THECiASSK

CFWESTE
SPIWTUAU

Jh o

^^k ^^H ^T-4

[•15
 6

"FT-ECIASSICS
CPWESIERN
SPINTUALTTY
THE CLASSICS OF WESTERN SPIRITUALITY
A Library of the Great Spiritual Masters

President and Publisher

Kevin A. Lynch, C.S.P.

EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor-in-Chief
Richard J. Payne
Editorial Consultant

Ewert H. Cousins —
Professor and Director of Spirituality
Graduate Program, Fordham University, Bronx, N.Y.

John E. Booty — Professor of Church History, Episcopal

Divinity School, Cambridge, Mass.

Joseph —
Dan Department
Professor of Kaballah in the of Jewish
Thought, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel.

Louis Dupre — T.L. Riggs Professor in Philosophy of

New Haven, Conn.
Religion, Yale University,

Rozanne Elder — Executive Vice President, Cistercian

Publications, Kalamazoo, Mich.

Mircea Eliade — Department

Professor in the of the History of
Religions, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.

Anne Fremantle — and New

Teacher, Editor N.Y.
Writer, York,
Karlfried Froelich — and
Professor of the History of the Early
Church,
Medieval Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton, N.J.
Arthur Green — Department
Assistant Professor in the of
Thought,
Religious University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.
Stanley S.Harakas — Dean Holy Greek Orthodox
of Cross
Seminary, Brookline, Mass.
Jean Leclercq — and
Professor, Institute of Spirituality
Institute of Religious Psychology, Rome,
Gregorian University, Italy.

Miguel Leon-Portilla — Mesoamerican

Professor Cultures
and Languages, National University of Mexico, University City,
Mexico.
George A. Maloney, S.J. —
Director, John XXIII
Ecumenical Center, Fordham University, Bronx, N.Y.
Bernard McGinn — Associate Professor of Historical
Theology and History of Christianity, University of Chicago
Divinity School, Chicago, 111.

John Meyendorff — Professor of Church History, Fordham

University, Bronx, N.Y., and Professor of Patristics and Church
History, St. Vladimir's Seminary, Tuckahoe, N.Y.
Seyyed Hossein Nasr —
President, Imperial Iranian
Academy of Philosophy, Teheran, Iran.
Heiko A. Oberman —
Director, Institute fuer
Spaetmittelalter und Reformation, Universitaet Tuebingen, West
Germany.
Alfonso Ortiz —
Professor of Anthropology, University of
New Mexico, Albuquerque, N. Mex.; Fellow, The Center for
Advanced Study, Stanford, Calif.
Raimundo Panikkar — Professor, Department of Religious
Studies, University of California at Santa Barbara, Calif.

Fazlar Rahman —Professor of Islamic Thought, Department

of Near Eastern Languages and Civilization, University of
Chicago, Chicago, 111.
Annemarie B. Schimmel — Professor of Hindu Muslim Culture,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.
Sandra M. Schneiders — Assistant Professor of New
Testament Studies and Spirituality, Jesuit School of Theology,
Berkeley, Calif.
Huston Smith — Thomas Watson J. Professor of Religion,
Adjunct Professor of Philosophy, Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y.
John R. Sommerfeldt — President, University of
Dallas, Irving, Texas.

David Steindl-Rast — Monk Mount of Savior Monastery,

N.Y.
Pine City,
William C. Sturtevant — General Editor, Handbook of North
American Indians, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
David Tracy — Professor of Theology, University of Chicago
Divinity School, Chicago, 111.

Victor Turner — Kenan

William B. Professor in
Anthropology, The Center for Advanced Study, University of
Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.

Kallistos Ware —Fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford;

Spalding Lecturer in Eastern Orthodox Studies, Oxford
University, England.
Other volumes in this series

Julian of Norwich SHOWINGS

•

Jacob Boehme • THE WAY TO CHRIST

Nahman of Bratslav • THE TALES

Gregory of Nyssa • THE LIFE OF MOSES

Bonaventure • THE SOUL'S JOURNEY INTO GOD, THE

TREE OF LIFE, and THE LIFE OF ST. FRANCIS
William Law • A SERIOUS CALL TO A DEVOUT AND
HOLY LIFE, and THE SPIRIT OF LOVE
Abraham Isaac Kook • THE LIGHTS OF PENITENCE,
LIGHTS OF HOLINESS, THE MORAL PRINCIPLES,
ESSAYS, and POEMS
Ibn 'Ata' Illah • THE BOOK OF WISDOM and Kwaja
Abdullah Ansari • INTIMATE CONVERSATIONS

Johann Arndt • TRUE CHRISTIANITY

Richard of St. Victor • THE TWELVE PATRIARCHS,

THE MYSTICAL ARK, BOOK THREE OF THE
TRINITY
Origen • AN EXHORTATION TO MARTYRDOM,
PRAYER AND SELECTED WORKS
Catherine of Genoa • PURGATION AND PURGATORY,
THE SPIRITUAL DIALOGUE
Native North American Spirituality of the Eastern
Woodlands • SACRED MYTHS, DREAMS, VISIONS,
SPEECHES, HEALING FORMULAS, RITUALS AND
CEREMONIALS
Teresa of Avila • THE INTERIOR CASTLE
Apocalyptic Spirituality
TREATISES AND LETTERS OF
LACTANTIUS, ADSO OF MONTIER-EN-DER,
JOACHIM OF FIORE.THE FRANCISCAN SPIRITUALS, SAVONAROLA

TRANSLATION AND INTRODUCTION

BY
BERNARD McGINN

PREFACE
BY
MARJORIE REEVES

PAULIST PRESS
NEW YORK RAMSEY TORONTO
Covert Art
YISROEL TUVIA HELLER'S etchings, photographs, watercolors, sculptures, and paintings are
in several public and private collections. His pictures have been used by the major New York City
publishing companies for a wide range of books dealing with subjects from accounting to astron-
omy. Articles on his works have appeared in Popular Photography, Petersen s Photographic, Art News,
N.Y. Arts Journal, and Hadassab Magazine. He is founder and chairman of the Jewish Visual Artists'
Association.

Having had no formal art training, he says his pictures are the result of dreams and experiences re-
sultingfrom dreams. Of the image on this cover, he says, "One night an angel with wings of light
came to me and carried me high above the apocalypse."

Design: Barbini, Pesce & Noble, Inc.

Copyright © 1979 by
The Missionary Society of St. Paul
the Apostle in the State of New York

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording or by
any information storage and retrieval system without permission in writing from the
publisher.

Library of Congress
Catalog Card Number: 79-90834

ISBN: 0-8091-2242-1 (paper)

0-8091-0305-2 (cloth)

Published by Paulist Press

Editorial Office: 1865 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10023
Business Office: 545 Island Road, Ramsey, N.J. 07446

Printed and bound in the

United States of America
 Contents

FOREWORD xi

PREFACE xiii

INTRODUCTION: APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY 1

PART I: LACTANTIUS 17

"The Blessed Life", Book VII of Divine Institutes 25

PART II: ADSO OF MONTIER-EN-DER 81

Letter on the Origin and Time of the Antichrist 89

PART III: JOACHIM OF FIORE 97

Selection A: Letter to All the Faithful 113

Selection B: Letter to the Abbot of Valdona 1 18

Selection C: The Book of Concordance, Book 2, Part I,

Chapters 2-12 120

Book of Figures, The Fourteenth Table,

Selection D:
The Seven-Headed Dragon 136

Selection E: The Book of Figures, The Twelfth

Table 142

PART IV: THE FRANCISCAN SPIRITUALS 149

Angelo of Clareno: A
Letter to the Pope concerning
the False Accusations and Calumnies Made by the
Franciscans 159

Peter John Olivi: Letter to the Sons of Charles II 173

vn
 CONTENTS

PART V: SAVONAROLA 183

The Compendium of Revelations 192

NOTES 277

BIBLIOGRAPHY 311

INDEX 317

Vlll
 Author of the Preface
Marjorie Reeves received an M.A. from St. Hugh's College,
Oxford, and a Ph.D. from the University of London. A Fellow
of St. Anne's College, Oxford, from 1938 to 1972, she also
served as Vice-Principal there for many years. Her honors in-
clude a D.Litt. from Oxford, a Fellowship in the Royal Histori-
cal Society, and membership in many of the most prestigious
educational commissions of the United Kingdom. In recent
years she has taught and lectured at a number of American uni-
versities. Although she has written widely in the areas of edu-
cation and general medieval history, Miss Reeves is best known
for her work in the history of medieval apocalypticism. A se-
ries of ground-breaking articles and her collaboration with L.
Tondelli and B. Hirsch-Reich on the critical edition of Joachim
of Fiore's Book of Figures (1953) culminated in the publication of
two major books on Joachim and his role in later medieval
apocalypticism The Influence of Prophecy in the Later Middle Ages:
A Study in Joachimism (1969), and The Figurae ofJoachim of Fiore
(1972, with B. Hirsch-Reich).

IX
 Editor of the Volume
Bernard McGinn is Professor of Historical Theology and the
History of Christianity at the Divinity School of the Univer-
sity of Chicago. He Chairman of the Univer-
also serves as the
sity Committee on Medieval Studies. Born in Yonkers, New
York, in 1937, Mr. McGinn received a Licentiate in Sacred
Theology from the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome in
1963 and a Ph.D. in History of Ideas from Brandeis University
in 1970. He has also done advanced work at Columbia Univer-
sity and the University of Munich. His books include: The
Golden Chain. The Theological Anthropology of Isaac of Stella; Three
Treatises on Man. A Cistercian Anthropology; and Visions of the End.
Apocalyptic Traditions in the Middle Ages.
Foreword

"Amen. Come, Lord Jesus" (Apoc. 22:20). The significance

of these closing words of the New Testament for later Chris-
tian spirituality is the subject of this volume. Biblical scholars
of the past generation have emphasized the importance of
apocalyptic beliefs for the origins of Christianity, and the
studies of patristic expertsand medievalists have shown that
expectations of the imminent end of the current age and the
return of the Lord did not die out in the second century.
The relation of apocalyptic traditions to religious, social
and political change during the centuries between A. D. 200 and
1500 were extraordinarily complex. This selection of texts does
not try to illustrate the full range of transformations that
apocalypticism underwent during the patristic and medieval
periods. Its purpose is rather to show how apocalyptic beliefs
continued to serve as the basis for distinctive forms of piety
over these centuries.
Although they speak to particular times and situations, the
texts translated here, many for the first time available in En-
glish, are part of a continuous tradition. The Seventh Book of
the Divine Institutes of Lactantius was written at the time of
Constantine's recognition of the Church. It is both a summary
of early Christian beliefs about the Antichrist and the millen-
nial age, as well as a witness to the changes brought about in
Christian apocalypticism through contact with other religions.
The monk Adso, whose treatise dates from the middle of the
bleak tenth century, provides a classic account of Antichrist's
career and shows how the Roman empire and her ruler had

XI
 FOREWORD

come to play an important role in Christian hopes for the end

of history.
Joachim of Fiore (died 1202) was the most important
apocalyptic author of the middle ages. This devout monk's
complex historical symbolism, an original appropriation of the
pessimism and optimism which always characterize apocalypti-
cism, centered on hopes for the coming purification of the
Church. Joachim's thought is illustrated here by four brief
texts and a key excerpt from one of his major works. Much
influenced by the thought of Joachim, especially by his hopes
for a future order of "spiritual men," the radical wing of the
Franciscan order developed a special form of apocalyptic piety
during the thirteenth century. Letters from two of the leaders
of this "Spiritual" party among the Franciscans, Peter Olivi
and Angelo of Clareno, illustrate their suffering and dedica-
tion.
The fiery Dominican Girolamo Savonarola (1452-98) was
the most noted apocalyptic preacher of the end of the middle
ages. The friar's Compendium of Revelations, a defense of his
prophetic career and an allegorical account of a heavenly
dream vision, provides an exemplary illustration of the con-
tinuing importance of apocalypticism in Renaissance society.

XII
Preface

The history of Christian Apocalyptic reveals one thing

very clearly: the desire of the human soul to find a significant
place for itself in the time process. This is rooted in the Judaeo-
Christian lineal concept of history, and belief in the soul's im-
mortality is intimately linked with the place of the human per-
sonality in an ongoing historical process which has two termi-
nals— an individual one in death and a universal one in the end
of the world. This sense of "place" and of "end" is one of the
chief roots of morality, and in all generations Christian writers
have exhorted themselves and others to be "watchful servants,"
each playing his allotted role responsibly, "for the end com-
eth."

Ye servants of the Lord,

Each in his office, wait,
Observant of his heavenly word,
And watchful at his gate.

Watch! 'tis your Lord's command,

And while we speak he's near;
Mark the first signal of his hand,
And ready all appear.
(P. Doddridge)

This eighteenth-century hymn

echoes the exhortations of
Lactantius in the early fourth century. There is also an element
of "waiting" here which is, indeed, common to all human ex-

Xlll
 PREFACE

perience, since everything must have an end and we are always

waiting for Because
it. Christian Apocalyptic writings set the
life of the human soul in the context of a time process begun,

and to be ended, by God, they speak to both individuals and so-

cieties in terms of watchful duty and patient waiting. All the
writings in this selection sound these notes in one way or an-
other.The term "Apocalyptic" is, of course, used in different
ways, but if, in this context, we think of it, in the editor's
words, as centering "on the relation between time and eternity,
between man's life in history and the heavenly realm," it is
clear that much Christian spirituality is apocalyptic, for the
soul's meditation on its own meaning and destiny cannot es-
cape this dimension.
Characteristically, such meditation swings between terror
and hope. Humanity was blighted by the Fall. An ineluctable
law decrees that it must be purged before it can be redeemed,
and this process must be cosmic as well as individual. The con-
cept of the End imposes a sense of climax which dictates that,
beyond the daily lot of human sorrow and punishment, tribula-
tion must rise into a dramatic final act. Expectation loads the
imagination with portentous and horrifying images. Anti-
christ, collective and individual, stalks through the history of
the imagination from earliest Christian times, the "historical"
embodiment of Evil, and when he finds his biographer in Ab-
bot Adso in the tenth century, this becomes a best seller.
The message of redemption beyond the dreadful flood re-
mains the one sustaining hope. Here we perceive that apoca-
lyptic spirituality bifurcates into two forms —
social and indi-
vidual. Christianity inherited from Judaism not only the idea of
the chosen people but also that of a God involved in his cre-
ation at both the material and the socio-political levels. St. Paul
saw the whole creation in travail along with man, and St. John
saw the New Jerusalem coming down from heaven to earth.
Thus it was natural that in early Christian centuries hope took
the form of a redeemed and recreated society in a redeemed
creation. We find this vision and the dreams of millennialists
such as Irenaeus, Commodian and Lactantius himself: if the
tribulation of Antichrist was to be cosmic, redemption must

xiv
 PREFACE

also be cosmic. In more limited form we meet it in the seventh

century in the Syriac pseudo-Methodius where consolation in
face of the political onslaught of Islam is sought in the political
dream of a Christian Last World Emperor. But millennial vi-
sions raised so many problems in terms of fantastic materialist
hopes of imminent millennium, which undermined the sober
morality of waiting, that we see developing the counter view
that the only important climax in history had already occurred
in the incarnation, that the only redemption within the time
process was that of the individual soul, and that the redeemed
society belonged essentially to the blessedness of eternity. The
pilgrim Church, marching toward the end of time, did, indeed,
already taste of redemption, but could not be relieved from
its

tribulation until translated into its supra-temporal state. Thus

St. Augustine, in the early fifth century, sought to block the
road to hopes of any blessed age within history, and his view
dominated much medieval thinking. Emphasis was laid on the
spiritual duty of individual souls to watch and wait devoutly
for the End, for the world was growing old, the world was slip-
ping downhill, the hopes of the world were collapsing.
Nothing, however, could stifle speculation. "It is not for
you to know the times or the seasons which the Father hath put
in his own power" was the oft-quoted warning to Christ's dis-
ciples,but the Old Testament prophetic tradition affirmed
God's revelation of his purposes in history to his chosen ser-
vants in the past, and men in the Christian Dispensation felt
themselves permitted to seek, under God's guidance, the signs
—
of the future. The collection of signs pagan, Jewish, Chris-
tian— became an absorbing preoccupation. Sibylline oracles
were interwoven with scriptural texts, both canonical and
apocryphal. Lactantius in his day and Adso in his represent
this concern, and Adso has already picked up the optimistic
"sign" of the Last World Emperor prophecy, thus reviving in
the West hopes which the Augustinian view sought to quench.
But it is in the twelfth century that we really begin to detect a
new interest in the process of history itself and especially in the
Church's history since the incarnation. There is a new aware-
ness of change as a factor in the Church's experience: the truths

xv
 PREFACE

of the faith are timeless, but spirituality expresses itself in dif-

ferent historical forms in different ages. If these developments
are the work of the Holy Spirit, through what stages is the
Church being led and toward what end? The image of the Book
with Seven Seals is seen as a figure of the Church's history: the
six stages can be mapped out with confidence, but where is the
opening of the seventh seal, always associated with the idea of
the Sabbath Age, to take place? Still following the Augustinian
view, Anselm of Havelberg places it beyond time. Yet an opti-
mistic note of some further achievement within history is now
creeping in and finds expression in the belief that after the
death of Antichrist a "space" will be given before the End, not
only for the "refreshment of the saints" but for the conversion
of the nations, Jewish and pagan. The universal triumph of
Christianity would, after be the triumph of history.
all,

These lines of expectation prepared the way for Joachim of

Fiore's break with the Augustinian tradition in his great affir-
mation that before the end of time, but after the greatest tribu-
lation, men would attain a further spiritual illumination in the
Age of the Spirit, the Third Age or Status. Joachim denied him-
self the title of prophet but claimed to read the signs which
God had set in history by the divine gift of spiritual intelli-
gence bestowed upon him. These signs were, of course, en-
shrined in the sacred history of the Scriptures, but were also to
be sought in the history of the Church and in secular history.
Through these signs the ceaseless activity of the Trinity mani-
fested itself in historical happenings, charting, as it were, the
great sweep of progress through the three stages of human de-
velopment associated with Father, Son and Spirit. Joachim was
a true spiritual father, exhorting his brethren and disciples by
preaching and by writing to be watchful and waiting as faith-
ful servants of the
Lord. Like other biblical exegetes of his time
he used the fourfold senses of Scripture (which he extended to
five) to edify the individual soul, leading it finally to the
anagogical sense, the anticipation of the heavenly life. But he
also read the signs in terms of the total meaning of history and
developed his method of concords or parallels between the first
two stages of history from which he attempted very tentatively

xvi
 PREFACE

to extrapolate the pattern into the future third stage into which
he thought the Church was just entering. At its most elaborate
thismethod became his sensus typicus significantly divided into
seven modes which represented the seven ways in which the
inner relationships of the Trinity were expressed in history. 1

Thus Joachim's sense of apocalyptic led him to write, not only

for the comfort of individual souls, but also in order to prepare
them for the transitus into the new society of the third age, par-
tially delineated in the figure of the New People of the Third
Status. His originality lies particularly in his affirmation of a
further turning point in history and a further stage of spiritual
illumination, yet he does not wholly break with Augustinian
teaching: the third stage must itself deteriorate and end in
tribulation; there is no human perfection this side of Judgment
Day.
Nevertheless, Joachim's legacy to the succeeding genera-
tionswas an exhilarating prospect of "something more to
come" before history was to be wound up. The transitus
—
through tribulation figuratively the crossing of Jordan
might be severe, but to be assigned a place among the "New
People" of the future lifted the eyes to the Promised Land be-
yond. In the thirteenth century Franciscan spirituality was in-
fused with an urgent sense of mission in novissimis diebus and
running through this was the conviction that St. Francis had
embodied in his life a new "advent" of Christ, thus initiating
the further stage of spiritual understanding. This probably had
Joachimist roots, since Joachim saw the work of Christ as being
completed in his Mystical Body of the Third Status. Those who
clung passionately to St. Francis' Rule and Testament saw ab-
solute poverty as the key to this last stage of history and read
the signs as a vindication of their belief. Sevenfold tribulations
must be heaped upon them, but beyond Antichrist the future
would be theirs. The dynamism which
springs from the total
belief that history is on your side infused many of the early
Franciscans and inspired the passionate obstinacy with which

1. On the fives and sevens in Joachim's hermeneutics, see M. Reeves, "The Abbot Jo-
achim's Sense of History," 1274. Annee charniere. Mutations et continuites (Paris, 1977),
787-95.

XV11
 PREFACE

Clareno and his group, for instance, endured persecution and

wrestled with the cruel dilemma between obedience and a
sense of utter Tightness. In the end such a belief, under persecu-
u
tion, produces the mentality of the saving remnant": the pow-
ers that be have become the instruments of Antichrist and the
true Church now resides solely in the faithful few gathered in
the Ark. This was the final fate of the pathetic Fraticelli and
Beguin groups, battered and drowned by waves of persecution
in the fourteenth century.
Extremes of hope and terror in anticipation of the last age
still swept through Renaissance Italy in the fifteenth century.

It is a mistake to suppose that the calm steady light of humanist

scholarship left no dark corners in the imagination. The Flor-

entine Platonists were open to mystical as well as rational ap-
proaches to knowledge, and the prophets of note who appeared
sporadically in Italian cities were not treated with scorn. The
sources of Savonarola's prophetic preaching were medieval and
in many respects Joachimist, but his words did not strike an
anachronistic note or fall on alienated ears. Some members of
Marsilio Ficino's Platonic Academy could join Savonarola's
disciples, the Piagnoni, and Botticelli could paint two apocalyp-
tic pictures under his inspiration. The program of the greatest
tribulation and the highest human blessedness beyond it con-
tinued to dominate the prophetic future to which most people
paid attention in Western Europe during the fifteenth and six-
teenth centuries. In particular, the Joachimist idea of a new age
before the end of time could be transformed by Renaissance as-
which medieval and Renaissance ele-
pirations into a vision in
ments are combined: the universalization of Christendom by its
extension to all the new worlds, the ecumenical and peaceful
rule of a benevolent Emperor and spiritual Pope, the steady
spread of enlightenment through the new learning and the
printing press. Apocalyptic spirituality was still a universal
form of experience in the sixteenth century and was to remain
so, in much the same forms, for at least another century.

