the electrospinning process, as stated by performance beyond conventional seed coating techniques.
Xu et al. (2020), (Krishnamoorthy and Rajiv 2017a; Xu et al. This includes improving germination rates, boosting leaf and
2020). Currently, textile industries are actively manufacturing root development, and enhancing resistance to environmental
NFs on a large-scale production, but the high input of chemi- stress, pests and diseases. The characteristics of NPs such as
cal ingredients in synthesizing electrospinning solutions leads nanoscale size, high surface area, rapid reactivity, and bio-
to adverse effects on the environment, health and safety of degradability are essential in enhancing seed germination and
workers, and high usage of electrical supplies (Almetwally crop development. The use of polymer-based NFs offers sev-
et al. 2017). Additionally, the development and research on eral advantages such as high surface area, uniform coverage of
nanotechnology require high costs and are unaffordable for seed, increased mechanical strength, and prolonged shelf-life
conventional farmers. Therefore, cultivators prefer a simple, of the material. Electrospinning allows for the encapsulation of
low-risk, cost-saving treatment with high-output to minimize a variety of plant requirements such as chemicals, hormones,
cost and increase income (Afzal et al. 2020). fertilizer, pesticides, antimicrobial agents and micronutrients.
The application of NPs in agriculture can pose a significant The use of NFs employing SR and CR mechanisms through
threat to the environment and human health. For instance, the the electrodynamic method is seen as the potential solution to
application of gold or silver NPs has been shown to have a mitigate the negative impacts of chemical-based approaches.
negative impact on soil bacteria and can disrupt the ecosys- Further research is required to explore the SR and CR mecha-
tem’s balance. Studies have also found that NPs can deplete nisms of different polymeric profiles and to incorporate essen-
soil microbial biomass, causing retardation in crop develop- tial agronomic inputs such as macro and micronutrients, AIs,
ment (Rajput et al. 2018; Dileep Kumar et al. 2020). Further PGRs, and PGPMs for more precise and efficient delivery.
research and development are required to determine the appro- Additionally, extended studied are needed to explore the
priate microscale application of NPs in agriculture, as different effectiveness of NFs incorporating PGRs such as auxins, gib-
crops have varying requirements for NPs and operate through berellins, and cytokinin, which regulate crop phytotomy and
distinct mechanisms (Zhao et al. 2021). Moreover, variables enhance crop development and protection. NMs offer a sus-
such as the method of application, crop of interest, medium tainable approach to improving agriculture crop development,
13
protection, and production with minimal input for high output Ahmad H, Venugopal K, Bhat AH, Kavitha K, Ramanan A, Rajago-
returns. A thorough evaluation of the advantages and poten- pal K, Srinivasan R, Manikandan E (2020) Enhanced biosyn-
thesis synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO-NPs) for
tial risks associated with NMs in seed coating is necessary to their antifungal activity toxicity against major phyto-pathogens
ensure the sustainable development of agriculture. of apple orchards. Pharm Res 37:246. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11095-020-02966-x
Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the Minis- Ahmed S, Kumar S (2020) Seed coating with fungicides and various
try of Higher Education of Malaysia for the funding through the FGRS treatments for protection of crops: A review. Int J Agric Env
(FRGS/1/2022/TK0/UITM/02/39). The authors would further wish to Sustain 2:6–13
thank the Universiti Teknologi MARA for the support through grants Ahmed A, Sara Taha A, Sundas RQ, Man-Qun W (2021) Heavy metals
(600-RMC 5/3/GRR (005/2020) and 600-RMC/GPK 5/3 (153/2020). and pesticides toxicity in agricultural soil and plants: ecological
risks and human health implications. Toxics 9:42. https://d oi.o rg/
Author Contributions THL and NFAB proposed the idea of the review 10.3390/toxics9030042
paper, NSHHZ prepared the manuscript and figures, THL, SMAR, Al-Dhabaan FA, Mostafa M, Almoammar H, Abd-Elsalam KA (2018)
NFAB, VKT, and NR revised the manuscript. All authors read and Chitosan-based nanostructures in plant protection applications.
approved the final version of the manuscript. In: Abd-Elsalam KA, Prasad R (eds) Nanobiotechnology applica-
tions in plant protection. Springer, Cham, pp 351–384
Declarations Almetwally AA, El-Sakhawy M, Elshakankery MH, Kasem MH (2017)
Technology of nano-fibers: Production techniques and proper-
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of ties—Critical review. J Text Assoc 78:5–14
interest. Amin H, Minkina T, Sushkova SN, Mandzhieva SS (2021) Role of
metal-based nanomaterials in plant growth. Int Symp Soil Sci
Ethical Approval Not applicable. Plant Nutr 2021:10
An C, Sun C, Li N, Huang B, Jiang J, Shen Y, Wang C, Zhao X (2022)
Consent for Publication Not applicable. Nanomaterials and nanotechnology for the delivery of agrochem-
icals: strategies towards sustainable agriculture. J Nanobiotech-
nol 20:1–19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12951-021-01214-7
Ansari MA, Albetran HM, Alheshibri MH, Timoumi A, Algarou NA,
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Recent Advances in Seed Coating Treatment Using Nanoparticles and

Article in Journal of Plant Growth Regulation · June 2023

Huey Ling Tan Abu Bakar Noor Fitrah

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Mohamed Syazwan Osman

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Recent Advances in Seed Coating Treatment Using Nanoparticles

Received: 22 September 2022 / Accepted: 23 May 2023

Keywords Seed coating · Nanoparticles · Nanofibers · Electrospinning · Controlled-release delivery

Currently, the global population is estimated to be 8 bil-

Fig. 2 Antimicrobial mecha-

Table 1 Summary of nanoparticles-based formulations in seed coating

*Indicates the utilization of biogenic synthesis of NPs in seed coating application

forced by the vertical position results in further stretching

de Camargo et al. (2017)

beats for seed coating (Hussain et al. 2019). This method

uniform coating production (Javed et al. 2022). Xu et al.

Longer storage life while maintaining the

around each seed (Xu et al. 2020). Meanwhile, Krishna-

Increased seeds vigourvigourvigour

moorthy et al. (2016) conducted a complementary study,

agronomic inputs (Ashfaq et al. 2019) due to their unique

a suitable composition for seed coating (Noruzi 2016).

Glycine max (Soybean)

triphosphate (ATP), the energy source needed for embryo

cell division, plant growth, and vigor (Budko et al. 2017).

for adequate oxygen permeability for seed respiration (Xu

ture (El-maarouf-bouteau 2022). In general, seeds have

2018). However, when the seed imbibes water, it activates

for growth (Luna et al. 2011; Vishal and Kumar 2018;

(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) granules as a germination substrate

enhanced FUA (Fadil et al. 2021). Furthermore, Gorim

effect of NFs hydrogel coating on seedling growth, which

Fig. 3 Schematic illustration of polymeric-based nanofibers seed coating

by Krishnamoorthy and Rajiv (2018), a fibrous coating was

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