Marjorie Reeves
St. Anne's College
Oxford

xvin
Introduction
APOCALYPTIC
SPIRITUALITY

"7o prophesy is extremely difficult — especially about the future. " l

Many may think that all apocalyptic literature deserves to be

received with cool irony. The modern frame of mind with its
scientific and rationalistic outlook surely has little sympathy
with traditional prophecy about the end of history based on
divine revelation. Even among believing Christians, the de-
mythologizing of the scriptural message would seem to leave
small viability for biblical apocalyptic. Is there anything more
mythological in the whole of scripture than the Book of Daniel
and the Apocalypse of John with their bizarre visions and
luxuriant symbols? Is there anything more ludicrous in the
history of Christianity than the stream of apocalyptic prophets
and publicists whose announcements of the proximity of the
end of history have long since been overtaken by its course?
Anyone who surveys the full range of present-day Chris-
tian beliefs, of course, would be forced to admit that there are
strong elements of literal apocalypticism found in many
still

fundamentalist and charismatic groups. The success of the

works of Hal Lindsey is evidence enough of how many mil-

1
 INTRODUCTION

lions of readers still are convinced by literal applications of

2
biblical prophecies to events present and soon to come. (One
presumes that at least some of Lindsey's readers go to him for
enlightenment and not for entertainment.)
It might be argued that all this proves is that in some less-

respectable circles strange ideas will always abound. But the

hunger for apocalypse is far more widespread. The case has
been advanced that like so many of the traditional modes of
religious discourse, apocalypticism has not so much disap-
peared from the scene as it has adopted a variety of secular
disguises. 3 Considerable ingenuity and no little effort would be
needed to trace the history of these disguises, though the result
would make a fascinating study. J.V. Schall may well be right,
however, in his observation that at the present time "apoca-
lypse has become pre-eminently a scientific rather than a reli-
gious phenomenon." 4 We are, in fact, surrounded by prophets
of approaching doom who base their reading of the times on
scientific revelations at times as obscure and controversial as
the religious showings of old. Population expansion, the atomic
threat, potential atmospheric changes, depletion of essential
resources, and a host of other scientific projections can and are
being used to predict imminent destruction for the human race
and the world. It is not so much the empirical data, correct or
incorrect, that is being used as the form and style of the
message proclaimed and the way in which action is invoked
that mark off such books as Robert Heilbroner's An Inquiry into
the Human Prospect as a type of secular apocalypse. 5
Fundamentalist literalism and secular scientific prophet-
ism are not the only existing forms of apocalypticism alive in
the modern world. Over the past few decades there have been
serious attempts to understand the theological significance of
apocalypticism in Jewish and Christian thought. One could
point first of all to the studies of the biblical and intertesta-
mental origins of apocalypticism, which have enriched us with
new and better editions of texts, a wealth of detailed investiga-
tions, and a number of broad treatments that attempt to define
the essence of the genre "apocalypse" and to determine the
content of apocalypticism. Although there is still considerable
 INTRODUCTION

disagreement over central issues, the increase in knowledge

and interest over the past few decades has been considerable.
These same past years have also seen a renewal of interest
in the role of apocalypticism in contemporary theology. Ger-
man theologians like Ernst Kasemann, Wolfhart Pannenberg,
Karl Rahner, and Jiirgen Moltmann have devoted much
thought to the theological significance of apocalypticism. 6
Swiss theologian H. Mottu has recently studied the implica-
tions for contemporary theology of Joachim of Fiore, the fore-
most medieval apocalyptic author. 7 Without attempting to de-
scribe or evaluate these critical retrievals of apocalypticism,
their very existence should be enough to make our point:
Apocalypticism remains a serious concern for contemporary
Christianity.
The bulk of the studies devoted to apocalypticism in re-
cent years has focused on apocalyptic theology, the coherence
and claims of the various apocalyptic systems of thought.
Though the most work has been done on the intertestamental
and New Testament periods, various studies of later Christian
apocalypticism have also been produced. 8 Among the areas less
touched on in the recent wealth of investigation has been what
we will here call apocalyptic spirituality, that is, the ways in
which apocalypticism affects the believer and his actions.
This book is designed to be a contribution to wider knowl-
edge of apocalyptic spirituality in the patristic and medieval
—
periods well over half the time that apocalypticism has been a
part of Christian belief. My subject not apocalyptic thought
is

or theology as such, and hence there is no attempt here to

present a general historical sketch, nor to solve any of the hotly
disputed questions about the nature and development of apoca-
lyptic thought. If one wishes to learn more about the details of
the developing scenario of the last events, there are many texts
more essential than those translated here. These treatises and
lettershave been chosen because of the way in which they
manifest how beliefs about the imminent end affected the lives
of their adherents. They reveal the particular sense of the
divine present in the apocalyptic publicist, the awareness of
mission or calling that moved him to his efforts, and above all
 INTRODUCTION

the outlook and actions that he was trying to encourage in his

audience.
Our works span almost twelve centuries and were the
products of diverse authors and circumstances. For these rea-
sons individual introductions to the five sections seem neces-
sary to set the stage for each. But two more general questions
are better suited to treatment in a general introduction. The
first concerns the notion of apocalypticism (or apocalyptic as
some would call it in imitation of the German Apokalyptik) as it
is here employed. How are we to judgewhich works may be
called apocalyptic and which not? The second question re-
volves around the notion of apocalyptic spirituality itself. Is
there really a distinctive apocalyptic spirituality that spans the
centuries or is this too broad a category to be useful? So little

work has been done in this area that my remarks are meant to
be guides to further investigation and debate, not fixed conclu-
sions. The purpose of these selections, indeed, is to present
some of the evidence for the answer to this question to a wider
audience and thus to stimulate further discussion.

The Notion Of Apocalypticism

Apocalypticism, etymologically based on the Greek word for
revelation, has usuallybeen understood as indicating a divine
message of the imminent end of the world, or at least the end of
the present form of the world. 9 However, this dictionary com-
monplace masks considerable scholarly debate and no little
popular confusion of terms.
The confusion of terms results from the relation of apoca-
lypticism to such kindred words as eschatology, prophecy
(prophetism), millenarianism, chiliasm, messianism, and the
like. We need not ask everyone to agree on the meaning of

these terms, but we might at least expect authors to provide us

with some preliminary explanation of their own use. Failure to
do so, or more frequently the interpretation of another's use of
a term according to our own preconceived ideas, has been the
source of unnecessary confusion. Briefly put, I take apocalypti-
 INTRODUCTION

cism to be a particular form of eschatology, a species of a

broader genus that covers any type of belief that looks forward
to the end of history which gives structure and meaning
as that
to the whole. Thus Old Testament there is a prophetic
in the
eschatology that can be distinguished from an apocalyptic es-
chatology, as in later Christian history Augustinian eschatol-
ogy (to give but one example) is decidedly antiapocalyptic in
outlook. Prophecy also has a wider sense than apocalypticism.
A prophet is any "inspired person who believes that he has
been sent by his god with a message to tell." 10 According to
this definition all apocalypticists would be prophets, but the
reverse would not be true, because not all prophets announced
the message distinctive to apocalypticism. What sets off
apocalypticism from general eschatology is the sense of the
proximity of the end. What makes the apocalypticist a particu-
lar kind of prophet is not only the specification of his message,
but also the way in which he proclaims it, especially its
learned, written, or "scribal" character. 11
Millenarianism generally refers to beliefs in a coming
more perfect terrestrial form of society. Jewish and Christian
apocalyptic systems usually contained such hopes, the most
noted example being the thousand-year reign of Christ and the
saints on earth proclaimed in the twentieth chapter of the
Apocalypse (the doctrine of chiliasm). Important as such expec-
tations were to the history of apocalypticism, however, they do
not exhaust the content of the apocalyptic message, but concen-
trate on its optimistic pole. Similarly, the apocalyptic message
almost always involves the activity of the returning Christ and
various other divine agents, and thus always has elements of
messianism; but these too are aspects of the whole, not the
thing itself.
If scholars could agree, at least in broad fashion, about
what constitutes the core of apocalypticism, these nominalistic
problems would probably not bulk as large as they do. But
debate about the best way to understand the content of
apocalypticism, whether found in a work that is formally an
apocalypse or present in some other literary genre, still contin-
 INTRODUCTION

ues. There is more agreement about what constitutes the genre

apocalypse than about what is distinctively apocalyptic, at least
in English-speaking scholarship.
Most of the attempts to list the essential components of
apocalypticism have directed their attention to the Jewish
apocalypses of the period between 200 B.C. and A.D 100. The
variety among these lists serves to warn us at the outset that
apocalypticism is a complex notion that is difficult, perhaps
impossible, to reduce to one single formula. This is particularly
true when we attempt to broaden the definition to include later
Jewish and Christian beliefs about the imminent end. I would
suggest that instead of searching for one essential component
or a single list of characteristics based only on the early Jewish
examples, 12 we
should attempt to work out a structure of
interrelated concerns and motifs, not all of which need to be
present in any single case and which do not always need to be
related in the same way, but which will be broad and flexible
enough to do justice to a variety of related traditions over a
range of many centuries. We are only at the beginning of such
a task, as the following remarks will show.
I believe that the issues and interests of apocalypticism

center on the relation between time and eternity, between

man's life in history and the heavenly realm that is the home of
God's eternal plan. Through the book of the apocalyptic seer a
message from the heavenly realm is revealed that proclaims a
three-act historical drama of present trial, imminent judgment,
and future salvation. This triple pattern is implicitly or explic-
itly put within the framework of a sense of the total structure
of history, frequently a survey of the ages of the world or the
succession of empires. 13 A hope for the coming salvation of the
just both individually and collectively provides the prime mo-
tive for endurance of present trials. For the apocalypticist,
death is about to be overcome.
All of these themes are present in varying ways in the
Jewish apocalypses of the formative period of 200 B.C. to A.D.
100. They contribute to the evolution of apocalypticism in
Christian circles both directly and indirectly over many cen-
turies. Christian apocalypticism, rarely expressed in the formal
 INTRODUCTION

genre apocalypse after about A.D. 300, shows similar motifs: the
drive toward a universal view of history as a divinely ordered
structure; a profound pessimism about the present that is seen
as a time of crisis involving moral degeneration, persecution of
the good, and the triumph of the wicked; and, finally, an
optimism that is founded on a belief in an imminent divine
judgment of the wicked and vindication of the just. Vindica-
tion was conceived of in many ways, frequently millenarian,
but not necessarily so. From its origins, apocalypticism's hopes
for the future have involved the transcendence of death. It
should not surprise us that Jewish apocalyptic literature seems
to have had a double offspring in later Christianity, for not
only apocalyptic texts themselves but also the rich visionary
literature on the fate of the soul after death have direct links
with the Jewish apocalypses of the vital intertestamental pe-
riod.

Apocalyptic Spirituality
On the basis of these broad themes some aspects of a
tradition of apocalyptic spirituality that spans the centuries
seem to appear. Though we must remain ever conscious of the
significant differences in substance and in nuance (attempts to
isolate a single "apocalyptic mentality" usually appear too
rigid), 14 theregood reason for speaking of apocalyptic
still is

spirituality asone of the important strands in the history of

Christian striving toward God.
The
observation that apocalyptic literature is a literature
of consolation of those undergoing crisis, especially persecu-
tion for religious belief, commonplace. Like so many com-
is a
monplaces, it can be initially helpful, but rapidly grows harm-
ful if it becomes a roadblock to further thought. The relation
between apocalyptic religious attitudes and shattering crises
from the persecution of the Jews under Antiochus IV
Epiphanes that forms the background to the Book of Daniel up
to the Armageddons of modern war —
has been eloquently por-
trayed by Amos N. Wilder in his paper "The Rhetoric of
Ancient and Modern Apocalyptic." 15 For Wilder, "the rheto-
 INTRODUCTION

rics of apocalyptic . . . dramatize the group hierophany in a

situation of broken continuities."

16
He sees apocalyptic as the
product of a general crisis in which all seems forfeit to chaos,
and in which revelation as an ecstatic disclosure gives renewed
meaning to the historical process in the moment of greatest
anomie. 17 It is true that almost every apocalyptic text can be
related to some time of crisis, frequently one of persecution. It

is also true that apocalyptic texts hold out hope for the suffer-
ing righteous. They hour of trial
are told to stand fast in the
because God will soon come to reward them and to punish their
enemies. But we may well ask if crisis really is the cause of
apocalypticism and if consolation forms its only message.
As Walter Schmithals has observed, apocalyptic "is always
more than a reaction to causal structures in existing reality." 18
The crisis of the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes did not
"cause" the birth of apocalypticism in intertestamental Juda-
ism any more than the crisis of the twelfth-century Church
caused the new apocalyptic ideas of Joachim of Fiore. A sense
of present crisis might be better described as the occasion or
context rather than the motivating force in these cases. While it

is true that some of the major stages in the history of apocalyp-

tic traditions have arisen within situations of broken continu-
ities, or of serious social anomie, many others have not. One
person's sense of what constitutes a trial or crisis need not
coincide with the general judgment of his time or with the later
views of historians. Thus the presence of messengers of doom
in late Quattrocento Italy, the Age of Savonarola, need not be
seen as either typical or anomalous of Renaissance society, but
as illustrating one way of coming to terms with the conditions
of a highly volatile era. Perhaps the apocalypticist might be
better described as one on the lookout for crisis, rather than
one who merely reacts to it when it happens. The apocalyptic
mentality is a particular form of pre-understanding rather than
a mere way of responding. More sensitive to change than the
mass of their fellows, apocalypticists are more in need of a
religious structure within which to absorb and give meaning to
the anxieties that always accompany existence and change.
 INTRODUCTION

This need moves them to shape their history and lives in

distinctive and recognizable ways.
The purposes for which apocalyptic messages were spread
abroad are far too complex to be exhausted under the rubric of
consolation alone. The apocalypticist not only strives to con-
sole the believer with the hope of coming vindication, but he
also tries to strengthen him to endure and to rouse him to
resist. Because of its concern with the structure and meaning of

history, apocalyptic literature has broad political implications

in the root sense of politics as that which pertains to the
government of the state. One author has described apocalyptic
as a form of political rhetoric, 19 a description that is helpful
provided that we do not forget the religious dimensions of the
political.
In my book Visions of the End
have suggested that the
I

dynamic range of uses to which apocalypticism has been put, in

medieval history at least, can be understood on the basis of a
distinction between a priori and a posteriori modes of apoca-
lyptic discourse, each of which can be used in positive and
negative ways. In the a priori mode the inherited apocalyptic
drama with its various symbolic figures and conflicts is used to
give meaning to current events. By fitting a present situation
into the framework of an inherited prophetic message the
believer is not only enlightened but also motivated to take a
stand. The a priori mode is used positively when it is invoked
to support the structures of Christian society at a time when
they are challenged or threatened, or negatively when the
symbols are used to provoke passive or active resistance to
ruling powers who are viewed as the agents of the present evil
age. The fact that apocalypticism originated at a time when the
Jewish people lived under foreign domination and that it was
adopted by Christianity when it too was a persecuted sect, first
of all within the matrix of Judaism and subsequently within
the wider Roman world, meant that the earliest stages of
apocalypticism were generally of the negative a priori type. 20
This has tended to blind observers to the positive, sustaining
uses of apocalyptic that become evident after the conversion of
 INTRODUCTION

the empire to Christianity. While apocalyptic traditions contin-

ued to be used in negative fashion, either to foster revolution,
as in the case of the Taborites of fifteenth-century Bohemia, or
as the basis for forms of passive resistance, such as with the
Fraticelli of the fourteenth century, it was more frequently
employed encourage support of Christian society against
to
enemies, either external, like Islam or the Mongols, or internal,
especially heretics and wicked rulers. Although it was always
God and not man who was seen as bestowing the final victory
over evil in the drama of the end, one might well be called on to
take up arms and fight on God's side. There are numerous
examples of such summonses in the history of medieval apoca-
lypticism.
Apocalyptic literature, at least after the fourth century,
also displays a posteriori functions, that is, expansions of the
inherited scenario of the last events to make room for transcen-
dentalized reflections of major changes and developments in
the history of Christian society. This function is an attempt to
make sense of drastic change (not always crisis in the negative
sense) in terms of the end, because it is the end that provides

history with meaning and structure.

The two major examples of the a posteriori mode of
apocalypticism are the ways in which the conversion of the
Roman Empire and the rise of the papacy to a position of
universal religious leadership gave birth to new actors and new
scenes in the drama of the end. 21 There is not the slightest hint
in scripture or in the early Christian tradition for such figures.
Their creation was the response of a series of apocalyptic
authors to changes that from the perspective of apocalyptic
beliefs could be grasped only on the basis of their transcenden-
tal projection into the end-time. If the Christian Roman Em-
pire was the force restraining the Antichrist, and if the em-
peror himself was the highest source of divine authority on
earth, thenit was inconceivable that the empire and its leader

would have no role in the last events. The myth of the Last
World Emperor, a belief that the empire would not totally fail
before a messianic emperor had vindicated its supremacy over

10
 INTRODUCTION

everyone but the dread last enemy himself, was fully developed
by the late seventh century. If the papacy were indeed the
supreme religious office of Christendom, how could it too lack
a role in the last times?
The apocalypticism tended to support
a posteriori uses of
the institutions it apocalypticized. This
is eminently true of the

legends concerning the Last Emperor. Various individual

Christian emperors and kings had been seen as the Antichrist
or one of his predecessors (there was precedent in the Bible for
this); some, likeNero and Frederick II, even managed to reach
heights of infamy that gave them a transcendental role as
returning Antichrists. But the Last Emperor himself in his
many forms was always the summation of the dignity of the
imperial office, the supreme rallying point for Christian alle-
giance. He was seen as a warrior and scourge, one who would
wreak bloody vengeance on Christianity's enemies and purify
the corrupt Church with fire and sword if necessary, but
always as a positive messianic figure.
The apocalyptic role of the papacy was a bit more ambigu-
ous. Hopes for a series of coming holy popes, or pastores angelici,
were widespread in the later Middle Ages. They testified not
only to belief in the significance of the papal office, but also to
the criticism of current popes who did not seem to measure up
to the high standards of their job. Making use of the scriptural
notion of the Antichrist as a false teacher seated in the Temple
(that is, the Church) some late medieval authors identified
contemporary evil or heretical popes with the Antichrist him-
self. This is not to be seen as a rejection of the papacy (some-

thing that had to wait for the radical Hussites and later six-
teenth-century Reformers), but as an appeal from an unworthy
present to an imminent messianic restoration and reform of the
glory of the Petrine office.
Apocalypticism then could be used for a variety of pur-
poses, not only in criticism of the powers of this world, but also
in their behalf. The message of the apocalypticists was one of
consolation and promise of reward, but there were other di-
mensions that we must not forget, such as those of historical

11
 INTRODUCTION

illumination and martial exhortation. To neglect the full range

of uses is to misunderstand the meaning of apocalyptic spiritu-
ality.
Apocalyptic texts invite the reader to a decision between
good and evil. Hence we should not be disturbed at the strong
component of moralism built into most apocalyptic writings. 22
Steadfast perseverance in good, particularly in time of persecu-
tion, will be rewarded. Persistence in evil will be punished.
This message is never far from the apocalypticist's mind.
Lactantius's treatise on the last things found in the seventh
book of his Divine Institutes is as much an analysis of the
virtuous life as it is a description of the end-time. For the
Christian Roman rhetorician, each necessarily implied the
other. Authors Joachim of Fiore and Savonarola also felt
like
impelled to proclaim their messages of impending doom as a
way of providing one last warning to sinners to forsake their
evil ways while it was still possible. To hear this message and
continue to reject it was to increase one's guilt in the face of
coming judgment. The moralizing of apocalyptic authors may
strike us as tedious at times, but it was a necessary corollary of
their conviction that the final acts of history could contain no
gray areas.
The
other side of the at times self-righteous moralism of
is the emphasis that they give to the value of
the apocalypticists
endurance and patience under trial and suffering. None of the
texts translated here lacks this dimension; it shines out espe-
cially clearly in the letters of the monk Adso and of the Spiri-
tual Franciscans. Angelo of Clareno's poignant account of the
forty years of trials that he and his
companions had undergone
is an unforgettable lesson in patient suffering. Peter John
Olivi's Letter to the Sons of Charles II is a carefully structured
theological fugue on the same topic. These texts show that
enduring until the end is not meant to be a merely passive
state; it is considered a supremely active exercise of virtue.
In the midst of present trial and persecution the confi-
dence of the believer in the imminent end is bouyed up in three
ways. First of all, he rejoices in a basic security that flows from
his sense of belonging in history, his ability to fit the present

12
 INTRODUCTION

into the grand scheme of things that God had laid down from
all eternity. Second, he is able to endure present evil precisely
because he knows that its time is short. Third, his hope fills
him with joy because he knows that the vindication that is at
—
hand will be definitive history's perfection or consummation
and his own transcendence of death. Each of these three ways
deserves some amplification.
Frank Kermode in his provoking work The Sense of an
Ending has argued:

Men, rush "into the middest," in medias res, when

like poets,
they are born; they also die in mediis rebus, and to make sense
of their span they need fictive concords with origins and
ends, such as give meaning to lives and to poems. The End
they imagine will reflect their irreducibly intermediary
preoccupations. 23

To have one's life and an end, not only

related to a beginning
in individual terms, but alsofrom the viewpoint of the whole,
is one way of overcoming what Mircea Eliade has called the
"terror of history." 24 The special strength of apocalyptic be-
liefs is the way in which they answer the desire for knowledge
of past, present, and future that is certain and detailed, not
merely tentative and general. This not only explains much of
why they survive in disguised fashion today, but also why
"Apocalypse can be disconfirmed without being discredited." 25
Most apocalyptic systems have survived disconfirmation again
and again through adaptation, adjustment, and recalculation.
The reason is that the human anxieties that apocalypticism
alleviates are far too permanent and pressing to allow tempo-
rary disconfirmation ruinous power.
Even more important than the security afforded by a sense
of the wholeness and purpose of history is the way in which
apocalypticism gives particular meaning to the present. As W.
Schmithals has said:

The thought is intensively historical.

apocalypticist's . . .

This demonstrated, not so much by the interest in history

is

in general, which could in fact be a detached, curious,

13
 INTRODUCTION

speculative interest, as it often appears in modern times,

but by the apocalypticist's concern about the hour which is
striking for his generation. 26

Above all, it is the relation of this hour to the imminent end,

the decisive transformation of the world that involves the
vindication of the just and the destruction of the wicked, that
gives apocalyptic believers the courage to endure the brief evils
they face.
There are, of course, many ways in which the imminence
has been perceived, as is evident from the texts given here.
Perhaps the distinction invoked by George Caird between the
end beyond which nothing can take place in history and the
end-time in which much will happen may be useful here. 27
Such a distinction was by no means foreign to our authors:
Something similar appears in Joachim of Fiore's text on the
figure of the seven-headed dragon. 28 Even authors like Lactan-
tius, who believed that Christ's return lay perhaps as much as
two hundred years in the future, still had an overwhelming
conviction that the hour in which they were writing was
witnessing the beginning of the end-time, that period in which
the chain of events of the apocalyptic drama had already begun
its inexorable course. The end-time could be short or long, and

it could be thought of as spanning both the hour of trial and

suffering and the terrestrial millennium of victory to come

afterit. What was distinctive of the traditional apocalypticist

was his conviction that the present was a part of the end-time
in which history was to achieve its purpose. The chronological
imminence of the coming reward was less significant than its
psychological imminence. The curtain had opened and the play
had begun.
The vindication that the apocalypticist awaited so ardently
was founded on a hope stronger than any suffering. According
toJohn Collins:

The effect of apocalyptic a perspective on human life.

is

Physical death not an ultimate disaster. There is a life,

is

and there are values which go beyond, or transcend, death.

14
 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of apocalyptic is to foster the cherishing of

values which transcend death and thereby the experience of
transcendent life.
29

For the apocalyptic authors the hope in the transcendence of

death involved individual and collective aspects in an insepara-
ble way. A belief in individual survival after death in the
distinctive form of the resurrection of the flesh that guaranteed
the victory of the total human person has been counted as the
greatest achievement of the creators of apocalyptic spiritual-
ity.
30 In the presence of the critical hour each man was individ-
ually called to the decision that would be the basis for his
imminent reward or punishment, but the apocalypticist was
never a solipsist. The faithful remnant, the company of the
just, the true Church, was asmuch the object of coming vindi-
cation as was each believer. Man and his society were to be
transformed, a hope that is among the most precious contribu-
tions of apocalypticism to Western thought.
It may seem that apocalyptic spirituality is nothing more

than a species of wish fulfillment, a projection of human needs,

or, in a kinder vein, a stage in religious development that we
have been able to leave behind. Even so sympathetic an
investigator as Frank Kermode is convinced that the end must
now be conceived as immanent rather than imminent, that
realized eschatology must replace naive consistent eschatology,
and that apocalyptic must be swallowed up by tragedy and
finally by absurdity, however much certain of its patterns
persist. 31 The contemporary theological retrievals of apocalyp-
ticism by a Pannenberg, a Moltmann, or a Rahner also see no
return to outmoded historical patterns and naive predictions
for the future. So much seems agreed on, and I have no reason
to demur. I do think it worth a final warning, though, to note
that the destruction of the naive literal apocalypticisms of the
past can proceed too precipitously and pervasively to allow us
to understand the religious significance of this long tradition.
There is a wisdom and meaning in the symbols of apocalyptic

spirituality that can easily be lost by the ham-handed applica-

tion of the critical method. Something like Paul Ricoeur's call

15
 INTRODUCTION

for a second naivete achieved in and through the critical inter-

u
pretation of symbols in order to bring us to a postcritical
equivalent of the precritical hierophany" 32 is still a most prom-
ising wager for the contemporary recovery of the religious
meaning of apocalypticism. It is my hope that the texts pre-
sented here will give some small help in this task.
One final note concerns the use of scripture in these
treatises and have elected to translate directly from
letters. I
the texts given by the authors, rather than from any standard
modern translations, because these writings show considerable
freedom in their citation of scripture, a freedom that is at times
important to their argument.
There is always an end beyond the end, so it remains for
me to thank those whose help has made this book possible. My
gratitude is due first of all to Richard Payne, the editor of this
series, for accepting the idea of such a volume for The Classics
of Western Spirituality and for his constant help and encour-
agement. Michael Hollerich, Dominic Monti, O. F. M., and
James Moran, C. S. C, all gave very valuable assistance in
checking the translations and making many useful suggestions.
Whatever errors remain are my own. Finally, Professor E.
Randolph Daniel of the University of Kentucky, one of the
world's foremost Joachim scholars, provided the translation
and notes from a key section of his not yet published edition of
the abbot of Fiore's Book of Concordance for this volume.

16
Parti
LACTANTIUS

Even the students and admirers of Lactantius have not be-

stowed undue praise on him. To Rene Pichon, "Lactantius is
—
'mediocre' in the Latin sense of the word and also a bit in the
French sense"; to Vincenzo Loi, "Lactantius is neither a philo-
1

sophical or theological genius nor linguistic genius." 2 Despite

these rather cool remarks, it would be a mistake to underesti-
mate this fluent Christian rhetorician whom the Renaissance
Humanist Giovanni Pico della Mirandola once referred to as
"the Christian Cicero." Like his pagan mentor, Lactantius's
originality not as important as his typicality. He is an impor-
is

tant witness to many of the major themes of Patristic thought,

not only the encounter between Christian doctrine and Latin
Classical culture, but also the continued vitality of Christian
apocalypticism.
The facts of his can be briefly told. 3 L. Caecilius
life

Firmianus Lactantius was born in North Africa before the

middle third century. Jerome tells us that he was a student of
Arnobius, another African rhetorician who converted to Chris-
tianity late in life. We do not know whether Lactantius's
conversion took place before he was summoned to teach rheto-
ric at Nicomedia in Asia Minor by the Emperor Diocletian. At
the beginning of Diocletian's persecution in 303, Lactantius
had to retire from his position at court. He appears to have

17
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

Minor until 305, when he left for the West. The

stayed in Asia
Emperor Constantine summoned the aged scholar to Trier in
Gaul about 317 to tutor his son Crispus. It is not known when
he died.
Although some of his works are lost, we can gain a good
idea of his eclectic thought through the five that survive. The
most important of these is the Divine Institutes in seven books
composed between 304 and 313. Lactantius announces that he
will treat of "hope, life, salvation, immortality, and God"
(1.1) —
in other words, a comprehensive summary of Christian
teaching that also involved a refutation of the errors of pagan
cult and thought. Books I and II attack Roman religion; Book
III is a refutation of the philosophers. Book IV discusses the
true wisdom brought by Christ; Book V treats of justice; Book
VI of true worship; and the final book of the blessed life. The
outline is more organized than the work since Lactantius was
fond of orator's digressions.
Although the African teacher criticized pagan philos-
ophers and held that no single philosophical school had more
than a partial glimpse of the truth fully revealed in the scrip-
tures, hisknowledge of Classical thought, especially as filtered
through Lucretius and Cicero, was large, and his indebtedness
to philosophical categories for the presentation of his ideas was
extensive. Lactantius's use of philosophy is scarcely system-
atic — his mingling of Platonism and Stoicism resulted in some
serious ambiguities and confusions; nor was his presentation of
Christian teaching without its peculiarities. Vincenzo Loi has

shown that some of most distinctive ideas, especially the

his
strong dualistic tendency dependent on a doctrine of two an-
tagonistic primal spirits, as well as his chiliasm, or literal
acceptance of the thousand-year reign of Christ and the saints
on earth, brought him within the orbit of Jewish-Christian
traditions strong in Asia Minor where he taught at the court of
the emperor. 4
The second half of the seventh Book of the Divine Institutes
isone of the most detailed and interesting treatments of Chris-
tian apocalypticism known. Lactantius not only summarized
the essential elements of the ancient tradition of Jewish-Chris-

18
 LACTANTIUS

tian chiliasm, but also attempted to weave these together with a

variety of other traditions concerning world judgment and
renewal. The reason for the creation of this eclectic account
was by no means purely speculative. Right belief about the
coming judgment and reward was meant to provide motivation
for Christians to live according to justitia, defined as "the
devout and religious worship of the one God" (5.7), a basic
theme of Lactantius's apologetic.
Lactantius's emphasis on apocalypticism appears to go
counter to the generalization frequently made about the death
of the apocalyptic mentality in post-New Testament times.
The issues involved in these claims are complex, involving not
only an evaluation of how important apocalypticism was to the
earliest Christian communities, but also a position on how
much apocalypticism was or was not present in Christianity
after the mid-second century. These questions have often been
answered in a simple and rigid manner; a true appreciation of
the complexity of the relation between Christianity and apoca-
lypticism explodes most of these generalizations.
As Ernst Kasemann put it in a much-quoted phrase:
"Apocalyptic was the mother of all Christian theology." 5 Belief
that the Resurrection of Christ had inaugurated the apocalyptic
aeon and that the Risen Lord would soon return at the Parou-
sia to manifest openly and universally the Kingdom that was
already present in hidden reality was basic to earliest Chris-
tianity.But as the New Testament documents and the layers of
tradition on which they rest seem to indicate, the variation in
the ways in which this fundamental tenet came to be under-
stood and related to other elements in Christian teaching and
practice was considerable from the start. There are many theol-
ogies in the New Testament, and there are different forms of
apocalypticism as well.
Some students of early Christian history, beginning from
the premise that millennial and apocalyptic movements must
be temporary by definition, have explained the survival and
success of Christianity by surmising that hopes for the immi-
nent return of Christ had to be replaced by something else.
Martin Werner in his study The Formation of Christian Dogma

19
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

saw the consistent-eschatological foundation of early Christian

belief give way in the second century to a theology based on
the institution of the sacraments. More recently, John Gager,
6

borrowing categories from the social sciences, explained the

Church's success by an appeal to the phenomenon of "cogni-
tive dissonance." According to Gager, embarrassment over the
delay of the Parousia led to greater effort at proselytizing,
which resulted in the formation of a unique sense of commu-
nity and a Church became the enemy of any form of
that
apocalypticism or eschatology. 7 But Christianity, at least as far
back as our sources will take us with any security, already
seems too complex to be characterized as a simple apocalyptic
movement or millenarian cult, and hence such explanations are
too rigid to deal with the full range of the transformations and
developments in early Christian beliefs. We cannot disregard
the continuation of apocalyptic hopes after the middle of the
second century nor dismiss these as anachronistic and unim-
portant for Christianity's growth and success. 8 The role that
Lactantius gives to such beliefs argues to the inadequacy of this
approach, and a glance at some other evidence from second-
and third-century Christian history confirms this.
Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons from about 178 to 200, was
among the most influential ecclesiastical authors of the second
century. A opponent of Gnostic heresy, as his major
forceful
work Against the Heresies shows, he was also a good example of
the monarchical bishop as guardian and interpreter of tradi-
tion, a type whose triumph was crucial to the future success of
the nascent Christian movement. Nevertheless, this conserva-
tive institutional leaderdevoted an important part of the fifth
book of his magnum opus to a detailed survey of the apocalyptic
scenario that made use not only of scriptural materials, but also
of a rich variety of themes that he probably inherited from his
native Asia Minor. 9 Irenaeus gives no indication of how proxi-
mate he thought the return of the Risen Christ was, but there is
no doubt that the events presaging the Parousia and the hope of
a material thousand-year Kingdom on earth were very impor-
tant to him. His absorption in the mysteries of the end may not

20
 LACTANTIUS

be as all-encompassing as that of the first Christians, but it

would be ludicrous to say that apocalypticism meant nothing
to him.
It is unsure whether or not Lactantius knew the works of

Irenaeus. The two share many apocalyptic themes, but these

could have reached the African teacher through various com-
mon traditions. A similar observation may be made regarding
the relation between Lactantius and Hippolytus (died 235).
This learned Roman presbyter did not think that the return of
Christ was imminent, indeed, a part of the message of his
Commentary on Daniel was to prove that Christ had been born at
the middle and not at the end of the sixth millennium of
history so that over two hundred years remained before the
establishment of the chiliastic reign of Christ. 10 But his works,
especially the Treatise on Christ and the Antichrist, provided a
summary of the full range of early Christian speculation on the
final events of history.
The survival of apocalypticism in second- and third-cen-
tury Christianity is amply documented not only in the case of
the theologians, but also by the continued production of apoca-
lyptic visions in Christian circles and by Christian involvement
with the Sibylline tradition. Greek and Roman belief in female
seers called Sibyls was ancient, but the oldest books of Sibylline
verses that survive to us are the products of Hellenistic Jewish
circles in Egypt written in the second century B.C. Though
these verse prophecies differ in form from the intertestamental
apocalypses, they share enough similarities in content, espe-
cially the emphasis on coming judgment for sin, to allow one
authority to call them "the Apocalyptic of Hellenistic Diaspora
Judaism." 11 Jewish production of the Sibyllines continued for
many centuries; from about AD. 150 Christian authors began to
add to this literature as well, either reworking older poems in a
Christian sense or producing new ones. Theologians like Justin
Martyr, Theophilus of Antioch, Clement of Alexandria, Ter-
tullian, and Hippolytus cited the Sibyls, especially for their
monotheistic, ethical, and apocalyptic message. Christian fasci-
nation with the female seers reached its culmination in

21
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

Lactantius, who cites them times in his surviv-

at least fifty-one
ing works — one and one-half times more than he cited the Old
Testament! 12
The lengthy time of troubles that the Roman Empire
entered upon in the third century may have been partly re-
sponsible for the periodic outbreaks of expectations of the
imminent advent of the Antichrist that we find during the
following century. 13 Even when there is no explicit reference
to the proximity of the end there is evidence of considerable
interest in a variety of apocalyptic themes. Efforts to work out
the periods of history of the world, found in Christian authors
since the first half of the second century, were expanded in the
writings of the third-century chronographers. 14 Commodian
and Hippolytus are monuments to the rich growth of legends
concerning the Antichrist, 15 and at the end of the century
Bishop Victorinus of Pettau's Commentary on the Apocalypse 16
taught a materialistic chiliasm close to that of Lactantius.
The Seventh Book of the Institutes was the heir and sum-
mation of these tendencies. Surprisingly little has been written
about this fundamental source for the apocalypticism of the
early Church. 17 A full analysis of the text would demand
considerable attention to sources and to later influence; in the
briefcompass available here only the major themes can be
summarized. The title itself, "The Blessed Life," sets the stage
for the detailed treatment of the teleology of the divine
dispositio, or plan for the whole of history, that gives structure
to the book. Beginning from a consideration of the creation of
the world and of man Lactantius moves through
(chapters 3-7),
a discussion of the immortality of the soul and the necessity of
virtue (chapters 8-13) to conclude with a treatment of the goal
of history in chapters 14 through 27.
Lactantius's doctrine on the ages of the world presented in
chapters fourteen and fifteen is built on the theme of the
cosmic week, that is, the parallel between the seven days of
creation and the seven millennia of history popular among
Christian authors for many generations. Like Hippolytus and
his followers,he saw Christ's birth as coming in the middle of
the final millennium and thus expected as much as two hun-

22
 LACTANTIUS

dred years before the establishment of the millennial kingdom

18 This breathing space was not
(7.25). to be taken as an argu-
ment for laxity or the abandonment of an attitude toward life
deeply influenced by a sense of the approaching end; the signs
of the times analyzed in chapters fourteen and fifteen show
that Lactantius thought of his era as one of increasing gloom
and troubles presaging the collapse of Rome and the coming of
the two Antichrists whose careers are detailed in chapters
sixteen through nineteen. This splitting of the Antichrist into
two figures, the first a king who was to destroy the Roman
Empire (usually from the West, but in the case of Lactantius
from the more biblical North), the second a false teacher (usu-
ally Jewish in origin, but in Lactantius from Syria) who was to
defeat the former, proclaim himself God, and persecute the
Church, is found in a number of Patristic Authors. 19 In its
detail and distinctive elements, Lactantius's description is the
richest we possess.
After several chapters discussing the judgment and pun-
ishment of souls and the resurrection of the just at the end of
the sixth millennium, Lactantius sums up traditions of early
Christian chiliasm in his noted twenty-fourth chapter. 20 Basing
himself on the literal materialistic reading of Apocalypse 20:1-6
that he probably learned in Asia Minor, he gives a full descrip-
tion of the joys of the just who will reign with Christ for a
thousand years. Many traditions are utilized here, not only
Sibylline and biblical, but also Classical notions of the Golden
Age, seen as the poets' erroneous rendition of the prophetic
revelation of the coming Kingdom. Chapter twenty-five re-
turns to the question of the time of the Kingdom and the final
two chapters take up the events at the end of the seventh
millennium when Satan will be loosed for his final defeat, the
general resurrection and judgment will take place, and the just
will be turned into angels to enjoy forever their heavenly
reward. The work ends on a typical moralizing note.
Perhaps the most striking thing about Lactantius's account
of the events of the end-time is the range of sources he appeals
to as divina testimonia, divine witnesses of the truth of what he
predicts. A reference at the beginning of chapter twenty-five

23
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

indicates that this was at least in part an apologetic strategy

designed to confute the pagans from their own sacred authors,
but the range of Lactantius's knowledge of exotic texts is still
remarkable. The extensive use of Vergil and the Sibylline
oracles may not surprise us, but the appeals to the Oracle of
Apollo, the Hermetic Asclepius, 21 and the Oracle of Hystaspes
are unusual. This last text, also known to Justin Martyr and
Clement of Alexandria, has been shown to be a Greek ver-
sion, probably of the first century B.C., of an authentic Iranian
apocalypse incorporating themes still available to us through
later Persian sources. 22 Explicitly cited in chapters fifteen and
eighteen, it may also be used implicitly in a number of passages
in chapters sixteen, seventeen, and nineteen.
In the long run, Lactantius is more the compiler than the
creator, more the facile rhetorician than the visionary. Never-
theless, the importance that he gives to the apocalyptic message
of Christianity and his desire to show that the same message
had been foretold by the seers of all religions affords us a
remarkable insight into the continued power of apocalyptic in
the spirituality of the early Church. 23

24
LACTANTIUS
"The Blessed Life", Book VII of Divine Institutes

1. "Good; the foundations are laid/' as the famous orator

says. 1
We
have not only laid foundations that are strong and fit
to support the work, but we have also almost finished the
whole building with large and solid construction. The much
easier part is left, the roof or ornament without which the
earlier work is useless and thankless. What use is it to be freed
from false religions or to understand the true religion? What
use is it to see the vanity of false wisdom or to recognize the
truth? What use is it to defend heavenly justice or to hold fast
to the worship of God in the midst of great difficulties (the
height of virtue), unless you gain the divine prize of eternal
happiness? 2 We must speak of that prize in this book so that all
the former material not vain and fruitless. If we were to leave
is

hanging what we have done all the rest for, one might think
that all these labors were undertaken in vain and despair of the
heavenly reward that God established for the man who scorns
the earth's sweet goods in comparison with virtue alone.
We will construct this part of our work with scriptural
testimonies and proven arguments to show that things to come
are to be preferred to present things, divine things are to be
preferred to earthly ones, and eternal things to passing ones.
The rewards of vice are temporary, those of virtue eternal.
I will explain the world's makeup so that you can easily
grasp when and why God made it. Plato, who spoke about the
structure of the world, could not understand or explain this.

He was ignorant of the heavenly mystery learned only by the

prophets under God's instruction. Therefore, he says that the
world was made from eternity. 3 It is far different, for whatever
exists in material form necessarily has both a beginning at a
certain time and an end. Aristotle, because he did not see how
such a great mass could perish, wished to avoid this by saying
that the world always was and always will be. 4 He understood

25
 —

APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

absolutely nothing. Whatever exists necessarily has a begin-

ning at some time and nothing at all can exist unless it has
—
begun. When we see earth, water, fire the parts of this world
undone, consumed, and extinguished, we understand that a
whole whose parts are mortal is itself mortal. Whatever is born
can die. Everything that is visible, as Plato says, is both corpo-
real and able to be dissolved. 5 Epicurus alone, following De-
mocritus, was truthful here. He said that the world originated
at some time and would perish at some time. 6 Nevertheless, he
was unable to give any explanation, either by assigning the
causes or by giving the time when so great a work is to end.
Since God has revealed it to us, we know it by heavenly
gift and not by guessing. We will present it so zealously that
those anxious for truth will see that the philosophers have not
seen nor understood the truth, but were so lightly touched that
they in noway perceived the source of the sweet and pleasant
wisdom that breathed upon them. Meanwhile, it is necessary to
warn the reader that evil and vicious minds whose higher
powers are dulled by earthly desires that weigh down the
senses and weaken them will not understand these teachings
we pass on at all. Even if they do understand them, they will
falsify them and not admit them to be true. Drawn by vices,
they consciously favor their sweet captivating evil habits and
they abandon the way of virtue whose bitterness offends them.
On fire with avarice and an insatiable thirst for possessions,
and unable to lead a modest life when the goods they love are
sold or scattered, they surely would rather have what forces
them to renounce their desires to be a fiction. In the same way,
those who are led on by the stirrings of lust "dash into madness
and fire," as the poet says. 7 They claim that we bring impossi-
ble teachings because we wound their ears with the command-
ment of continence that would forbid them the pleasures to
which they have dedicated their bodies and souls. Those who
put all their effort into gaining honors are blown up with
ambition and enflamed with love of power. They would not
adjust their belief to a teaching that if accepted would want
them to hold all power and honor in contempt and to live so
humbly that they could accept injury and not return it. No, not

26
 LACTANTIUS

if we bore the sun our hands! 8 These are the men who
itself in
with closed eyes rage against the truth in any way. But those
who are healthy, that is, not so immersed in vices that they are
incurable, will both believe and readily draw near. Whatever
we say will seem open, plain, and simple to them, and, what is

more, true and irrefutable.

No one favors virtue who does not pursue it, and to pursue
it is not easy for everyone. Those whom poverty and want have

trained and made capable can do it. If virtue is the ability to

endure hard things, those who are always well-off do not
understand it because they have neither experienced difficul-
ties nor are they even able to because they have become accus-
tomed to and desire only what they know. So the poor and
humble who are free of things believe in God more easily than
the rich, who are bound down by many burdens. They are
bound and shackled, slaves to the whim of Lady Cupidity, who
has ensnared them in unbreakable chains. They cannot look up
to heaven because their minds are flat on the ground fixed to
the dirt. The path of virtue does not accept those who carry
much baggage; narrow is the way by which justice leads men to
heaven. Only he who is free and clear of things can hold to it.
Those who are rich and weighed down by vast burdens walk
the way of death, a way that is so broad because destruction
rules so widely. Whatever God commands for the sake of
justice and whatever we say on the basis of God's teaching
about virtue and truth is bitter and poisonous to them. If they
dare to reject it, they must admit they are enemies of virtue and
justice.
Now come to what remains so that the work can be
I

finished. What is left is our discussion of the judgment of God.

The judgment is arranged so that when Our Lord returns to
earth he will give each person either reward or punishment for
his merit. Just as we spoke of the First Coming of the Lord in
the Fourth Book, in this book we will speak of that Second
Coming which the Jews also confess and hope for, though in
vain, for he has to return to confound those 9 whom he first had
come to call. For those who dishonored the Humble Man in
an unholy fashion will experience the Victorious Man in his

27
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

power, and with God restoring the balance they will suffer all
the things they read and did not understand. Those who were
stained with every sin and above all covered with the holy
blood are destined to eternal punishment by the very one on
whom they laid unholy hands. But we will have a separate
section against the Jews in which we will convict them of error
and crime.
2. Now let us instruct the ignorant. The providence of
Almighty God has ordained that this unjust age should reach
an end after the course of the ages at a time when every evil
shall be instantly destroyed and the souls of the faithful called
back to a blessed life. Under the rule of God himself, there will
then flourish that quiet, tranquil and peaceful age that the
poets call "Golden." 10 For philosophers the principal cause of
all error was they did not understand the order of the world

that contains the whole of wisdom. That order cannot be

grasped by one's own perception and interior understanding,
but they wished to do it themselves without a teacher. So they
fell into varying and frequently self-contradictory positions

from which there was no exit. They stuck fast in the same mud,
as the comic playwright says, 11 that is, their reasoning did not
conform to their premises. Although they had assumed some
truths, these could not be affirmed or proved without knowl-
edge of the Truth and of heavenly things. As I have frequently
said, these matters cannot be found in man unless they are
received from God's teaching. If man were able to understand
divine things, he would also be able to do them, for to under-
stand is to do forthwith. Man cannot do the things that God
can because he is endowed with a mortal body; therefore, he
cannot even understand what God does. It is easy for each of us
to judge whether this is possible from the greatness of these
matters and of the works of God, for if you were to contem-
plate the world and everything in it, you would well under-
stand how much God's work surpasses human works. Neces-
sarily then there is as much distance between the wisdom of
God and that of man as there is difference between divine and
human works. Because God is incorruptible and immortal and
perfect in his eternity, his wisdom is as perfect as himself.

28
 LACTANTIUS

Nothing is able to thwart it, because God himself is subject to

nothing.
Since man is subject to passion, his wisdom is subject to
error. Just as many things hinder human life and prevent it

from being eternal, so too man's wisdom is necessarily ham-

pered in many ways so that it cannot be completely perfect in
perceiving truth. Thus human wisdom is useless if it strives to
come to the idea of truth and knowledge through itself, because
the mind of man is bound down to a weak body and impris-
oned in a dark dwelling so that it cannot freely maneuver or
clearly perceive the truth whose knowledge is divine. God
alone knows his own works; man is able to attain his knowl-
edge not by thinking or disputing, but by hearing and learning
from him who alone is able to know and to teach. And so
Cicero adopted from Plato Socrates' opinion. At the time when
he was departing from life but those before whom he was
arguing his case were still alive, Socrates said: "Which may be
better, I think the immortal gods know, but no man." 12 For
from the truth
this reason all the philosophical sects are far
because they were founded by men. They can have no founda-
tion or firmness because they have no support from divine
revelation.
3. Since we are speaking of the errors of the philosophers,
the Stoics divide nature into two parts, the one that makes, the
other that offers itself for formation. In the first there is power
to understand, in the latter matter. The one can do nothing
without the other. How can it be the same being that both
forms and is formed? If someone said that the potter is the same
as the clay or the clay the same as the potter, would he not seem
clearly crazy? The Stoics include two completely different
things, God and the world, the Maker and the work, under the
single name of "nature." They say that the one can do nothing
without the other, as though nature were God mixed in with
the world. Sometimes they so confuse things that God himself
is the mind of the world and the world the body of God, as if

the world and God came into being at the same time and God
did not make the world. 13 At other times they themselves
admit creation when they announce that the world was made

29
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

for the sake of man, and that God, as a divine and eternal mind
separated and free of a body, is able to exist without the world
if he wished. Since they were not able to understand his power

and majesty, they mixed him up with the world, that is, with
his work. Hence the passage in Vergil:

Mind spread through all the limbs

impels the entire mass and mingles
itself in the vast body. 14

Where then what they say was both made by divine

is

providence and is ruled by it? If he made the world, he existed

without it. If he rules it, he does so not as mind rules the body,
but as a master rules a house, a driver a chariot, that is, as not
mixed up with the things they rule. If all the things we see are
parts of God, because they lack perception he lacks perception
also. He is mortal because the parts are mortal.
I can count how often lands shaken by sudden earthquakes

have split open or sunk abruptly, how often cities and islands,
submerged by waves, have gone to the bottom, how often
swamps have swallowed up fruitful plains, rivers and lakes
have dried out, and mountains have either cracked and fallen or
been leveled with the plains. Hidden unknown fire has con-
sumed many regions and the foundations of many mountains.
It is not enough that God does not spare his own members;

man is also allowed to act against God's body! Large bodies of

water are formed, mountains are cut down and the inner
bowels of the earth are dug out to find wealth. 15 Is plowing
possible without tearing the divine body? We who violate the
members of God
are criminals and evildoers. Does God allow
his body abused and himself weaken it or permit man to
to be
do so? Or perhaps that divine understanding that is mingled
with the world and all its parts has abandoned the earth's outer
surface and buried itself in the depths lest it feel some pain
from continuous wounding. If this is vain and absurd, the
Stoics are just as lacking in sense as the things of this world.
They have not understood that the divine spirit is diffused
everywhere and holds all things together, but not in such a way

30
 LACTANTIUS

that the incorrupt God himself is mingled with the solid cor-
ruptible elements.
Whatthey took from Plato was more correct: that the
world was made by God and is governed by his providence.
Plato and those who think the same must teach and explain
what the cause and reason for making so great a work was, why
and for whose sake he made it. The Stoics say, "The World was
made for the sake of men." I hear it. But Epicurus did not
know why men were made or who made them. 16 Lucretius,
when he says that the world was not made by the gods, writes:

To say that they wished to prepare the magnificent

nature
Of the world for men's sake . .

Is foolish. With what reward can our thanks seek

To enrich the immortal and blessed ones,
So that they would undertake to produce something for
us? 17

Very For the Stoics bring forward no reason

rightly so.
why the human race was either created or established by God.
It is our task to explain the mystery of the world and of man

whose inner truth they, as strangers, were not able to attain or

see.
Therefore, as I was saying above, although they assumed
what was really true, that is, that the world was made by God
and made for man, they were not able to defend what they
assumed because reason did not accompany their conclusions.
Plato said that the world would last forever lest he make God's
work frail and tumbling to ruin. 18 If it was made for men's sake
and so made that it be eternal, why are they for whose sake it
was made not eternal? If they for whom it was made are
mortal, it too is mortal and able to be dissolved, for it is not
greater than those for which it was made. If his reasoning were
to square with that point, he would understand that it will
perish because it was made. Nothing can be eternal except
what cannot be handled.
He who denies that it was made for man's sake has no

31
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

explanation, for he says that the Creator formed such great

if

works for himself, then were we born? Why do we delight

why
in the world? What does the creation of the human race and the
other species mean? Why do we interfere with other species?
Why do we grow, decrease, and die? Why are we born? Why do
we have succession? God certainly desired to see and to con-
struct what pleased him with his various images like seals. If
such be the case, he would have concern for all living things
and especially for man, who rules all things.
Those who say that the world always existed have one
response from me: If the world always was, it can have no plan.
(I omit the argument that nothing can exist without a begin-

ning, a point they are unable to escape.) What plan can there be
in something that never began? Before anything comes to be or
is fabricated there is need for advice so that it can be arranged

as it should be; and nothing can begin without a plan. Thus,

planning precedes every work; what is not made has no plan.
Nevertheless, the world has a plan because it continues to exist
and to be. Therefore, it was made; and if it was made, it will be
dissolved.
Let the Stoics give a reason, if they can, either why it was
made in the beginning or why it will be dissolved later on.
Because Epicurus and Democritus were not able to give a
reason, they said that it happened of its own accord in the
manner of seeds joined together here and there. 19 When they
are again dissolved, discord and destruction will follow. Each
perverts what he rightly saw and by his ignorance of the plan
completely overturns the whole line of reasoning. Each renders
the world and all that is in it like the image of the emptiest
dream, as if there were no plan in human concerns. A marvel-
ous plan, as we see, rules the world and all its parts the —
symmetry of heaven and the circle of stars and of heavenly
bodies, regular for all its variety, the steady and wondrous
arrangement of seasons, the variation in the fruitfulness of
lands, the broad spread of plains, the masses and ranges of
mountains, the blossoming and fruitfulness of groves, the
healthy bubbling of springs, the timely overflowing of rivers,
the rich and full tides, the varied and useful winds, and all the

32
 LACTANTIUS

other things are ordered by a very deep plan. Who is so blind as

to think that these things so wonderfully arranged by perfect
planning were created without a cause? If nothing can exist
without a cause, and if the providence of Almighty God is
evident from the arrangement of things, his strength from
their greatness and his power from their governance, then
those who deny providence are stupid and insane. I should not
attack them if they were to deny the gods in order to say that
the one God exists; but when they do it to say there is no God,
he who does not think they are insane is crazy himself.
4. We have spoken enough about providence in the first

book. If providence exists, as is clear from the marvelous char-

acter of its works, then it is necessary that the same providence
created man and all living things. Since it is correct to say with
the Stoics that the world was created for men, let us see what
the reason was for creating the human race. The Stoics erred
not a little because they said for "the sake of men," rather than
"of man," for the use of the singular embraces the whole
human race. They spoke this way because they did not know
that God had created a single man and because they thought
that men had been produced like mushrooms in every land and
field. Hermes knew thatman came from God and was made to
the image of God. 20 But now to return to the subject.
I think that there nothing that is made for itself, but
is

anything that exists must be made for some use. 21 Who is there
so helpless and lazy that he would vainly try to do something
from which he could hope to have nothing useful or advanta-
geous? Anyone who builds a house builds it not just to have a
house, but to live in it; anyone who makes a boat takes up the
work not just to have a boat, but to sail in it. In the same way,
anyone who constructs and molds some vessel does it not just
for appearances, but so that the finished vessel can hold some-
thing he needs. And so anything else that is labored over is
done for some useful purpose and not in vain.
God did not make the world for its own sake. Since it
lacked sensation, it had no need for the sun's heat, the moon's
light, the winds' breath, the moisture of showers, the nourish-
ment of fruits. Nor can it be said that God made the world for

33
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

himself, since he was able to exist without the world, as he had

previously. And he does not use the things that exist in it or
that are brought into being. Therefore, it is clear that the world
was made for the sake of living things, because living things
enjoy what it is made of. Everything necessary for them is
supplied at fixed times so that they may live and persevere.
Further, it is evident that other living things were made for
man because they serve man and have been given into his
charge and for his use. Whether they are of land or sea, they do
not understand the order of the world as man does.
This is the place to respond to the philosophers, and
especially to Cicero who asks: "When God made all things for
our sake, why did he make such supply of snakes and
a vast
vipers? Why did he spread so many deadly things through land
and sea?" 22 This is a large area for discussion, but it must be
touched upon, if only briefly and in passing.
Because man was composed of different and contrary
things, soul and body, that is, heaven and earth, the spiritual
and the material, the eternal and the temporal, that capable of
understanding and that without understanding, that which
gives light and that which is dark, reason itself and blind
necessity demand that both good and bad things should be
—
presented to man good things to use, bad things to avoid and
guard against. He was given wisdom to know the nature of
good and evil, and thus to exercise his reason in following good
and avoiding evil. Wisdom was not given to the other animals;
they were defended and armed by natural gifts. God gave man
reason alone, the most significant thing, in place of all the rest.
Naked and defenseless he created him, so that wisdom might
defend and protect him. He set up his defense and his adorn-
ment within and not without, not in the body, but in the
heart. 23 There would be no need for wisdom were there no
evils to avoid or to distinguish from what is good and useful.
Cicero ought to know that reason was given to man so that he
could catch fish for his own use and avoid snakes and vipers for
his safety. Because he had received wisdom, good and evil were
put before him, for the whole force of wisdom is in discrimi-
nating between good and evil.

34
 LACTANTIUS

Great and fitting and worthy of admiration is the power,

the reason, the might of man for whom God made
the world
and all things. He held him in such honor that he placed him
above everything, since man alone was able to appreciate God's
works. Our Asclepiades, discussing the providence of Al-
mighty God in the book he wrote me, well says:

Everyone ought to know that divine providence rightly

gave the place nearest one able to understand its
itself to
regulation. There is the sun. Who
can regard it in such a
way that he understands that it is the sun and that it bears
so much favor to the rest of creation? This is heaven: who
can regard it? This is the earth: who will cultivate it? This is
the sea: who will sail it? This is fire: who will use it? 24

Therefore, Almighty God made all things not for his own sake,
because he needed nothing, but for the sake of man to use them
in fitting fashion.
5. Now let us explain why he made man himself, some-

thing that had the philosophers known, they would either have
defended the truths they discovered or not have fallen into
great errors. This is the high point, the hinge of everything: If
someone does not hold on to it, all truth will escape him. This
made the philosophers disagree with reason. The Academy
would never have strangled discussion and the whole of philos-
ophy if this truth had shone on them, if they had recognized
the total mystery of man. Just as God did not make the world
for himself because he did not need its goods, but made it for
the sake of man who uses it, so too he made man for himself.
"What use has God for man," says Epicurus, "that He should
create him for his own sake?" 25 So that there should be some-
one to understand his works, someone able to be astonished in
mind and declare in speech the foresight of his arrangement,
the order of his creation, and his power to perfect. The height
of all this is that there should be someone to worship God.
The man who understands giving worship. He who
this is

measures the power of God's majesty in the planning, the

beginning, and the perfecting of his works is giving the Maker

35
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

of all things, his true Father, due veneration. What clearer

argument can be made that God created the world for man and
man for himself than that man alone of all living things is

formed so that his eyes are directed to heaven, his face looks up
toward God, his countenance has something in common with
his Maker, so that with outstretched arm God seems to have
raised man from the dust and lifted him up to his own contem-
plation? Epicurus says: "What does man's worship give to God
who is blessed and needs nothing? Why did God make man
mortal and weak if he held him in such honor that he made the
world for him, instructed him with wisdom, made him lord of
the living, and loved him like a son? Why did he hinder him
whom he loved with every kind of evil, especially since man,
who was closely linked to God and an immortal being, ought to
be blessed like the God he was created to worship and contem-
plate?" 26
Although here and there in the previous books we talked
about this, it must be explained more carefully and more fully
now because we are going to discuss the blessed life. We do so
in order that God's providence, work, and will may be recog-
nized. Though he could always produce countless souls by
means of his immortal spirits (just as he had created the angels
whose immortality endures without any danger or fear of
evil), 27 he nevertheless devised something indescribable. Ac-

cording to this he created an infinite multitude of souls, which

he first set up midway between good and evil and bound to
fragile and weak bodies. He then set virtue before these beings
of double nature so that they would not be able to attain
immortality easily and gently, but could arrive at that inex-
pressible prize with the greatest difficulty and labor. In order
to clothe them with heavy and tiresome limbs, he first of all
decreed a seat and dwelling place for them since they could not
have remained in the midst of the void with the weight and
heaviness of the body pressing them down. And so the making
of the world was begun with ineffable power and splendid
might. With the light elements hung in the heights and the
heavy elements sunk in the depths, he fixed the heavens firm

36
 LACTANTIUS

and made fast the earth. It is not necessary now to pursue the
details, since we described them Book Two. 28
all in
He placed lights in the heavens whose regularity, bright-
ness, and motion were most fittingly ordered to the use of
living creatures. To the earth, which he wished to be their seat,
he gave fruitfulness in bearing and bringing forth different
things, so that it could provide nourishment for the nature and

use of each kind of being by the richness of fruits, herbs, and

growing things. Then, when everything that belonged to the
establishment of the world had been completed, he formed
man from the very earth that he had prepared as a dwelling
place for him from the beginning. He clothed and wrapped his
spirit up in an earthly body, so that, composed of different and
warring elements, he might be capable of good and evil. Just as
the earth itself is rich in fruits, so man's body, which was taken
from the earth, has abundant power to generate and bring
forth offspring. Hence a man, since he was made of frail
matter, cannot endure. When the period of his earthly life is
finished, he departs and renews in a perpetual succession the
frail weak body he bore.
Why did God make the one for whom He built the world
mortal and frail? First, so that an infinite number of souls
might be brought forth and fill the earth with their number.
Second, that he might set virtue, that is, the enduring of evils
and labors, before man so that he could gain the prize of
immortality through it. Because man consists of two things,
body and soul, one of which is earthly, the other heavenly, two
—
kinds of life are attributed to him one temporal, assigned to
the body; the other eternal, belonging to the soul. We receive
the former when we are born; we attain the latter by effort so
that immortality is not granted to man without difficulty. The
former life is earthly like the body, and therefore comes to an
end; the latter is heavenly like the soul and has no end. The
first we receive unconsciously; the second consciously because
it is granted not to nature but to virtue.
God wanted us to gain life for ourselves in the midst of
life. Therefore, he gave this present life so that we might

37
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

either lose that true and eternal one by vice or merit it by

virtue. The highest good is not in this bodily life, because as it
was given us by divine necessity so too will it be taken away.
What ends in this way cannot be the highest good. The highest
good is contained in that spiritual life which we acquire
through ourselves. It can have no evil or end. The nature and
arrangement of the body provides an argument for this. Other
animals bend toward the ground because they are earthly; they
do not receive the immortality that is from heaven. Upright
man gazes into the heavens because immortality is offered to
him, 29 but it does not come unless it is granted to him by God.
There would be no difference between the just and the unjust
if every man who was born were to become immortal. There-

fore, immortality is not a result of nature, but the prize and

reward of virtue. Finally, man does not walk upright as soon as
he is born, but he first goes on all fours because we share the
condition of the body and of this life with the dumb animals.
After he has arrived at his strength he stands up, his tongue is
ready to speak, and he ceases to be a dumb animal. This teaches
that man is born mortal, but afterwards becomes immortal at
the time when God raises him up to see the heavens and
divinity, when he begins to live from God, that is, to follow the
justice that is found in the worship of God. This happens when
he is purified by the heavenly water of baptism, and puts aside
infancy with every stain of his former life, becoming a full and
perfect man by receiving the aid of divine strength. 30
Because God has set virtue before man, the body and soul
are opposed and make war against each other, even though
they are associated. The goods of the soul are the evils of the
—
body think of flight from wealth, forbidding of pleasures,
contempt of pain and death. In the same way, the goods of the
body are the evils of the soul, such as avarice and lust. Through
them we desire wealth and the sweetness of different pleasures,
things that weaken and kill the soul. The just and wise man has
to live in the midst of every evil, because fortitude conquers
evil. The unjust man must live amidst wealth, honor, and

power. These are corporeal and earthly goods. The unjust man

38
 LACTANTIUS

leads an earthly life and is not able to gain immortality because

he has given himself up to the pleasures that oppose virtue.
This temporal life ought to be subject to that eternal one
just as the body is to the soul. Whoever prefers the life of the
soul must necessarily despise the life of the body; there is no
way to strive for the summit without condemning the depths.
Whoever has embraced the life of the body and its desires has
been cast down to earth and is not able to attain that higher
life. Those who prefer to live well forever will live in discom-

fort for a time and will be afflicted with every difficulty and
hardship while they are on earth so that they may have divine
and heavenly consolation. He who prefers to live well for a
time will live in discomfort forever. God's judgment will con-
demn him to eternal punishment because he preferred earthly
things to the good things of heaven. For this reason God wishes
to be worshipped and honored by man as a Father, so that man
may cling to the virtue and wisdom that alone bring immortal-
ity. He alone possesses it, and he alone is able to give it. He will

grace the faithfulness by means of which man has given honor

to him with this reward — blessedness for eternity, ever in and
31
with God.
6. Now I will round off the whole argument with a brief

summary. 32 The world was made so that we should be born.

We are born so that we should acknowledge God, our Maker
and the Maker of the world. We acknowledge him in order to
worship him; we worship him in order to receive immortality
for the reward of our labors, since the worship of God consists
of many labors. We are graced with the prize of immortality so
that made like the angels we may serve our Highest Father and
Lord forever and be an eternal kingdom to our God. This is the
summation of everything, God's hidden secret, the world's
mystery. Those are far from it who by following present
pleasure have devoted themselves to weak and worldly goods
and have plunged souls that were made for heaven in the mud
and mire by means of these deadly delights.
Let us now in turn ask if there is any sense in the worship
of the gods. Are there many gods? Do men worship them only

39
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

so that the gods may give them wealth, victory, honors, and
things useful in the present alone? Are we born without pur-
pose? Is there no providence involved in the procreation of
men? Are we born by chance only for ourselves and for our
pleasures? Are we nothing after death? If this all were true,
what could be as empty, useless, and vain as the human situa-
tion and the world itself, which though it be of vast size and
made with marvelous planning is dedicated to useless things?
Why do the winds push the clouds along? Why do flashes of
lightning blaze forth, thunders rumble, rains fall? Why does
the earth produce fruits and nourish progeny? Why finally
its

does the whole natural order labor so that nothing that sustains
man's life may be lacking, if it is vain, if we are reduced to
nothing, if there is no gain for God in mankind? If it is
unspeakable and unthinkable that what you now see so ratio-
nally ordered was created without any rational order, what
rationality can there be in the errors of wretched religions and
in the opinion of those philosophers who think that souls die?
None at all. What explanation do they have why the gods give
men everything in due season? Is it that we may give them
grain and wine and the odor of incense and the blood of beasts?
But these things are perishable and cannot be welcome to the
immortals. Since they are made for the use of corporeal beings,
they cannot be used by those lacking bodies. If the gods were to
them to themselves whenever they
desire them, they could give
wished. Therefore, whether souls perish or remain forever,
what sense was the worship of the gods? By whom was the
world created? Why or when or for how long or to what extent
or for what reason were men produced? Why are they born and
die,why succeed one another or be renewed? What do the gods
gain from the worship of those who will be nothing after
death? What can they give or promise or threaten that is
worthy of either men or gods? If souls remain after death, what
are they doing or will they do about them? What do they need
in a treasure house of souls? From what source do they them-
selves come? How and why and whence are they a multitude?
So if you stray from that summary of all things which we gave

40
 LACTANTIUS

above, all rationality perishes and everything is reduced to

nothing.
7. The philosophers did not understand that summary nor
were they able to grasp the truth, even though they had seen
and explained almost everything that made up the whole.
Different ones brought forth all the issues in differing ways
without joining the causes, conclusions, and relations of things
in order to put together and complete the totality that contains
everything. It is easy to show that almost the entire truth has

been divided up among the various philosophers and their

Schools. For we do not overthrow philosophy as do those
Academic thinkers who propose to answer all questions —
something that is rather a joke or a mockery. We teach that no
School was so wayward, no philosopher so empty, as to be
without a share of the truth. But as long as they were insane
with the desire for contradiction, as long as they defended their
own falsehoods and undermined the truths of others, not only
did the truth they pretended to seek escape them, but they also
lost it by their own sin.
But if there had been anyone to bring the truth scattered
through individuals and Schools together into one and reduce
it to a body, he surely would not have disagreed with us. No

one can do this unless he is steeped in truth, and no one can

know what is true who has not been taught by God. There is
no way to reject what is false, to choose and approve of what is
true. If someone were to do this by chance, he would most
certainly be a philosopher, even though he would not be able to
defend these matters by divine witnesses. Still, the truth itself
would shine out with its own light. Those who approve of
some group and join themselves to it are guilty of an unbeliev-
able error when they condemn other groups as false and empty
and arm themselves for battle although they do not know what
they ought to defend or what to refute. They hatefully attack at
random everything those with whom they disagree bring for-
ward.
Because of their totally obstinant quarrels there is no
philosophy that comes near to what is true. The truth that is

41
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

whole they grasp in a partial fashion. Plato said that the world
was made by God; 33 the prophets said the same and it is clear
from the poems of the Sibyl. 34 They are therefore in error who
said that all things were born spontaneously or from tiny
atoms that had come together. A thing so great, so beautiful, so
vast, could not come to be nor be arranged and set in order
without a Maker of the highest wisdom. The very order that
they understand establishes and rules all things gives witness to
a Maker of sagacious mind. The Stoics say that the world and
everything in it was made for the sake of men: the Scriptures
teach us the same. Democritus, who thought that men were
produced from the earth without rhyme or reason in the man-
ner of worms, was therefore in error. Because he was not able
to grasp the sacred mystery why man was created, he reduced
human life to nothing. Ariston taught that men were born to
pursue virtue; 35 the prophets teach and warn us of the same.
Aristippus, who subjected man to pleasure, that is, to evil, like
a beast, is wrong. 36 Pherecydes and Plato contended that souls
are immortal; 37 this teaching is at home in our religion. There-

fore Dicaearchus and Democritus, who argued that they per-

ished with the body and were dissolved, are in error. 38 Zeno
the Stoic taught that there is an underworld and abodes for the
holy that are separated from the wicked. He also taught that
the good dwell in peaceful and pleasant regions and the evil
undergo punishment in dark places and in fearful chasms of
filth. 39 The prophets make the same clear to us. Therefore

Epicurus erred when he thought that it was all an invention of

the poets and interpreted the punishments of the underworld
that are spoken of as taking place in this life. 40 Philosophers
reached the whole truth and every secret of divine religion, but
when others refuted them they were not able to defend what
they had found because no system joined each of the points
together, nor were they able to reduce all the things they knew
to be true to a summary as we have done above. 41
8. Immortality is the unique highest good. From the begin-

ning we were created to attain it. We were born for it. We are
striving toward immortality: Human nature inclines us to it;

42
 LACTANTIUS

virtue draws us to it. Because we discern it as a good, we must

now discuss it.

Although Plato's arguments add much to the subject, they

have little weight for proving and rounding out the truth. He
did not complete the explanation of the whole mystery nor did
he unify it. He did not understand the highest good. Even
though he knew the truth about the immortality of the soul, he
did not speak about it as the highest good. We are able to
choose the truth through more secure signs. We do not acquire
it by doubtful guessing, but know it by divine tradition. Plato

argued thus: That which both knows through itself and is

always moved by itself is immortal. What has no beginning of
motion will not have an end because it cannot depart from
itself.
42 This argument would grant eternity to dumb animals

unless he had modified it by a wise addition. To avoid this

joining of men and animals he added:

The human soul, whose wonderful dexterity in discovery,

quickness of thought, ease of perceiving and learning, mem-
ory of the past, foresight of the future and knowledge of
unnumbered skills and matters lacking in other living
things appears divine and celestial, cannot be other than im-
mortal. The origin of the soul that can grasp and contain so
many things is not to be found on earth; indeed, it has no
trace of earthly matter. What in man is weighty and able to
be dissolved must be dispersed into the earth; what is fine
and subtle is indivisible. When it has been freed from the
habitation of the body as from a prison it will fly to heaven
and to its nature. 43

This is a brief summary of Plato's doctrine, which is explained

in detail in his works.
Earlier Pythagoras and his teacher Pherecydes, whom Cic-
ero believed was the first to discuss the immortality of the soul,
held the same view. 44 They all were very convincing, but in
this quarrel those who held the opposing viewpoint, first
Dicaearchus, next Democritus, and finally Epicurus, had no
less authority, so that what they were fighting about was

43
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

undecided. When Cicero had set forth all their views on im-
mortality and death, he finally proclaimed that he did not
know what was true. He says: "Let some god see which of these
opinions is true." 45 And again in another place: "Because each
of these opinions has very learned authorities, what is sure
cannot be divined." 46 We have no need of divination; divinity
itself has revealed the truth to us.
9. The eternity of the soul can be proven by arguments
that neither Plato nor anyone else discovered. We will briefly
collect them, because our presentation wants to proclaim God's
great judgment destined to take place on earth as the end of the
world draws near.
The first argument. Because God cannot be seen by man,
among his other wonderful ordinances he made many things,
such as noise, odor, and wind, whose power is evident but
whose substance cannot be seen, so that no one might think
that there is no God just because mortal eyes cannot see him.
Following their example and proof, we behold God by his
power, purpose, and works even though he is invisible. What is
louder than noise, stronger than the wind, more penetrating
than odor? When they are borne through the air, come to our
senses, and incite them with their force, they are not beheld by
light's power, but are felt by the rest of the body. Likewise, we
do not comprehend God by sight or any other feeble sense, but
we are to see him with the mind's eye when we behold his
wonderful and splendid works. I would say that those who
claim there is no God at all are not only not philosophers but
not even men. They are most like the dumb beasts, made up of
body alone, discerning nothing through the intellectual soul,
referring everything to the body's sensation, and thinking
nothing exists that cannot be seen. Because they saw adversities
overtake good men and prosperity attend the evil, they believed
that everything took place by chance and that the world was
made by nature and not by providence.
They have already fallen into the nonsense that necessarily
follows such an opinion. But if God is incorporeal, invisible,
and eternal, it is not likely that the soul perishes just because it
is not visible after it departs from the body. It is clear that alive

44
 LACTANTIUS

and intelligent things exist that cannot be seen. But it is diffi-

cult for the mind to grasp how the soul can understand without
the bodily parts adapted for understanding. What about God?
Is it easy to grasp how he without a body? If the philos-
lives
ophers believe that there are gods (who, if they exist, must
surely be without bodies), they must believe that human souls
exist in the same way, because good sense and reason under-
stand that there is a likeness between god and man. Cicero's
argument is also quite solid: The soul can be known to be
eternal because "there is no other animal that has any knowl-
edge of God," and religion is almost the only thing that dis-
criminates man from the beasts. 47 Since this happens only in
man's case, it surely testifies that we strive after, desire, and
which is familiar to us, what lies right ahead.
cultivate that
Can anyone have considered the nature of other living
beings, which Almighty God's providence created humbled
with bent bodies and prostrate upon the earth, and not have
understood that they have no relation with heaven? Can he not
understand that man is the only divine and heavenly animal, he
whose body is raised up from the ground and whose counte-
nance is held high? In his upright state he seeks his origin.
Contemptuous of the lowliness of earth, he stretches out to the
heights because he understands he issupreme good
to seek his
on high. Mindful of the creation by which God made him
special, does he not look toward his Maker? Trismegistus very
rightly called this looking "contemplation." 48 does not exist
It

in animals. Because the wisdom given to man

is nothing
alone
else than knowledge of God, it is clear that the soul does not
perish or dissolve. It lasts forever because it seeks and loves the
eternal God. By the prompting of its nature it understands
where it has come from and where it is going.
That man alone makes use of the heavenly element is no
small argument for immortality. The universe consists of these
two elements, fire and water, mutually opposed and at odds
with each other. The one belongs to heaven, the other to earth.
The other living things, because they are earthly and mortal,
use the earthly and heavy element; man alone has the use of
fire, the light, lofty, and heavenly element. Heavy things press

45
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

down to death, light things rise up to life, because life is above,

death below. Just as light cannot exist without fire, so life can-
not be without light. Fire is the element of life and light; hence
it appears that man who uses it is immortal in his condition, be-

cause he is at home with that which causes life. 49

Virtue, which is also given to man alone, is a potent
argument that the soul is immortal. If the soul dies, virtue
would not be natural, because harmful in the present life.
it is

This earthly life that we have in common with dumb animals

both desires pleasure, whose various fruits and sweets it de-
lights in, and flees pain, whose harshness injures living beings
with bitterness and pushes them toward devouring death.
Therefore, if virtue denies man the goods naturally desired and
compels him to undergo evils naturally avoided, it is an evil, an
enemy of nature. He who follows it must be judged a fool who
injures himself by fleeing the good things in front of him and
seeking evil things without hope of a better reward. For when
we could enjoy ourselves with the most delightful pleasures
does it not seem senseless to prefer to live in humility, need,
—
contempt, and dishonor or, rather, not even to live, but to be
tortured by pain and be on the point of death? And does it not
seem foolish that we should gain nothing from these evils to
pay back for the pleasure lost? But if virtue is not an evil, and
acts rightly in its strong condemnation of vicious and shameful
pleasures, and does not fear pain or death in the discharge of its
duty, it must then gain a good greater than those it spurns. But
once death has come, what other good than eternity can be
hoped for?
10. Now we ought to move on to the things that are
contrary to virtue. They too demonstrate the immortality of
the soul. All vices are temporary; they are aroused for the
present moment. The force of anger is quieted when vengeance / ^-
has been taken; the pleasure of the body is the goal of \ustr^(P
Either enough of what we want or the arousal of other feelings
does away with avarice;(ambition grows old after the honors it
desired have been gained) So also the other vices cannot remain
firm or permanent, but reach their end in the very fruit they
await. They come and go, but virtue is constant without inter-

46
 LACTANTIUS

ruption. The man who has taken it up once and for all cannot
abandon it. If it were to have an interruption, if at some time
we were able to do without virtues, the opposing vices would
immediately return. If virtue departs, if at some time it with-
draws, it was not really embraced. When it has made itself a
stable home, it is necessarily part of every action. It cannot
faithfully drive out vices and put them to flight unless it
fortifies the breast in which it dwells with a permanent
watchpost. The permanent character of virtue shows that the
human soul, if it has grasped virtue, will also last, because
virtue is eternal and only the human soul contains it.

Because vices are opposed to virtue, their whole explana-

tion must of necessity be different and opposite. Vices are
stirrings and disturbances of the soul; virtue on the contrary is
a calmness and tranquility of soul. Vices are temporary and
brief in duration; virtue is lasting, constant, and always consis-
tent. Pleasures, the fruits of vices, are as temporary and brief in
duration as they are; the fruit and reward of virtue mus t be
eternal/vices' profit is in the present, virtue's in the future.
There is no reward must be
for virtue in this life because virtue
itself. and their
Just as vices reach their fulfillment in the act
pleasure and reward attend them, so when virtue has been
perfected its reward will follow it. Virtue is perfected only in
death in that its highest task is undergoing death. So the
reward of virtue is after death. In his Tusculan Disputations
Cicero understood, even though hesitantly, that man's highest
good happened only after death. "If so it is to be," he says,
"with steadfast soul one will march to the death in which we
have recognized there is either no evil or the highest good." 50
Death does not snuff out a man, but admits him to virtue's
reward. Cicero also says that anyone who has befouled himself
with vices and crimes and has been a slave to pleasure is
condemned to pay an eternal penalty (what the scriptures call
the second death). 51 This is eternal and full of the most severe
tortures. Just as two lives are proposed to men, the one of the
soul, the other of thebody, so also are two deaths proposed, the
one pertaining to the body, which all must discharge according
to nature, the other belonging to the soul, which crime gains

47
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

and virtue avoids. Just as this life is temporary and has definite
limits because belongs
it to the body, so also death is temporary
and has a fixed end because it affects the body.
11. Death itself will end when the time that God set for it

will have been fulfilled. Because temporary death follows tem-

porary life, souls will rise to eternal life when temporary death
has ended. On the other hand, just as the life in which the soul
receives the divine and inexpressible fruits of its immortality is
itself eternal, so too the death in which it pays unfailing penal-
ties and infinite torments for its sins must be of equal duration,
(ft has been arranged that those who are happy in this bodily

S^l ^c.and earthly life are soon to be unhappy forever because they
y^ have already gained the good they preferred. This happens to
\

those who worship the gods and neglect God. Those who
sought justice in this life were unhappy, despised, and in need.
They frequently suffered insults and injuries for the sake of
justice, because virtue can be possessed in no other way. They
are soon to be happy forever, so that since they have already
suffered evil they may also enjoy good. This surely is the case
for those who reject the earthly gods and passing pleasures to
follow the heavenly religion of the God whose pleasures are as
eternal as he is. What? Do not the works of the body and soul
show that the soul is free of death? Because the body is weak
and mortal, whatever it does is equally passing. Cicero says that
there is nothing done by human hands that is not eventually
destroyed either by men's violence or by devouring old age. 52
We see that the soul's works are eternal. Those who strove
for contempt of present things left behind the evidence of their
character and great deeds and certainly gained an imperishable
name for their genius and virtue. If the works of the body are
mortal because the body is, it follows that the soul is immortal
from the fact that we see that its works do not die. In the same
way, the desires of the body and the soul prove that the one is
mortal and the other not. The body desires only what is tempo-
ral, that is, food, drink, clothing, rest, pleasure (although these
things cannot be sought after or acquired without the will and
aid of the soul). By itself the soul desires things that do not
serve the body's enjoyment, things not passing, but eternal,

48
 LACTANTIUS

such as the reputation for virtueand a good memory. Contrary

to the body, the soul desires a worship of God that consists in
abstinence from desires and passions, endurance of pain, and
contempt of death. So it is credible that the soul does not die,
but is separated from the body, because the body can do noth-
ing without the soul, whereas the soul is able to do many great
things without the body. Is it not true that visible and tangible
things cannot be eternal because they can undergo external
violence, but that the things that cannot be seen or touched are
everlasting because they suffer no such force? Only their
power, their order, and their influence are evident. If the body
is mortal because it is subject to sight and touch, then the soul

is immortal because it can neither be touched nor seen.

12. Now let us refute the arguments of those who hold the

opposite view. Lucretius has set them out in his third book. He
says that the soul is born with the body and it must perish with
the body. 53 But their manner of existence is not the same, for
the body is solid and perceptible to the eyes and hand; the soul

isimmaterial and evades touch and sight. The body is made of

earth and has density; the soul has nothing compound in it, no
earthly weight, as Plato says. 54 If it were not from heaven, it
could not have such great dexterity, power, and quickness.
Because the body is formed of a heavy and corruptible element
and is tangible and visible, it is corruptible and perishes; it
cannot resist violence because it can be seen and touched. But
the soul, because in its evades all touch, cannot be
fineness it

destroyed by any attack. Although they are born joined to-

gether and connected, and the one that is formed from earthly
matter is like a vessel for the other that is drawn from a
heavenly intangibility, when some power separates them (the
separation called death), each returns to its own nature. What
was taken from the earth is released to the earth; what was
from the heavenly spirit always lasts and lives, since the divine
spirit is eternal. Lucretius, forgetting what he had put forward
and what teaching he defended, wrote these verses:

That which previously came from the earth returns again

To earth, but what was sent from the world of the ether
The shining temples of heaven take back again. 55

49
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

He who taught that souls perished with bodies had no right to

say this, but he was overcome by truth and right reason stole
upon him unaware. Furthermore, the position he summarizes
here, namely that the soul is dissolved, that it perishes together
with the body because they are born together, is false and
capable of being reversed. They do not both perish together,
but when the soul departs the body remains whole for many
days and frequently lasts a very long time when it is embalmed.
If they both perished together as they are born together, the
soul would not suddenly depart and leave the body, but at one
instant both alike would disperse. The body with the breath
still in it would dissolve and perish as quickly as the soul

withdrew, and with the dissolution of the body the soul would
vanish like water poured from a broken vase.
If the weak earthly body does not immediately melt away
and decay into the earth that was its source after the departure
of the soul, then the soul,which is not feeble, will last forever
because its origin is eternal. Lucretius says that because the
mind increases in children, isvigorous in the young, and
weakened in the old, it is proven to be mortal. 56 First of all, the
soul is not the same as the mind, for that by which we live is
different from that by which we think. The mind and not the
soul of those asleep is unconscious. In the insane the mind is

extinguished but the soul remains, and therefore they are

termed "demented" and not "lifeless." The mind, that is the
intelligence, is increased or diminished according to age; the
soul is always in its own state of being, and it stays the same
from the time when it receives the power of breath until the
end when, sent forth from the prison of the body, it flies back
to its own home. Second, although the soul is breathed in by
God, nonetheless, because it is imprisoned in the dark home
of earthly flesh, 57 it does not have the knowledge that belongs
to divinity. It hears and learns all things, and gains wisdom by
hearing and learning. Old age increases rather than diminishes
wisdom, if youth has been passed in virtue. 58 If excessive old
age weaken the limbs, if sight vanishes, the tongue grows mute,
and the hearing deaf, it is the body's fault and not the soul's.
But the memory does fail. 59 What wonder if the mind is

50
 LACTANTIUS

weighed down by the ruin of its collapsing dwelling place and

forgets the past? How else can it be divine in the future if it

does not flee the prison that hampered it?

Lucretius says the same soul is subject to pain and grief
and raves in drunkenness, and so it appears fragile and mor-
60 Therefore, virtue and wisdom are necessary
tal. so that forti-
tude may repulse the sorrow incurred by seeing and suffering
unworthy things, and abstinence in drink and in other matters
may overcome pleasure. If the soul lacks virtue and is given
over to pleasures and effeminacy, it will become subject to
death, because virtue produces immortality and pleasure death,
as we taught. 61have shown, 62 death does not completely
As I

destroy and obliterate the soul, but inflicts eternal punish-

ments on it. The soul cannot die completely since it has its
origin in the eternal Spirit of God.
The soul, Lucretius says, also feels the body's illness and is

forgetful of itself. It frequently grows sick and is healed. 63 This

is especially why virtue is to be employed, so that the mind, not
the soul, may not be broken by any pain of the body or
undergo self-forgetfulness. Because mind lives in a definite part
of the body, when an attack of disease has injured that part it

moves its place and leaves its home in shaken fashion, ready to
return when medicine and health shall have restored its dwell-
ing place. Because the soul is joined to the body, the body's
contact will weaken it and the helplessness
if it lacks virtue,
coming from association with weakness will reach the mind.
When freed from the body, it will flourish of itself and not be
tempted any longer by any kind of weakness because it has cast
off its frail clothing. Just as the eye torn out and separated from
the body can see nothing, he says, so the separated soul can
sense nothing because it is a part of the body. 64 This is false
and unlikely. The soul is not a part of the body, but is rather in
the body. Just as what is in a container is not a part of the
container, nor are the things that are in a house said to be parts
of the house, so too the soul is not a part of the body because
the body is either the vessel or container of the soul.
A much sillier argument says that the soul seems to be
mortal because it does not leave the body quickly but gradually

51
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

departs from all the members beginning from the bottom of

65 If it were it would burst forth in an instant
eternal,
the feet.
as happens in the case of those who perish by the sword. Those
whom sickness kills breathe their last over a duration so that
the soul is gradually exhaled as the limbs grow cold. Since it is

contained in the blood like light in oil, 66 when the blood is

consumed by hot fevers some extremities of the limbs must
grow cold. The smaller veins extend to the extremities of the
body and the last weaker streams dry up when the inner source
of the fountain fails. It must not be supposed that because
bodily perception fails, the soul's perception is dead and gone.
The body becomes like a brute beast when the soul departs and
not vice versa because the soul takes all perception with it.
Since the soul when present gives the power of perception to
the body and makes it live, it is not possible that the soul, being
itself the power of perception and life, does not live and per-
ceive through itself.

As for his statment:

If our mind were immortal,

It would not so much complain that it is dissolved in
dying,
But rather of going forth and changing its garment like a
snake, 67

I have never seen anybody who complained that he was "dis-

solved in death." Perhaps Lucretius saw some Epicurean being
a philosopher as he was dying and discoursing on his own
dissolution in his last breath. How can we know whether he
felt that he was being dissolved or liberated from the body
when there is no speech at the moment of departure? As long
as he had sensation and could talk, he was not yet dissolved;
when he had been dissolved, he could no longer sense or speak.
He either could not yet or could no longer lament dissolution.
"But before he is dissolved he understands that it will happen."
What about the fact that we see many of the dying do not
complain about dissolution, as he says, but testify by gesture or

52
 LACTANTIUS

if they can by voice that they are going forth, setting out,
still

walking away? So it is clear that there is no dissolution but a

separation. This says that the soul remains.
Other arguments of the Epicurean teaching oppose Py-
thagoras, who said that souls leave bodies that are worn out by
age and death and enter those that are new and just born. The
same souls are always being reborn, now in men, now in cattle,
now in wild beasts, now in birds. Thus they are immortal
because they frequently change dwelling places made up of
various and different bodies. This view of a crazy man ought
not even have been seriously refuted, ridiculous as it was and
more suited to a farcical actor than to a School of philosophy.
Anyone who acts this way seems to be afraid that someone will
believe him. Let us then omit the arguments in behalf of error
put forth against error; it is enough to have refuted those put
forth against the truth.
13. I have set forth, I think, that the soul is incapable of
dissolution. What remains is to cite texts whose authority
strengthens the arguments. I will not call on the prophets
whose teaching and predictions were established to teach that
man was created to worship God and to receive immortality
from him, but will rather call on those whom the opponents of
truth must believe. In describing the nature of man in order to
teach how he was made by God, Hermes says the following:

And the same made a single human nature from each of two
natures, the immortal and the mortal, and thus made it

partly immortal and party mortal; and he took it and set it

up between the divine and immortal nature and the mortal

and mutable nature, so that it might look upon all and won-
der at all. 68

Someone might number him among the philosophers and

grant him no more authority than Plato or Pythagoras, al-
though he has been placed among the gods and honored by the
Egyptians under the name Mercury. A greater testimony is
needed. A man named Polites asked Apollo of Miletus whether

53
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

the soul remained after death or was dissolved, and he re-

sponded in these verses:

The soul, as long as it is held fast to the body by bonds,

Knowing corruptible sensations, is subject to mortal pains.
But when it has gained a very quick release from
mortality,
The body being wasted, it is carried completely into the
air;

Ageless always, it remains imperishable forever,

For the first-born divine foreknowledge has arranged

this. 69

Don't the Sibylline verses prove it to be so when they an-

nounce that the time will come when God will judge the living
and the dead? We will give examples a little later.
Therefore the opinion of Democritus, Epicurus, and
Dicaearchus about the dissolution of the soul is false. They did
not dare to talk about the destruction of souls when any magi-
cian was present who knew that souls are raised up from the
underworld by special verses, that they draw near and present
themselves to be seen by human eyes and speak and predict the
future. If they did dare, they would have been overcome by the
fact itself and the proofs presented. They said that the soul dies
because they did not consider its character, which is so subtle
that it escapes the eyes of the mind. What about Aristoxenus,
who denied that there was any soul at all, even when it was in
the body? 70He thought that just as the unified sound and song
that musicians call harmony is made in the lyre from the
stretching of the strings, so the power of perception is found in
bodies from the structure of the internal organs and the
strength of the external members. Nothing could be more
foolish than that! He truly has good eyes but a blind heart who
has not seen that by which he is alive, and has not seen the
mind by means of which he had the thought! Many philos-
ophers have thought that nothing existed that was not visible,
even though the power of the mind ought to be clearer than
that of the body when we perceive things whose power and
nature are felt rather than seen.

54
 LACTANTIUS

14. we have spoken of the immortality of the soul,

Because
it follows that we ought to teach how and when this will be

given to man. 71 In this readers may also see the errors that
come from the malice and folly of those who think that some
mortals have been made gods by men's decrees and orders,
supposedly either because they invented arts, or taught the use
of the fruits of the earth, or discovered things useful for human
life, or killed fierce beasts. How far these services are from

deserving immortality we have taught in the former books and

now teach again, so that it may be clear that justice alone
brings eternal life to man and God alone bestows it. Those who
are said to have been made immortal by reason of their merits
gained not immortality but death by their sins and lusts. They
had neither justice nor true virtue. They merited no heavenly
reward, but the infernal punishments that hang over them and
all who worship them. I will show that the time of this judg-

ment is near. In it the just will receive fit reward and the unjust
well- merited punishment.
Plato and many other philosophers, because they were
ignorant of the source of things and of the exalted time when
the world was made, said that many thousands of years had
passed since this most beautiful world order had appeared.
Perhaps they followed the Chaldeans, whom Cicero in the first
book of his On Divination noted wildly claimed to have four
hundred and seventy thousand years worth of records. 72 They
thought that because they could not be refuted they could
freely lie. We, on the other hand, are taught the knowledge of
truth by the holy scriptures and know the beginning and the
end of the world. We will now speak of the latter at the
conclusion of our work, having already explained the begin-
ning in the second book.
Let the philosophers who count thousands of years from
the beginning of the world know that the six thousandth year
has not yet been completed. When this number has been
reached, a consummation must come and the condition of
humanity must be transformed for the better. The evidence for
this will be first set forth so that the calculations may be
clear. 73

55
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

God created the world and this wonderful work of nature

in the space of six days and hallowed the seventh day on which
he rested from his works, as we find in the mysteries of holy
scripture. This is the sabbath day, which in Hebrew is named
from the number seven, and hence seven is the prescribed and
perfect number. There are seven days by whose orderly revolu-
tions the circles of the years are made up, seven stars that never
set, and seven planets whose different and unequal paths and

movements are thought to cause changes of times and events.

Therefore, since all of God's works were completed in six days,
the world must remain in this stage for six ages, that is, for six
thousand years. 74 God's "great day" is bounded by a thousand
years, as the prophet points out in saying: "Before your eyes, O
Lord, a thousand years are like one day" (Ps. 89:4). Just as God
worked those six days in making such great things, so his piety
and truth must work during these six thousand years that are
under the domination and power of evil. Because when his
works were completed he rested on the seventh day and blessed
it, at the end of six thousand years all evil must be taken away

from the earth and justice reign for a thousand years. There
will be tranquillity and rest from the labors that the world has
already long endured. I will give an orderly explanation of how
it will happen.

We have frequently said that smaller and lesser matters are

figures and foreshadowings of greater ones. Our day, bounded
by the risingand the setting of the sun, has a likeness to the
"great day" that is fixed by the circuit of a thousand years. In

the same way, the creation of the earthly man foreshadowed

the making of the heavenly people. As God made man himself
last on the sixth day when everything fashioned for his use had
been finished and brought him into this world as if into a house
carefully prepared for him, so now on the sixth "great day" the
true man, that is, the holy people shaped to justice by God's
teaching and command, is being formed by the Word of God.
Again, as at that time a mortal and imperfect man was
fashioned from the earth to live a thousand years in the world,
so now the perfect man is being formed from the earthly age so

56
 LACTANTIUS

that given lifeby God he might rule in this same world for a
thousand years.
If anyone searches the sacred scriptures he will find how
the consummation will take place and what sort of fate hangs
over human affairs. The voices of the prophets of this world
agree with those of the other and announce the proximate end
and destruction of all things. They describe the final old age of
a world that is tired and collapsing. I will present now a
summary and collection of the things the prophets and seers
have said are coming before that final end arrives. 75
15. Among the mysteries of holy scripture is the story of
how a prince of the Hebrews compelled by the lack of grain
crossed over into Egypt with all house and kin. 76 When his
his
descendants had lived in Egypt for a long time and grown into
a great people they were afflicted with the heavy and unbear-
able yoke of slavery. God struck Egypt with an incurable
plague, freed his people, and led them through the midst of the
sea so that they walked over dry land when the waves had been
split and moved to each side. When the Egyptian king tried to
follow them in their flight he was cut off with all his forces as
the sea returned to its place. Though so famous and wonderful
a deed shows God's power to men in the present, it was also the
presignification and figure of something greater that God is to
—
do in the final consummation of the ages he will free his
people from the slavery of the world. Then, because there was
one people of God who dwelt in the midst of one nation, Egypt
alone was struck; now, because the people of God are gathered
from all languages and dwell among all nations and are op-
pressed by their rule, all nations, that is, the whole world, must
be struck by divine blows, so that God's just and devout people
may be freed. Just as then signs were given that showed the
coming slaughter end there will be
to the Egyptians, so at the
fearful prodigies in all the world's elements by which all na-
tions will grasp the imminent destruction.
As the end of this world draws near the human situation
must change and decline while evil grows strong. Our own
times, in which evil and malice have increased precipitously,

57
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

can be judged fortunate and almost golden in comparison to

the incurable evil of that era. Justice will grow so rare, impiety,
avarice, covetousness, and even if
lust increase so greatly, that
good men exist they will be the sport of the wicked and will be
attacked on all by the unjust. Evil men alone will be rich;
sides
the good will be cast down in calumnies and in want. All
justice will be disturbed, the laws will perish. There will be no
possessions except what will be gained and defended by one's
own hand. Insolence and violence will take hold of everything.
There will be no faith, peace, humanity, shame, or truth among
men, and hence neither safety, nor government, nor respite
from evils. The whole earth will be in chaos, wars will rage
everywhere, all nations will be in arms and will attack each
other. Neighboring cities will battle each other. Egypt, the first
home of all foolish superstitions, will pay the penalty and be
covered with blood like a river. 77 Then a sword will travel
through the world cutting down everything and laying all
things low like a harvested crop. 78 The cause of this devasta-
tion and confusion will be the fact that the Roman name,
which now rules the world, will be taken from the earth.
Empire will return to Asia and once again the East will rule
and the West will serve. 79 My minds shrinks from saying it,
but say it I will because it is to come! It should not seem
astonishing that a kingdom founded with such might, built up
for so long by many great men, and finally made solid with
such wealth will nevertheless collapse at some time. There is
nothing built by human effort that cannot be destroyed by
human means: Mortal are the works of mortals. Other earlier
kingdoms, though they had flourished for a long time, were
finally destroyed. It is recorded that the Egyptians, the Per-

sians, the Greeks, and the Assyrians all ruled over lands. After
they were all destroyed the supreme position came to the
Romans. 80 Just as they surpassed all the rest in the greatness of
their realm, so will their fall be the greater, because a building
that is higher than the rest has more to destroy.
Seneca skillfully divided the periods of the city of Rome
into ages. He said that the first age was infancy under King

58
 LACTANTIUS

Romulus, the time when Rome was born and educated. Then
came childhood under the other kings who expanded the city
and formed it by many teachings and laws. During Tarquin's
reign, when it already began to be adult, it did not brook
slavery, but threw off the yoke of proud domination and pre-
ferred to be ruled by laws rather than by kings. When its

adolescence was finished at the end of the Punic War, it then

began to flourish in its resolute strength. 81 With the removal of
Carthage (for so long a rival in empire) Rome stretched out her
hands by land and sea to the whole world. Finally, when all
kings and nations had been subdued to her rule so that the very
cause of wars had disappeared, she abused the might by which
she had been built. This was her first old age, when, torn by
civil wars and beset by internal evils, she returned once more
to one-man rule as if going back to a second childhood. She lost
the liberty she had defended under the leadership of Brutus
and grew so old that she was not able to support herself
without depending on the assistance of her rulers. If this be the
case, what remains except for destruction to follow on old age?
Under other words of terse obscurity (lest anyone easily
understand),the discourses of the prophets announce that it
will happen. The Sibyls openly say that Rome will perish by
God's judgment because she hated the divine name and as an
enemy of justice killed the people who were the disciples of
truth. 82 Hystaspes also, a very ancient king of the Medes from
whom that stream that is now called Hydaspes took its name,
handed on to posterity a wonderful dream concerning the
meaning of a boy who uttered prophecies. Long before the
Trojan race was founded he announced that the Roman Em-
pire and name would be taken from the world. 83
16. I will describe how it will take place so that you do not
think that it is incredible. First of all, the empire will grow but
the supreme directing power will weaken and will be scattered
and divided among many. Then civic quarrels will continually
spread abroad and there will be no end of deadly wars until ten
kings will emerge simultaneously. They will divide the world
to destroy and not to govern it. 84 They will greatly expand

59
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

their armies and devastate the farmlands — the beginning of

destruction and death. They will lay waste, crush, and devour
everything.
Then a mighty enemy from the far North will suddenly
rise up against them. When he has destroyed the three who
control Asia he will be taken into alliance with the others and
will be made their chief. 85 He will afflict the world with
unbearable tyranny, will mix up human and divine matters,
and will work for things abominable and accursed. He will
ponder novel notions in his heart: to set up his own empire,
change the old laws and ratify his own, contaminate, ravage,
despoil, and kill. Lastly, when the name of the empire has been
changed and its seat moved, the confusion and disorder of the
whole human race will follow. Then will come a hateful and
detestable time when no one will enjoy life.
Cities will be destroyed from their foundations. They will
perish, not only from fire and sword but also from frequent
earthquakes, floods, plagues, and famines. The air will be poi-
soned and will be corrupt and pestilential, at one time from
unseasonable rains or unusual dryness, at another from exces-
sive cold or hot spells. The earth will not give her fruit to men.
Neither grain, nor tree, nor vine will bear; but rather, after
they have given the greatest hope in the blossom, they will
cheat at harvest. Springs and rivers will dry up so that they
will not provide a drink; waters will be changed to blood and
bitterness. Because of this the animals will desert the earth, as
will the birds the air and the fishes the sea. Wondrous portents
in heaven, as well as comets' tails, eclipses of the sun, the
moon's color, and falling stars will confuse the minds of men
with the greatest fear. These things will not happen in the
usual way, but unknown and unseen stars will suddenly shine
forth. The sun will be perpetually darkened so that one can
scarcely distinguish between night and day. The moon will
fail, and not just for three hours; constantly covered with

blood, it will complete unusual orbits so that men will not be

able to know either the courses of the stars or the calculation of
time. Summer will come in winter, or vice versa. Then the year
will be shortened, the month diminished, the day compressed

60
 LACTANTIUS

to a brief moment. The en masse so that the en-

stars will fall
tire sky will appear blind, without any lights. The highest
mountains will also be brought low, level with the plains; the
sea will be made unnavigable. 86
So that nothing may be lacking to the misfortunes of
mankind and of the world, a trumpet will be heard from
heaven. The Sibyl describes it this way: "The trumpet from
heaven shall send forth its wailing voice." 87 All will tremble
and be afraid at that mournful sound. Then through the wrath
of God against those who did not acknowledge justice, sword,
fire, famine, and disease will rage. Fear will hover continually

over everything. Men will call upon God and he will not listen;
they will hope for death and it will not come. Not even night
will allay the fear nor will sleep be possible, but anxiety and
sleeplessness will torment men's hearts. They will weep and
groan and grind their teeth; they will congratulate the dead
and mourn for the living. These and many other evils will
cause desolation on the earth; the globe will be corrupted and
deserted. In the Sibylline verses it is thus described: "With the
destruction of men the world will no longer be the world." 88
The human race will be so diminished that scarcely a tenth will
be left; a will go forth from where a thousand once
hundred
went out.Two-thirds of the worshipers of God will perish; the
third that will remain will have been tested. 89
17. I will explain more how it will take place. When
clearly
the end of time is already close God will send a great prophet
who will convert men to him and who will receive power to
perform miracles. 90 Wherever men will not listen to him, he
will closeup heaven and hold back the rain, change water into
blood, and torture them with hunger and thirst. Whoever
attempts to injure him will be burned by fire coming out of his
mouth. By these miracles and works of power he will convert
many toGod's worship.
When his works are finished, another king, born of an evil
spirit, will arise from Syria. 91 He will be the subverter and
destroyer of the human race. At the same time he will destroy
that first evil king and anything that he has left. He will fight
against God's prophet, overcome and kill him, and see to it that

61
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

he unburied. But after the third day the prophet will arise
lies

and in the wondering sight of all he will be snatched up to

heaven. 92 That king will be completely loathsome himself, a
prophet of lies. He will set himself up and call himself God, 93
and will command that he be worshipped as the son of God. He
will be given the power to do signs and wonders in order thus
to ensnare men to worship him. He will command fire to come
down from heaven, the sun to stand still outside its orbit, and a
statue to speak. 94 These will all happen at his word. By these
miracles he will even attract many of the wise to himself. Then
he will try to destroy the temple of God and will persecute the
just people; there will be affliction and sorrow such as has
never been from the beginning of the world. 95
Those who believe him and join him he will mark like
cattle; those who refuse his mark will either flee to the moun-
tains or be captured and killed with the most exquisite tortures.
(He will wrap up just men in the scrolls of the prophets and
burn them.) He will be allowed to desolate the earth for forty-
two months. 96 That will be the time when justice will be cast
out and innocence will be hated, when the evil will prey on the
good in hostile fashion. Neither law nor order nor military
discipline will be preserved; no one will reverence white hairs;
the duty of piety will not be acknowledged; neither sex nor
infancy will be spared. All things will be confused and mixed
together contrary to the divine law and to the laws of nature.
The whole earth will be laid waste as though by a single
universal act of robbery.
When these things have taken place, then the just and
those who follow truth will leave the wicked and flee to the
desert. The Unholy One will hear of this and enflamed with
rage will come up with agreat army. He will bring up all his
forces and in order to capture the just he will surround the
mountain where they are waiting. When they see that they are
shut in and besieged on all sides, they will call out to God with
a great voice and beg divine aid. God will hear them and from
heaven will send the Great King, who will rescue them and
free them. He will destroy all the wicked with fire and
sword. 97

62
 LACTANTIUS

18. These things will take place in this way as all the
prophets who speak by God's inspiration and the seers who
speak from the prompting of demons have announced.
Hystaspes, whom I mentioned above, after describing the
wickedness of this last age, said that the pious and faithful who
fled their persecutors would stretch out their hands to heaven
with tears and groans and would implore Jove's protection.
Jove would look down on the earth, hear the voices of man, and
destroy the wicked. 98 All of this is true with the exception of
the fact that he said Jove would do what God will do. Misled by
demons, he also left out that the Son of God would be sent by
the Father to free the faithful after all the wicked have been
destroyed. Hermes did not hide that. In the book entitled The
Perfect Treatise, after he mentioned the evils we spoke of, he
adds:

But when these things thus come to pass, O Asclepius, then

he who is Lord, Father, God, and Creator of the first and
one God, looking upon the deeds of men and opposing his
own will (that is, Goodness) to disorder, abolished error and
purged wickedness by washing it in much water and by
burning it with raging fire and sometimes by subduing it
with wars and pestilences. He brought back and restored
his world to its ancient state."

The Sibyls also show it that the Highest Father will send the
Son of God to free the just from the hands of the wicked and
destroy the unjust and their cruel tyrants. One of them put it
this way:

He will come and wish to destroy completely the city of

the blest,
And a mighty king will be sent from God against him
Who will destroy all the powerful kings and important
men. 100

Another wrote:

Then God will send the king from the rising of the sun
101
Who will free the whole earth from the evil of war.

63
PLATE I:

THE RETURN OF THE RISEN LORD

Church of Saints Cosmas and Damian in Rome,
Detail of the apse mosaic of the c. 530
A.D. Reproduced from W. Oakeshott, The Mosaics of Rome (London: Thames and
Hudson, 1967), Plate XI.
 LACTANTIUS

And another:

Behold the mild King comes our yoke,

to take
The intolerable slavery that now on our necks;
lies
He will free us from godless sentences and oppressive
changes. 102

19. The world human might will

will be oppressed because
have failed to destroy this powerful tyranny. It will fasten on
the captive world with great armies of thieves. Divine aid will
be needed in such a calamity. Moved by the threatening danger
and the pitiable complaint of the just, God will immediately
send the Deliverer. On a_daxk_and^t^i^nriy_night heaven's vault
will be opened so that the light of the descending God may be
seen through the whole world like lightning. The Sibyl has
spoken of it in these verses:

When he comes there will be fire in the darkness

Of the black night. 103

This is the night we celebrate with a vigil because of the

coming of our King and God. 104 It has a double meaning:
because in it he once received life after he had suffered, and in
it he will later receive the kingdom of the world. He whom we

call Christ, Defender, Judge, Avenger, King, and God will give
this sign before he descends. A sword will suddenly fall from
heaven so that the just may know that the Leader and the holy
army is about to come down. Accompanied by angels he will
descend in the midst of the earth. An inextinguishable flame
will precede him. The power of the angels will deliver the
army who besieged the mountain into the hands of the just;
they shall fall in battle from the third hour until the evening,
and blood will flow like a torrent. With all his forces destroyed,
the Unholy One will flee all alone. His power will desert him.
This is the one called Antichrist. He will lyingly say he is
Christ; he will fight against the truth. When conquered he will
flee. He will frequently renew the war and frequently be

overcome, until in the fourth battle, when all the wicked have
been slain, he will be completely conquered. He will be cap-

65
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

tured and finally pay the penalty for his crimes. The other
rulers and tyrants who wasted the world will be brought
bound King together with him. He will rebuke them,
to the
refute them, charge them with their crimes, and will condemn
them and hand them over to deserved tortures. When evil has
been thus snuffed out and impiety suppressed, the world,
which through so many centuries had been subject to error and
crime and had borne heinous slavery, will be finally at peace.
Gods made with hands will no longer be worshiped. The idols
will be cast from their temples and couches and burned. They
will burn along with their wondrous gifts something the —
Sibyl in agreement with the prophets predicted would happen:
"The idols and all their riches will be cast away." 105 The
Erythraean Sibyl promised the same thing: "The idols made by
hands shall be devoured by fire." 106
20. After this hell will be open and the dead will rise. The
same King and God to whom the Supreme Father will give the
ultimate power of judging and ruling will make the Last Judg-
ment on them. The Erythraean Sibyl speaks thus about this
Judgment and Kingdom:

When this day of fate has found its accomplishment,

The Judgment of the Immortal God will come to mortals,
The Great Judgment and rule shall come upon men. 107

Another Sibyl says:

Then the earth will gape apart and show the abyss of
Tartarus,
All will come to the royal judgment seat of God. 108

In another place in the same Sibyl:

I will roll up the heavens and open up the abysses of the

earth,
And then I will raise the dead, loosing Fate

66
 LACTANTIUS

And the sting of Death; immediately I will come to

Judgment,
Judging the life of men both pious and wicked. 109

Not all by God, but only those who

will then be judged
gave God reverence. Those who did not recognize God, be-
cause no judgment can absolve them, are already judged and
condemned as the holy scripture testifies, ". .the wicked shall
.

not rise to judgment." 110 Therefore, those who knew God shall
be judged and their crimes, that is, their evil deeds compared
and weighed with their good ones. If the good and just deeds
are more numerous and important, they will be granted bless-
edness; if evil deeds win out, they will be condemned to pun-
ishment.
Here perhaps someone will say: "If the soul is immortal,

how is it able to suffer and feel pain? If it is to be punished for

what it has merited, it will indeed feel pain, and death as well;
if it is not subject to death, neither is it to pain. Therefore it is
not able to suffer." The Stoics meet this demand or argument
in the following manner. The souls of men are eternal and are
not annihilated by death, but those that were just return home
to the heavenly seat of their origin, pure, impassible, and
blessed. Otherwie, they are taken to those fortunate fields
where they enjoy wondrous delights. The souls of the wicked,
however, because they stained themselves with evil desires,
hold a middle place between mortal and immortal nature and
possess weakness from the flesh's contagion. Addicted to the
flesh's desires and lusts, they bear a certain indelible stain and
earthly blot that with length of time completely penetrates
them. It renders them of such a nature that while they cannot
be totally destroyed because they are from God, they can be
punished through the stain that sins have burned into the body
and that produces the sensation of pain. The poet explains this
opinion thus:

When at the last day life has departed,

Nonetheless, not every evil and bodily curse completely
Departs from the wretched; many hardened stains have

67
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

Long grown within in wondrous ways.

Therefore they must be disciplined by punishments and
Pay the penalty of old sins. 111

This is quite near the truth. As the same poet says, when the
soul is separated from the body, "it is like light wind and very
similar to fleeting sleep." 112 It is a spirit and in its subtlety
cannot be grasped by us who are bodily, but it can be grasped
by God, to whom all things are possible.
21. We say that God's power is such that he perceives even
incorporeal things and influences them as he wishes. The
angels fear God because he can discipline them in an indescrib-
able way, and the demons dread him because he torments and
punishes them. Why wonder that even though souls be immor-
tal they are still able to suffer at the hands of God? Since they

have nothing hard and tangible, they cannot suffer violence

from solid and corporeal things. Because they live on the level
of spirits, they yield only to God whose power and substance is
spiritual.
Holy scripture teaches us how the wicked are to be pun-
ished. Because they contracted sin while in the body, they will
again be endowed with flesh so that they can absolve their
crime in the body. It will not be a flesh like the earthly one that
God clothed man with, but it will be indestructible and eternal
so that it can bear torments and perpetual fire. This fire will be
different from the one we use for the necessities of life, which
is extinguished if it is not nourished by some fuel. That divine

fire always lives by itself and thrives without any nourishment.

There is no smoke mixed with it, but it is pure and flowing, as
liquid as water. It is not driven upward by some force as is our
fire, which by reason of its material defect and the smoke with

which it is mixed must blaze out and fly up toward heaven in

confused fashion. The divine fire will both burn and renew the
wicked by one and the same force and power. It will restore
whatever it takes away from bodies and will provide its own
eternal nourishment: something the poets transferred to the
vulture of Tityus. 113 It will burn and cause pain with no loss to
the bodies that are being restored.

68
 LACTANTIUS

When God has judged the just he will also prove them
with fire. Those whose have greater weight or number
sins
shall be scorched with and burnt; those who have been
fire
dyed in the fullness of justice and the maturity of virtue will
not feel the flame, 114 because they will have something divine
in them that will repel and reject it. Such is the power of
innocence that the fire will leave it unharmed because God has
given this fire the ability to burn the wicked but to spare the
just. Do not think that souls are judged immediately after
death. All are held in common custody until the time comes
when the greatest Judge will examine their merits. Then those
whose righteousness is proven will receive the prize of immor-
tality; those whose sins and crimes are found out will not rise

but will be buried with the wicked in the darkness and des-
tined to sure punishments.
22. Some say these are poets' fictions because they do not
know where the poets learned them. They deny that they can
happen. This is no wonder because the matter is different from
what the poets said. Although the poets are more ancient than
historians and orators and other kinds of writers, because they
did not know the mystery of the divine secret and because
news of the future resurrection had reached them only as an
obscure rumor, they reported what they had heard as casually
and lightly as if it were a fiction. They also claimed that they
did not follow secure authority, but mere opinion, as Vergil
said: "If I can speak what I have heard." 115 Though they partly
corrupted truth's hidden secrets, the message is guaranteed to
be true because it partly agrees with the prophets. For us that
is proof enough.

There is an explanation for their error. In frequent dis-

courses the prophets preached that the Son of God would judge
the dead. This prediction was not concealed. Since the poets
thought that Jove was the god who ruled heaven, they en-
trusted judgment in the underworld to a son of Jove, not
Apollo, or Liber, or Mercury, the celestial sons, but one who
was mortal and righteous, such as Minos, or Aeacus, or
Radamanthus. Therefore, with poetic license they corrupted
what they had received, or else imagination altered a truth that

69
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

had been spread through various mouths and repetitions. They

sung that souls would again be restored to life after a thousand
years in the underworld, as Vergil says:

All these, when the wheel has turned through a thousand

years,
God will call to the river Lethe in a great band;
Unremembering, they visit once more the vault of heaven
and begin
Again to yearn to return to bodies. 116

This explanation was wrong, because the dead will not rise
a thousand years after their deaths, but restored again to life
they will reign a thousand years with God. 117 God will come so
that he can raise the revived souls whose bodies have been
renewed to eternal happiness when this world has been purged
of every stain. Except for the water of forgetfulness the rest is
true. They made that up lest an opponent say: "Why do the
souls not remember that they were once alive and who they
were and what they did?" But this is not plausible, so the whole
matter is rejected by some as a fanciful and fabulous creation.
When we affirm and teach concerning the resurrection
that souls return to another life remembering who they are and
in the same disposition and form, an opponent says: "So many
centuries have passed and what single person has ever risen
from the dead to prove that it is possible?" But the resurrection
cannot take place while injustice still rules. In this world men
are violently slaughtered by the sword, by ambushes and poi-
sons; they are harassed by injuries, want, prison, torture and
proscription. On top of this, justice is hated, and all who wish
to follow God are not only despised, but are also vexed with
every kind of punishment. They are made to worship idols not
through reason and truth but by heinous mangling of their
bodies.
Should men
be resurrected to the same conditions? Should
they return to a life in which they cannot be safe? Because the
just are held in such low esteem and because they are so freely
killed, what would it have been like if someone had come back

70
 LACTANTIUS

from the dead and received life by a return to his former state?
He would have been immediately snatched from the eyes of
men, lest seeing and hearing him everybody abandon the gods
and convert to the worship and religion of the one God.
Therefore, the resurrection must take place once and for all
when evil has been taken away, because those who have risen
can no longer die nor be harmed in any way. Their death has
been canceled so that they can lead a blessed life. Because the
poets knew that this world was filled with every evil they made
up the river of forgetfulness lest souls refuse to return to the
upper world because of their memory of evils and labors. As
Vergil puts it:

O father, are we to think that any souls go up from here

To heaven, and again return to their sluggish bodies?
What is this so fearful longing for the miserable light of
day? 118

They did not know how and when this was to happen and
hence they thought that souls were reborn and once more sent
into the womb and restored to infancy. Plato also says that
souls can be known to be immortal and divine because native
genius is quicker and more perceptive in boys. What they learn
they grasp so quickly that they do not seem to be learning it for
the first time but to be recalling and remembering it. 119 The
philosopher foolishly believed the poets on this score.
23. They are not reborn —
that is impossible but they will—
arise and be endowed with bodies by God. They will remem-
ber all the deeds of their former life. Placed amidst heavenly
goods and enjoying the delights of countless riches, they will
give thanks to God present among them because he has de-
stroyed all evil and has raised them up to the kingdom and to
life everlasting.
The philosophers have also tried to say something about
the resurrection, just as corruptly as the poets. Pythagoras
discussed the passage of souls into new bodies, but he mistak-
enly held them to pass from men into cattle and from cattle
into men. He thought his own soul came from Euphorbus.

71
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

Chrysippus, whom Cicero says was a Stoic, 120 does better

when he speaks of the renewal of the world in the book he
wrote On Providence:

Because this is so, nothing is impossible. After our death,

when certain periods of time have come round again, we
are returned to the state in which we now exist. 121

But let us return from human to divine testimonies. The Sibyl

says:

The whole race of men is faithless; but when

The Judgment shall come over the world and men that
God himself
Willmake upon both the wicked and the just in the same
way,
Then he will send the wicked into the fire of the darkness
below.
Allwho are holy will live again on the earth,
God giving them spirit, honor and especially life. 122

If not only the prophets but also the seers, poets, and philos-
ophers agree that there will be a future resurrection of the
dead, let no one ask us how it will happen. No explanation can
be given for God's works. If he created man in the beginning in
an indescribable way, let us believe that the old man can be
restored by the same God who made him when he was new.
24. Now add what remains. The Sibyl testifies that
I will
the Son of the Most High and Great God will come to judge
the living and the dead:

There will then be confusion of all mortals on earth,

When the Almighty himself appears on the throne to
judge
The souls of living and dead and the whole world. 123

When he has destroyed injustice, completed the Great Judg-

ment, and restored to life all the just who have existed from the
beginning of the world, he will dwell for a thousand years

72
 LACTANTIUS

among men, governing them with totally righteous rule. 124

Another Sibyl proclaimed in raving prophecy: "Listen to me,
O mortals, an everlasting king will reign!" 125 Those who will
live then will not die, but will propagate an infinite multitude
through those thousand years. Their offspring will be holy and
beloved by God. 126 Those who will be raised from the dead
will rule over the living like judges.
The nations are not to be totally destroyed, but some will
be left for God's victory so that the just can triumph over them
and subject them to eternal servitude. At the same time the
Prince of Demons, the author of all evil, will be bound with
chains and imprisoned for the thousand years of the heavenly
kingdom when justice will rule the world, lest he rouse any ill
against God's people. After God's coming the just shall be
gathered together from the whole world. The holy city will be
built in the middle of world after the Judgment is finished.
God will dwell in it as founder along with the just who rule the
earth. The Sibyl points to this city when she says:

The city which God chose for himself He made

More gleaming than the stars, the sun and the moon. 127

Then the darkness that covered and obscured the heavens will
be taken away, and the moon will receive the sun's brightness
and will not be lessened anymore. The sun will be seven times
brighter than it is now. The earth's fertility will be opened and
it will spontaneously bear the richest fruits. The mountain

rocks will drip with honey, the brooks will run with wine, and
the rivers overflow with milk. In that time the world itself will
rejoice. The whole of nature, freed and delivered from the rule
of impiety, crime, and error, will be glad. During this time
evil,
beasts will not feed on blood and birds on prey, but they will
be peaceful and serene. Lions and calves will stand together at
the manger, the wolf will not snatch the sheep, the dog not
hunt, hawks and eagles not kill. The infant will play with ser-
pents. 128 All the things that the poets said
happened in the
Golden Age when Saturn reigned will then take place.
The poets' mistake comes from the fact that the prophets

73
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

announced and revealed many future events as if they were

already past. They saw the visions they were given by the Holy
Spirit as if they had already happened. When rumor had gradu-
ally spread their prophecies abroad, those who were ignorant
of the mysteries did not know the way in which they were put
forth. They thought that the events were already all completed
in former ages, things that could not have been done and
fulfilled under any human rule. But when all evil religions
have been abolished and crime has been subdued, the earth will
be subject to God,

The sailor himself shall give up the sea and the sea-going
Ship not exchange merchandise; the whole earth will bear
everything.
The ground shall not suffer the hoe, nor the vine the
pruning hook;
The hardy plowman shall loose the yoke from the oxen.

And then:

The plain shall grow slowly golden with the waving

grain,
The purple grape shall hang from the uncut brambles,
And the solid oaks shall sweat honey wet with dew.
Wool will not learn to adopt falsely various colors,
But the ram himself in the meadows will change his
fleece,
Now to sweet purple, now to saffron yellow;
Scarlet will cover the grazing sheep of its own accord.
The goats will bring home udders swollen with milk
And the herds will not fear the great lions. 129

Vergil foretold this following the Sibyl's song, for the

Erythraean Sibyl speaks thus:

Wolves and lambs, devoutly joined, shall feast on the

mountains,
And leopards shall feed with kids.
Bears shall lie with calves and other small cattle,

74
 LACTANTIUS

And the carnivorous lion shall eat like a cow at the

manger;
Serpents and vipers shall sleep with infants. 130

In another place she speaks of the fruitfulness of things:

Then God will give great joy to man,

For the earth and the trees and the innumerable herds of
cattle
Shall give to mankind their true fruit
Of wine and sweet honey and white milk
And grain which is the most wonderful of all for men. 131

Another Sibyl in the same way says:

The holy land of the pious alone will bear these things,
For allthe just there will flow a stream from a rock
dripping honey,
And from a fountain ambrosial milk. 132

So men will live a very peaceful and abundant life and will
reign together with God. Kings of nations will come from the
ends of the earth with gifts and offerings to adore and honor
the great King whose name will be splendid and venerable to
all nations under heaven and to all kings who rule over the
earth.
These are the things that the prophets say are coming. I
25.
have not thought it necessary to put down proof-texts and
exact words because it would be an endless task. The span of
one book could not contain such a multitude of things from so
many who speak the same truths in the one Spirit. It would
also have been an annoyance to the reader if I had compiled
what I collected and translated from all sources. I could have
confirmed what I said not from my own words but rather from
those of others, and thus taught that not only we but also those
who reproach us hold to the established truth they are hesitant
to recognize. If anyone wants more accurate information on
these matters, he should draw from that source and he will find
more wonders than we have included in these books.

75
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

Perhaps someone will now ask when these things we have

spoken of will take place. I showed before that the transforma-
tion has to happen after six thousand years and that the final
day of the last end is already drawing near. We can know this
much concerning the signs predicted by the prophets; they
foretold signs by means of which we could day-by-day await and
fear the end of time. Those who have written about the ages
deduce the number of years from the beginning of the world
out of holy scripture and different histories and teach when the
whole sum will be completed. Although they vary and disagree
a bit about the number, no expectation seems to be more than
two hundred years. 133 The current situation indicates that the
collapse and ruin of everything will soon take place, unless
nothing is to be feared because the city of Rome is still un-
harmed. But when the capital of the world will have fallen and
begun to be a street, 134 as the Sibyls say will happen, who can
doubt that the end of human affairs and the world has already
come? This is the city that still upholds all things. 135 Let us
entreat and implore heaven's God to put off his decisions and
decrees, if possible, lest that terrible tyrant come more quickly
than we think, he who will work so great an evil and dig out
that eye at whose destruction the world verge on
itself will
collapse. Now let us go back to describe the other things that
will then follow.
26. A little earlier, we said that at the beginning of the holy
Kingdom God would overcome the Prince of Demons. But
when the millennium of the Kingdom, that is, the seventh
millennium has begun to reach an end, he will again be freed.
He will come forth from prison and will march out and stir up
all the nations at that time under the rule of the saints in order

to make war on the holy city. A countless host of nations will

be gathered from the whole world to besiege and surround the
city. Then the final wrath of God will come upon the nations.
He will vanquish them to the last man. First he will shake the
earth with supreme power, a blow that will split the mountains
of Syria, sink the valleys abruptly and knock down the walls of
all the cities. 136 God will decree that the sun not set for three

days. He will set it on fire. Severe heat and intense burning

16
 LACTANTIUS

will descend upon these enemies and unholy peoples, as well as

showers of brimstone, a hail of rocks, and drops of fire. Their
spirits willmelt with the heat, their bodies will be destroyed by
the hail, and they will strike each other with the sword. The
mountains will be filled with corpses, the fields covered with
bones. For three days God's people will hide in the caverns of
the earth until his wrath against the nations and the Last
Judgment will end. 137
Then the just will go forth from their hiding places and
will find everything covered with corpses and bones. Every
wicked nation will be rooted out and God's people will be the
only nation in the world. For seven uninterrupted years the
forests will remain untouched and no wood will be cut from
the mountain, but rather the arms of the nations will be
burnt. 138 There will be no more war, but peace and eternal
rest. 139 When the thousand years shall have been completed,
God will renew the world, heaven will be folded up, and the
earth will be changed. God will change men into the likeness of
angels. They will be white as snow and always live in the sight
of the Most High. They will sacrifice to their Lord and will
serve him forever. At the same time the second and public
resurrection of all will take place. In this one the wicked will
rise to eternal punishment. These are the ones who worshiped
idols, who either did not know or denied the Lord and Parent
of the world. Their Master and his ministers will be taken and
condemned to punishment in the sight of the angels and the
just. Because of their sins the whole host of the wicked will be
burned by eternal fire along with him forever. 140
This is the teaching of the holy prophets, which we Chris-
tians follow. This is our wisdom, which those who worship
feeble idols or defend empty philosophy deride as foolishness
and vanity. We do not usually defend or maintain this publicly
since God has commanded that we peacefully and silently keep
his secret hid within our conscience. He also commanded that
we do not engage in obstinate battle against those who are
ignorant of the truth, those who for the sake of accusation and
mockery and not for learning harshly attack God and his
religion. How faithfully ought the mystery to be hidden and

77
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

concealed, especially by us who bear the name of the faith!

They condemn this silence of ours as if it were bad conscience,
and so they make up detestable rumors about chaste and inno-
cent people and freely believe what they have made up.
27. We have reached the goal after completing the seven
books of our proposed work. What remains is to exhort every-
one to take up wisdom and true religion. Religion's power and
office is to direct us to the eternal rewards of heavenly treasure
after we have condemned earthly cares and cast off the errors
that once held us slaves to the desire of passing things. In order
to gain these rewards we must discard the seductive pleasures
of the present life as soon as possible. They charm souls with
destructive delight. How greatly should we value the happiness
that removes us from the stains of earth and sets us on
the path for the Most Just Judge and Kindest Parent who
bestows rest instead of labor, life instead of death, light instead
of darkness, and eternal and celestial goods instead of brief
earthly ones. The bitterness and distress we suffer in this
world when we perform justice's works can in no way be
compared or put on the same footing with this reward. 141 If we
would be wise and happy, we should consider and meditate
upon that saying of Terence, ". . ground as in a mill, flogged
.

and put in bonds." 142 Much worse things than these must be
—
borne prison, chains, and torture. We must suffer pains, and
finally accept and bear death itself, because it is evident to our
conscience that no fleeting pleasure will be without punish-
ment and no virtue without divine reward.
All ought to make an effort either to put themselves on the
right path as quickly as possible or else to deserve divine
consolation by taking up virtue, working at it, and patiently
completing life's labors. Our Father and Lord, who founded
heaven and made it firm, who established the sun and other
stars, who by his greatness fortified the earth he had weighed
out with mountains, who surrounded it with the sea and di-
vided it with rivers, and who created whatever exists in this
world from nothing, saw the errors of men and sent a leader to
open up for us the path of justice. Let us all follow him and pay

78
 LACTANTIUS

heed to him. Let us obey him with great devotion, for he alone,
as Lucretius says:

Purified the hearts of men with true sayings

And fixed a limit to desire and fear;
He set forth what the Highest Good to which we all

strive
Might be, and he showed the way by which on a narrow
path
We can march directly towards it.
143

He not only showed the way, but he also walked it before us so

that no one would shrink from the path of virtue because of its
difficulty. Let us abandon, if possible, the path of destruction
and fraud in which death lies hidden, concealed by the
allurements of pleasure. The more that anyone in his declining
years sees the day approaching when he must depart from this
life, the more he should ponder on how pure he must set forth,

how innocent he must come before the Judge. Do not act like
those whose minds are blind. When warned of the presence of
their destiny by the failure of the body's powers, they try to
drink down lusts more eagerly and ardently. Get free of that
abyss while you can, while the ability is still there. Be con-
verted to God with your whole mind so that you can safely
await that day when the Ruler and Lord of the world will
judge the deeds and thoughts of each man. Neglect and flee the
things that are coveted here, and judge your souls more impor-
tant than the fleeting goods whose possession is insecure and
transitory. Such things vanish every day, leaving much quicker
than they came. Even if we could enjoy them to the very end,
we would surely have to leave them behind to others. We can
take nothing with us except a good and innocent life. He who
has continence, mercy, patience, charity, and love for compan-
ions will come to God both rich and splendid. This is the
inheritance that can neither be taken away from anyone nor
given to another. Who is the man who desires to acquire and
obtain these good things?

79
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

Let those who are famished come that they may lay aside
perpetual hunger and be filled with heavenly food. Let those
who thirst come that they may draw saving water with full
throats from the everlasting source. By this divine food and
drink the blind will see, the deaf hear, the dumb speak, the lame
walk, the foolish become wise, the sick well, and the dead live
again. 144 That Supreme and True Judge will lift up to life and
perpetual light anyone who has trodden down the seductions
of the earth. No one should trust in riches, high office, or even
royal power —these things do not make one immortal. Whoever
ceases to be human and prostrates himself on the dirt by
pursuing the pleasures of the moment will be punished as a
deserter of his Lord, Emperor, and Father. Seek after justice,
which like an inseparable companion will lead us to God.
While the spirit rules these limbs, 145 fight for God with unwea-
ried courage, practice stations and watches, contend in
strength with the enemy, so that as victors who have tri-
umphed over the conquered foe we may attain the reward of
virtue promised by the Lord.

80
Part II
ADSO OF
MONTIER-EN-DER

Despite the pessimism of Lactantius, he wrote at a time when

the Roman Empire, far from sinking under the weight of its
problems, was reorganizing itself to deal successfully with
these difficulties. The full story of this reorganization (that is,
the history of the Christian Roman Empire) cannot be told
here. In order to understand the world in which the monk
Adso was writing some six centuries after Lactantius, however,
it is important to recognize that although this reorganization

was only temporarily successful in the West, it was crucial to

the history of the Middle Ages and to the apocalyptic beliefs
held throughout that period.
Constantine's shift of the capital to his new city on the
border between Europe and Asia was an early but decisive
moment in the orientalization of the later Roman Empire. By
AD. 950 this process, coupled with the massive displacement of
peoples that accompanied the period of the invasions, had
resulted in a world that, however much it lived under the
shadow of Rome, was no longer Roman in the classical sense of
the term. Three successor empires laid claims to the lands once
—
united under Roman sway the Eastern Empire of Byzantium,

81
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

the most direct descendant of the Christian Roman Empire

inaugurated by Constantine; the Abbasid Caliphate, the succes-
sor to the state founded on the religious fervor of the Moslem
religion that in the seventh century had decisively broken the
unity of the ancient Mediterranean world; and the shattered
fragments of the revival of the Roman Empire in the West that
had been the work of Charlemagne, the last and greatest of the
barbarian warlords.
Two apocalyptic figures are central to this brief treatise in
letter form that Adso addressed to Queen Gerberga about
950 —
first, the Antichrist himself, mankind's final dread ene-

my; and second, a coming Frankish ruler who would restore

the Roman Empire and whose voluntary abdication and death
would be the sign for the Antichrist's rise to power. A brief
glance at the history of these figures in the later Roman Em-
pire is necessary to understand the place of Adso's text in
apocalyptic traditions.
/The Antichrist had been born in intertestamental Judaism,
received hisname and job description in the New Testament,
and come to take on a more inflated stature in the patristic
period as developing Christology and popular belief collabo-
rated in producing a more detailed and heroic "Antichristolo-
gy." 1 We have seen how rich these accretions to New Testa-
ment understanding had become by the time of LactantTifa.
In scriptural texts, the Antichrist appears not only as the
final individual opponent of Christ and the Church, but also as
a multitude, that is, the succession of all evil forces and persons
in the course of history. 2 Thus while individuals, such as the
wicked rulers Nero and Domitian, were frequently identified
with the Antichrist or with one of his predecessors, from the
fourth century collective interpretations also became common,
such as those that saw various heretical groups like the Arians
as the Antichrist, or that of the Donatist exegete Tyconius,
whose influential Commentary on the Apocalypse identified the
Antichrist with the cumulative body of evildoers within the
Church. But the strength of the individual interpretations con-
tinued. In the late fourth century Martin of Tours told his
followers that the Antichrist had already been born, 3 and a

82
 ADSO OF MONTIER-EN-DER

century and a half later Procopius of Caesarea painted Justin-

ian in unmistakable Antichrist language. 4 The dual interpreta-
tion carried over into the barbarian West in later centuries. In
the late eighth century the Spanish monk Beatus of Liebana
wrote a Commentary on the Apocalypse that relied heavily on
Tyconius and thus encouraged the collective approach, 5 while
in 826 Agobard of Lyons wrote to the Emperor Louis the Pious
advising that someone undertake a systematic survey of tradi-
tional teaching on the coming individual final enemy. 6 This
task was not to be fulfilled until Adso took pen in hand over a
century later.
We may be puzzled over this fascination with the Anti-
christ. Why did the pious Queen Gerberga request such a
treatise from Adso? Carolingian intellectuals, of course, de-
lighted in producing handy and simple compendia of the com-
plex heritage of the patristic past, but there is good reason why
a compendium on the Antichrist fitted the world of the mid-
tenth century even better than that of the early ninth. Adso
and Gerberga lived in the midst of what was by any standards a
society of the most extreme violence. On any level, life in the
tenth century involved constant struggle against a variety of
foes. External invasion by Vikings, Moslems, and Magyars was
still a real threat (the victory over the Magyars at the Lechfeld

in 955 has been seen as a crucial moment in Western Europe's

independence). The collapse of the Carolingian Empire had
produced a state of social disorder in which a class of violent
armed warriors, or potentiores, was left free to pursue their own
ends through the oppression of the lower classes, or humiliores,
without the interference of the legal and coercive institutions
of any real form of state. What spiritual life existed at the time
could not abstract from this grim situation. It is scarcely sur-
prising that in the spiritual writings of the time the present
world and everything that smacked of it were viewed with
intense pessimism. Life was seen as a constant struggle be-
tween good and evil, and the forces of evil always seemed to
have the upper hand here below. The lot of the good man was
to endure evil and persecution with patience in hope of a
future glorious reward. 7 The conflict between good and evil

83
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

was to culminate in the last and worst persecution by the most

powerful opponent of goodness, the Antichrist. Antichrist's
evil campaign was to be more insidious than that of rampaging
Vikings or even of the oppressive local nobility, for he would
advance his cause under the banner of seeming goodness, even
to the point of performing signs and wonders. To be fore-
warned was to be forearmed. In order to survive in the coming
ultimate struggle with the Antichrist, one needed to be in-
structed about his origin, career, and the signs of his coming.
In its attention to these goals, Adso's treatise fulfilled a very
practical purpose for the spirituality of the tenth century.
Adso's apocalyptic outlook, however, tempered pessimism
with a splash of optimism through his teaching regarding the
role of the Roman Empire and its final ruler in the drama of
history. The problem of the apocalyptic significance of the
Roman Empire went back deep into the patristic past. Rome
had first appeared in a negative role, as the persecuting Whore
of Babylon of John's Apocalypse; but from about AD. 200 the
teaching of the Second Epistle to the Thessalonians regarding a
mysterious restraining force or person whose presence held
back the advent of the Antichrist (2 Thess. 2:6-7) was taken by
many of the Fathers to refer to the Roman Empire. Within the
same perspective, the equally puzzling "defection" (apostasia) of
2Thessalonians 2:3 could be interpreted as the final breakup of
Roman unity. Since Rome had come to be identified with the
last of the four world empires symbolized by the statue of the
second chapter of Daniel, her empire was meant to endure
down to the end of the world. Even such a harsh opponent of
pagan Rome as Tertullian could pray for the preservation of
the empire in order to allow time for more conversions to the
true religion. 8 This more positive evaluation of the historical
role of Rome received immense support from Constantine's
conversion and the Christianization of the empire in the fourth
century. Henceforth the fortunes of Romanitas and Christianitas
seemed indissolubly linked to most Christian authors (Augus-
tine was an exception), and the enemies of the new Christian
Rome might easily come to be seen as the Antichrist, or his
predecessors.

84
 ADSO OF MONTIER-EN-DER

Loyalty in theRoman Empire, especially in the army and

among the common people, centered on the person of the
emperor, God's vicar on earth and the divinely appointed head
of both the ecclesiastical and civil hierarchies. This traditional
picture was not changed, but rather underlined by the conver-
sion of Constantine. But the imperial office itself had hereto-
fore no corresponding positive function in the Christian under-
standing of history. This new situation called for an
apocalyptic validation of the transhistorical significance of the
empire and its leader in the light of the Christian teleological
view of history where events achieved their meaning in direct
relation to their connection with the end of history. The result
was the creation of a potent new apocalyptic myth in the time
of the later Roman Empire, the legend of the Last World
Emperor. 9
The earliest surviving witness to the Last Emperor occurs
in the Revelations ascribed to the third-century martyr bishop
Methodius, a text actually written in Syriac by a pro-Byzantine
monk in the latter seventh century. This popular work was
soon translated into Greek and Latin, as well as into a number
of eastern languages, and was widely read for over a millen-
nium. 10 The Syrian author is not likely to have invented all the
details of the legend, however much he may have been respon-
sible for its final shaping. It is possible that the figure of a final
Christian emperor may have been present in the lost fourth-
century Latin translation of a Greek Sibylline text, 11 and a
mass of traditional legendary traditions was certainly gathering
about the person of the basileus, or Christian emperor, during
the fifth and sixth centuries. The Pseudo-Methodius text does
emphasize that the rise of the new religious force of Islam, the
second great shock to traditional understandings of sacred his-
tory in the late antique world, had much to do with the explicit
emergence of the myth of the Last Emperor.
The sudden appearance of the new opposition force at a
time when the Romans had finally won a decisive victory
against the age-old Persian challenge, coupled with the rapid
loss of large portions of the heritage of the empire to Islam, was
a crisis of no mean proportions, not least of all to Christian

85
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

optimistic understandings of history. Belief did not waver,

however, in Rome's destiny to last until the final age of the
persecution of the Antichrist; and, in optimistic fashion, the
Moslem attack was generally not identified with that of the
final enemy. 12 According to the Pseudo-Methodius, the terrible
persecution of the Ishmaelites, that is, the Moslems, was to be
brought to a dramatic end.

The king of the Greeks, that Romans, will come out

is, the
against them in great anger, roused as from a drunken
stupor like one whom men had thought dead and worthless.
He will go forth against them from the Ethiopian sea and
will send the sword and desolation into Ethribus their
homeland, capturing their women and children living in
the Land of Promise. 13

This final ruler who was to conquer the Moslems would re-
store the fullness of the Roman Empire and establish a messi-
anic reign of peace and plenty. In his time the unclean north-
ern races of Gog and Magog, which legend had itwere shut out
by Alexander the Great with his famous gates, would break out
to ravage the earth, 14 but God would
send an angel to destroy
them. Finally, when the Antichrist had arisen, the Last Em-
peror would give up his crown, kingdom, and life to God in the
Holy City of Jerusalem, thus marking the end of the Roman
Empire.
The legend of the Last World Emperor, as it appears in the
Pseudo-Methodius and in many later transformations, was
both a message of consolation to an empire on the defense
(frequently against Islamic forces) and a call to arms for the
defense of Romanitas. In times of trouble men were not to
despair of empire and emperor, but to be prepared to take up
arms in support of the coming messianic ruler.
Adso's Letter is the earliest surviving Western version of
the myth of the Last World Emperor, though the Merovingian
translation of the Pseudo-Methodius and probably other tradi-
tions no longer textually extant had made knowledge of the
new messianic figure known in the West since the eighth

86
 ADSO OF MONTIER-EN-DER

century. The political and religious context within which the

abbot of Montier-en-Der wrote helps explain the character of
his adaptation of the traditions regarding the coming ruler.
Adso lived in an era that despite its disorganization and decay
had already begun to see glimmers of the hope of renovatio, or
renewal. Renovatio had become a fact in the monastic world
with the foundation and spread of the reform movements
connected with the monasteries of Cluny and Gorze. Adso
himself, who was born about 910, was a member of reforming
monastic circles and a noted hagiographer. Renovatio of the
empire was also an object of hope in tenth-century Europe
among the claimants to the Carolingian heritage in both East
and West Frankish lands. It was Gerberga's powerful brother,
Otto the Saxon, who was crowned emperor at Rome in 963,
and not Louis IV (ruled 936-954), her weak husband who was
overshadowed throughout his life by the powerful nobles of his
realm. Adso's treatise reflects this political situation and is in
part a manifesto for the hopes of the West Frankish realm
against both the French barons and the rising Saxon power. 15
The reforming abbot emphasizes the shift in power from East
to West; and though he admits that the Roman Empire is now
in ruins, he claims that its dignity belongs by right to the line
of the West Franks from whom will come the Last World
Emperor.
Considerable scholarship has recently been devoted to the
question of the sources used by the abbot. The work of M.
Rangheri and D. Verhelst has shown how closely Adso follows
a few early medieval authorities, especially Bede (d. 735) and
Haymo of Auxerre (d. c. 865), themselves compilers of tradi-
tional patristic material. 16 But Adso's dependence on earlier
authors should not be allowed to mask his originality, espe-
cially with regard to the form he adopted for his treatise. R.
Konrad has pointed out that the Letter is modelled on the most
popular form of spiritual literature of the time, the saint's
17
life. As a practiced hagiographer, Adso could scarcely help
but be marked by the influence of this widespread genre. The
clarityit gave to his presentation of the origin, career, and fate

of the Man of Perdition will be evident to anyone who com-

87
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

pares his work with the rich but diffuse Treatise on Christ and the
Antichrist written by Hippolytus about the year 200.
The influence of Adso's Letter was immense. Its popular-

ity led to no less than seven subsequent revisions of the text in

the eleventh and twelfth centuries that circulated under the
names of such prestigious authors as Augustine, Alcuin, and
—
Anselm of Canterbury a typical example of apocalyptic
pseudonymity. D. Verhelst, whose critical edition of the ver-
sions of the Letter has provided a solid critical basis for all

subsequent study, has identified some 170 manuscripts of the

various renditions of the text. 18 The diffusion of the work and
its impact on later medieval presentations of the career of the
Last Emperor and of the Antichrist, as in the case of the Latin
Play of Antichrist composed in Germany about 1160, show that
even in comparatively less violent times correct and accessible
information about the Final Enemy was considered important
to Christian piety.

88
ADSO OF MONTIER-EN-DER
Letter on the Origin and Time of the Antichrist

Prologue to Gerberga
Brother Adso, the last of all her servants, sends best wishes
and eternal peace to her highness Gerberga, most excellent
Queen, mighty in royal dignity, beloved of God and cherished
by all the saints, mother of monks and leader of holy virgins.
Because I have won the favor of your kindness, Royal
Mother, I have been always faithful to you in everything like a
dutiful servant. Even though my prayers do not deserve any-
thing from God, I beseech the mercy of our God for you and
for your husband, the Lord King, as well as for the safety of
your sons. May he deign to preserve the imperial dignity for
you in this life and after it cause you to reign happy with him
in heaven. If the Lord gives you good fortune and bestows
longer life on your sons, we know without doubt and do
believe that God's Church must be exalted and the monastic
order must be multiplied more and more. As your faithful one,
I wish for this and strongly desire it. If I were able to gain the

whole kingdom for you, I would do it most gladly; but since I

1

cannot do that, I will beseech the Lord for the salvation of you
and your sons that his grace may always precede you in your
works and his glory may follow you in loving kindness. Be-
cause grace is directed to the divine commandments, you can
fulfill the good that you desire so that the crown of the heav-

enly kingdom will be given to you. 2

You have a pious desire to listen to the scriptures and often
to speak about our Redeemer. You even want to learn about
the wickedness and persecution of the Antichrist, as well as
of his power andorigin. Since you have deigned to ask your
servant, wish to write to you to tell you something about the
I

Antichrist, although you do not need to hear it from me

because you have Don Rorico at your side, that most prudent

89
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

pastor and brilliant mirror of all wisdom and eloquence, a man

3
indispensable to our age.

The Treatise
When you wish to be informed about the Antichrist the
first thing you want to know is why he is so called. This is
because he will be contrary to Christ in all things and will do
things that are against Christ. 4 Christ came as a humble man;
he will come as a proud one. Christ came to raise the lowly, to
justify sinners; he, on the other hand, will cast out the lowly,
magnify sinners, exalt the wicked. He will always exalt vices
opposed to virtues, will drive out the evangelical law, will
revive the worship of demons in the world, will seek his own
glory (John 7:18), and will call himself Almighty God. The
Antichrist has many ministers of his malice. Many of them
have already existed, like Antiochus, Nero, and Domitian. 5
Even now in our own time we know there are many Anti-
christs, for anyone, layman, cleric, or monk, who lives contrary
to justice and attacks the rule of his way of life and blasphemes
what is good (Rom. 14:16) is an Antichrist, the minister of
Satan. 6
Now let us see about the Antichrist's origin. What I say is
not thought out or made up on my own, but in my attentive
reading I find it all written down in books. As our authors say,
(the Antichrist will be born from the Jewish people,) that is,
from the tribe of Dan, as the Prophet says: "Let Dan be a snake
in the wayside, an adder on the path." 7 He will sit in the
wayside like a serpent and will be on the path in order to
wound those who walk and kill
in the paths of justice (Ps. 22:3)
them with the poison of his wickedness. He will be born from
the union of a mother and father, like other men, not, as some
say, from a virgin alone. 8 Still, he will be conceived wholly in
sin (Ps. 50:7), will be generated in sin, and will be born in sin
(John 9:34). At the very beginning of his conception the devil
will enter his mother's womb at the same moment. The devil's
power will foster and protect him in his mother's womb and it
will always be with him. Just as the Holy Spirit came into the

90
 ADSO OF MONTIER-EN-DER

mother of Our Lord Jesus Christ and overshadowed her with

his power and filled her with divinity so that she conceived of
the Holy Spirit and what was born of her was divine and holy
(Luke 1:35), so too the devil will descend into the Antichrist's
mother, will completely fill her, completely encompass her,
completely master her, completely possess her within and
without, so that with the devil's cooperation she will conceive
through a man and what born from her will be totally
will be
wicked, totally For this reason that man is
evil, totally lost.
called the "Son of Perdition" (2 Thess. 2:3), because he will
destroy the human race as far as he can and will himself be
destroyed at the last day. 9
You have heard how he is to be born; now hear the place
where he will be born. Just as Our Lord and Redeemer foresaw
Bethlehem for himself as the place to assume humanity and to
be born for us, so too the devil knew a place fit for that lost
man who is from which the root of all
called Antichrist, a place
evil (1 Tim.
6:10) ought to come, namely, the city of Babylon. 10
Antichrist will be born in that city, which once was a cele-
brated and glorious pagan center and the capital of the Persian
Empire. It says that he will be brought up and protected in the
cities of Bethsaida and Corozain, the cities that the Lord re-
proaches in the Gospel when he says, "Woe to you, Bethsaida,
woe to you Corozain!" (Matt. 11.21). The Antichrist will have
magicians, enchanters, diviners, and wizards who at the devil's
bidding will rear him and instruct him in every evil, error, and
wicked art. 11 Evil spirits will be his leaders, his constant asso-
ciates, and inseparable companions. Then he will come to
Jerusalem and with various tortures will slay all the Christians
he cannot convert to his cause. He will erect his throne in the
Holy Temple, for the Temple that Solomon built to God that
had been destroyed he will raise up to its former state. 12 He
will circumcise himself and will pretend that he is the son of
Almighty God.
He will first convert kings and princes to his cause, and
then through them the rest of the peoples. He will attack the
places where the Lord Christ walked and will destroy what the
Lord made famous. Then he will send messengers and his

91
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

preachers through the whole world. His preaching and power

will extend"from sea to sea, from East to West" (Ps. 71:8), from
North to South. He will also work many signs, great and
unheard-of prodigies (Apoc. 13:13). He will make fire come
down from heaven in a terrifying way, trees suddenly blossom
and wither, the sea become stormy and unexpectedly calm. He
will make the elements change into differing forms, divert the
order and flow of bodies of water, disturb the air with winds
and all sorts of commotions, and perform countless other won-
drous acts. He will raise the dead "in the sight of men in order
to lead into error, if possible, even the elect" (Matt. 24:24). For
when they shall have seen great signs of such a nature even
those who are perfect and God's chosen ones will doubt
whether or not he is the Christ who according to the scriptures
will come at the end of the world. 13
He will arouse universal persecution against the Chris-
tians and all the elect. He will lift himself up against the
faithful in three ways, that is, by terror, by gifts, and by
prodigies. 14 To those who believe in him he will give much
gold and silver. Those he is not able to corrupt with gifts, he
will overcome with terror; those he cannot overcome with
terror, he will try to seduce with signs and prodigies. Those he
cannot seduce with prodigies, he will cruelly torture and mis-
15
erably put to death in the sight of all. "Then there will be
tribulation such as has not been on earth from when the nations
began to exist up Then those who are in the field
to that time.
will flee to the mountains, and he who is on the roof will not go
down into his house to take anything from it" (Matt. 24:21, 16;
Dan. 12:1). Then every faithful Christian who will be discov-
ered will either deny God, or, if he will remain faithful, will
perish, whether through sword, or fiery furnace, or serpents,
or beasts, or through some other kind of torture. This terrible
and fearful tribulation will last for three and a half years in the
whole world. "Then the days will be shortened for the sake of
the elect, for unless the Lord had shortened those days, man-
kind would not have been saved" (Matt. 24:22).
The Apostle Paul reveals the time when the Antichrist
will come and when Judgment Day will begin in the Epistle to

92
 ADSO OF MONTIER-EN-DER

the Thessalonians, chapter two ("We beseech you through the

coming of Our Lord Jesus where he says:
Christ"), in the place
"Unless the defection shall have come first and the man of sin
and the Son of Perdition shall have been revealed" (2 Thess.
2:3). For we know that after the Greek Empire, or even after

the Persian Empire, each of which in its time had great glory
and flourished with the highest power, at last after all the other
empires there came into existence the Roman Empire, which
was the strongest of all and had all the kingdoms of the earth
under its control. All nations were subject to the Romans and
paid tribute to them. This is why the Apostle Paul says that the
Antichrist will not come into the world "unless the defection
shall have come first," that is, unless first all the kingdoms that
were formerly subject shall have defected from the Roman
Empire. 16 This time has not yet come, because even though we
may see the Roman Empire for the most part in ruins, nonethe-
less, as long as the Kings of the Franks who now possess the

Roman Empire by right shall last, the dignity of the Roman

Empire will not completely perish because endure in its
it will
kings. Some of our learned men say that one of the Kings of the
Franks will possess anew the Roman Empire. 17 He will be in the
last time and will be the greatest and the last of all kings. After
he has successfully governed his empire, he will finally come to
Jerusalem and will lay aside his scepter and crown on the
Mount of Olives. 18 This will be the end and the consummation
of the Roman and Christian Empire. 19
Immediately, according to the saying of Paul the Apostle
cited above, they say that the Antichrist will be at hand. And
then will be revealed the man of namely, the Antichrist.
sin,
Even though he is a man, he will be the source of all sins
still

and the Son of Perdition, that is, the son of the devil, not
through nature but through imitation because he will fulfill the
devil's will in everything. 20 The fullness of diabolical power
and of the whole character of evil will dwell in him in bodily
fashion; for in him will be hidden all the treasures of malice
and iniquity. 21
"He is the Enemy," that is, he contrary to Christ and all
is

his members, "and he is lifted up, that is, raised up in pride

93
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

above everything that is called God" (2 Thess. 2:4), that is,

above all the heathen gods, Hercules, Apollo, Jupiter and Mer-
cury, whom the pagans think are gods. 22 Antichrist will be
lifted up above these gods because he will make himself greater
and stronger than all of them. He will be lifted up not only
above these gods, but also "above everything that is wor-
shiped," that is, above the Holy Trinity, which alone is to be
worshiped and adored by every creature. "He will exalt him-
self in such a way that he will be enthroned in God's Temple,
displaying himself as if he were God."
As we said above, he will be born in the city of Babylon,
will come to Jerusalem, and will circumcise himself and say to
the Jews: "I am the Christ promised to you who has come to
save you, so that I can gather together and defend you who are
the Diaspora." At that time all the Jews will flock to him, in the
belief that they are receiving God, but rather they will receive
the devil. Antichrist also "will be enthroned in God's Temple,"
that is, in Holy Church, and he will make all Christians mar-
tyrs. He will be lifted up and made great, because in him will
be the devil, the fountainhead of all evil "who is the king above
all the sons of "pride" (Job 41:25).
Lest the Antichrist come suddenly and without warning
and deceive and destroy the whole human race by his error,
before his arrival the two great prophets Enoch and Elijah will
be sent into the world. They will defend God's faithful against
the attack of the Antichrist with divine arms and will instruct,
comfort, and prepare the elect for battle with three and a half
years of teaching and preaching. 23 These two very great proph-
ets and teachers will convert the sons of Israel who will live in
that time to the faith, and they will make their belief uncon-
querable among the elect in the face of the affliction of so great
a storm. 24 At that time what scripture says will be fulfilled: "If
the number of sons of Israel be like the sand of the sea, their
remnant will be saved" (Rom. 9:27). When, after three and a half
years, they shall have finished their preaching, the Antichrist's
persecution will soon begin to blaze out. He will first take up
his arms against them and will slay them, as it says in the
Apocalypse: "And when they have finished their witness the

94
 — ™ ** PI. Wi Jl j. k*^ r '- *

PLATE II:

ANTICHRIST SLAUGHTERS THE TWO WITNESSES

In the lower register of this illumination the giant figure of the Antichrist is seen
(third from the right) in the act of killing the two witnesses Enoch and Elias
according to Apoc. 11:7-10. Folio 136v of the Beatus of Urgel, c. 970 A.D. Reproduced
from Les jours de Vapocalypse (La Pierre-Qui-Vire: Zodiaque, 1967), Plate 38.
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

beast which will ascend from the abyss will make war against
them and will conquer and kill them" (Apoc. 11:7). After these
two have been slain, he will then persecute the rest of the
faithful, either by making them glorious martyrs or by render-
ing them apostates. 25 And whoever shall have believed in him
will receive his brand on the forehead (Apoc. 20:4).
Since we have spoken about his beginning, let us say what
end he will have. This Antichrist, the devil's son and the worst
master of evil, as has been said, will plague the whole world
with great persecution and torture the whole people of God
with various torments for three and a half years. After he has
killed Elijah and Enoch and crowned with martyrdom the oth-
ers who persevere in the faith, at last God's judgment will
come upon him, as Saint Paul writes when he says, "The Lord
Jesus will kill him with the breath of his mouth" (2 Thess. 2:8).
Whether the Lord Jesus will slay him by the power of his own
might, or whether the Archangel Michael will slay him, he will
be killed through the power of Our Lord Jesus Christ and not
through the power of any angel or archangel. 26 The teachers
say that Antichrist will be killed on the Mount of Olives in his
tent and upon his throne, in the place opposite to where the
Lord ascended to heaven. 27 You ought to know that after Anti-
christ has been killed the Judgment Day will not come immedi-
ately, nor will the Lord come to judge at once (Isa. 3:14); but as
we understand from the Book of Daniel, the Lord will grant
the elect forty days to do penance because they were led astray
by the Antichrist. 28 No one knows how much time there may
be after they shall have completed this penance until the Lord
comes to judgment; but it remains in the providence of God
who will judge the world in that hour in which for all eternity
he predetermined it was to be judged.

Epilogue
So,Your Highness, I your loyal servant have faithfully
what you commanded. I am prepared to obey in other
fulfilled
matters what you shall deem worthy to command.

96
Part III
JOACHIM OF FIORE

Reading Joachim of Fiore today, it may be initially difficult to

discern the fascination that the Calabrian holy man had for his
contemporaries and for so many subsequent readers. Joachim's
three major works, the Exposition on the Apocalypse, the Book of
Concordance, and the Ten-Stringed Psaltery, are lengthy, repeti-
tious, and difficult for those not well acquainted with his
intricate exegesis and symbolism. His occasional treatises, some
of considerable length, do not always display the fundamental
characteristics of his thought as clearly as does the trilogy on
which he labored for almost twenty years. One might be 1

tempted to regard the Calabrian as an important figure for the

history of apocalyptic theory but not as a cogent representative
of apocalyptic spirituality. Such a judgment, however, does not
stand up to a careful reading of Joachim's surviving works in
full.

Joachim was born about 1135 in Calabria, the son of a

notary of the resplendent Sicilian court. 2 Educated to follow in
his father's footsteps, after a pilgrimage to the Holy Land he
dedicated his life to the pursuit of God. For a time he lived as a
hermit on Mt. Etna, then was a wandering preacher in his
native Calabria before being ordained and entering the Bene-
dictine monastery of Corazzo. Joachim soon became abbot, and

97
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

during the 1180s was involved in a long campaign to have the

house incorporated into the Cistercian order. It was during this
time that he first came to the attention of Pope Lucius HI, who
encouraged him to put his apocalyptic theories in writing. 3
In 1188 when Corazzo was finally accepted into the Cister-
cians, Joachim and a group of followers had already begun to
separate themselves from the monastery. By 1192 he had
founded a new house at San Giovanni da Fiore in the high Sila
—
plateau and had been denounced as a renegade by the Cister-
cian General Chapter. Despite the remoteness of his new estab-
lishment, during the final decade of his life Joachim had nu-
merous contacts with the great and powerful of his day. Kings
and queens, popes and princes sought his advice. 4 By the time
of his death on March 30, 1202, he was one of the most noted
religious figures of the day. The order that he founded experi-
enced such an expansion in the following decade that it was
hailed by the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 as one of the four
pillars of the Church. Although the Florensian order soon
stagnated, the fame of its founder, whether positively or nega-
tively viewed, continued to grow for centuries.
Joachim of Fiore shares much with the Jewish and Chris-
tian apocalyptic prophets and scribes of the biblical period. A
sense of immediately impending crisis, more evident in him
than in either Lactantius or Adso, provides the motive for the
proclamation of his message. Two letters translated here, the
"Letter to All the Faithful" and the "Letter to the Abbot of
Valdona," make this abundantly clear. 5 Like the prophet
Ezechiel whom the Lord had made the watchman over Israel,
the Calabrian felt compelled to announce the message of com-
ing doom to his generation. Even though his admonitions to do
penance might be disregarded by most, they must still be
preached in season and out.
Powerful as was the abbot's deep pessimism concerning
the coming troubles, in the manner of many Old Testament
prophets, or of the John of the Apocalypse, he holds out hope
for the blessed remnant who will remain faithful during perse-
cution. This optimistic vision of coming terrestrial reward
appears in the letters translated here as well, though the dis-

98
 JOACHIM OF FIORE

tinctive characteristics of Joachim's millenarian hope could

scarcely be spened out in detail in such brief texts.
A second note of Joachim's apocalyptic spirituality is the
distinctive way in which he received his message. The abbot
describes two revelations made to him at the beginning of his
apocalyptic career while he was visiting the Cistercian house of
Casamari in 1183 and 1184. 6 The first happened at midnight on
Easter after he had been stymied for a year in his attempt to
understand a passage in the Apocalypse. It was "a revelation of
the fullness of the Apocalypse and of the complete agreement
of the Old and New Testaments perceived with clear under-
standing by the mind's eye." 7 No image or figure accompanied
this Christological illumination that was so central to Joachim's
exegesis and theory of history. This is what the Augustinian
doctrine of the kinds of visions would term an ''intellectual
vision/' a truth infallibly revealed without the aid of images
internal or external. 8 Here the illumination came first and then
Joachim had to seek verbal and visual ways to portray it. But
the abbot of Fiore also had "spiritual visions" in the Augustin-
ian sense, 9 that is, showings in which something was revealed
through a form or symbol seen within the mind. Joachim
describes the one he had on Pentecost Sunday at Casamari in
the following words:
In the meantime, when I had entered the church
pray to
to
Almighty God before the holy altar, there came upon me an
uncertainty concerning belief in the Trinity as though it
were hard to understand or hold that all the Persons were
one God and one God all the Persons. When that happened,
I prayed with all my might. I was very frightened and was

moved to call on the Holy Spirit whose feast day it was to

deign to show me the holy mystery of the Trinity. The
Lord has promised us that the whole understanding of
truth is to be found in the Trinity. I repeated this and

began to pray the psalms to complete the number I had

intended. Without delay at this moment the shape of a ten-
stringed psaltery appeared in my mind. The mystery of the
Holy Trinity shone so brightly and clearly in it that I was
at once impelled to cry out, "What God is as great as our
God?" 10

99
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

The ten-stringed psaltery one of the fundamental symbols,

is

along with trees, eagles, circles, and the alpha and omega, that
appear throughout Joachim's main works. 11 It is tempting to
think that all these symbolic forms may have been revealed to
the abbot, but he is silent about other visions. 12
Despite these special revelations, Joachim did not consider
himself a prophet in the sense that Ezechiel, Daniel, and John
had been. In answer to Adam of Persigny's question about the
source of his predictions, he said that he had received no gift of
u
prophecy, nor omen, nor revelation, but that God who once
gave the spirit of prophecy to the prophets has given me the
spirit of understanding to grasp with great clarity in His Spirit
all the mysteries of sacred scripture, just as the prophets who
once produced it in God's Spirit understood these myster-
ies." 13 This important key to Joachim's self-understanding
highlights an essential characteristic of his apocalyptic mental-
ity that is at once traditional yet also highly distinctive in the
—
way Joachim developed it its hermeneutical nature.
Joachim did not put himself forward as the prophet of a
new revelation, but as the exegete to whom God had granted
the gift of understanding the truth already revealed but hidden
in the Bible. Apocalypticism had indeed been a literary phe-
—
nomenon from the start a message put down in books. The
reinterpretation of received writings had formed an essential
part of Christian apocalypticism from the earliest days. The
key apocalyptic sections of the New Testament were con-
sciously based on the classical Jewish apocalypses, such as the
Book of Daniel. As the authoritative writings of the Christian
religion were shaped into the primitive canon of the New
Testament, the dissemination and amplification of apocalyptic
views of history found an increasingly larger role for the genre
of the commentary, the text upon a text. The obscurity of
apocalyptic literature invited and encouraged such an ap-
proach. It is no accident that the earliest surviving complete
Greek biblical commentary is that of Hippolytus on Daniel
and the earliest surviving Latin one is that of Victorinus on the
Apocalypse, the one from the beginning, the other from the
end of the third century. While new "revelation" as a source of

100
 JOACHIM OF FIORE

information about what was to come in history did not die

—
out witness the strength of the Sibylline tradition in the
—
Middle Ages medieval apocalyptic traditions never strayed
far from their base in the exegesis of the canonical apocalypses.
In his claim to found his vision of history not on a new
divine communication, but on understanding the scriptures,
Joachim was a faithful witness to this tradition. But the abbot
of Fiore's theology of history was a new creation in many
respects, and therefore it should not surprise us that the herme-
neutical theory underpinning it was also novel. The dominant
tendency in the interpretation of the Apocalypse since the end
of the fourth century had been an individualizing and moraliz-
ing approach that, following the authority of Tyconius and
Saint Augustine, had used John's imagery to describe the soul's
warfare against vice. Some twelfth-century authors began to
move away from this type of exegesis toward one that made use
of the Apocalypse as prophecy for identifiable historical events,
some already fulfilled, others come. Joachim formulated
still to
this tendency into a coherent new theory of hermeneutics. 14
The abbot's theory of interpretation is notoriously complex,
but the investigations of H. Grundmann, H. De Lubac, and
most recently H. Mottu have done much to clarify its essential
features. 15 With the help of the categories of Professor Mottu, 16
a brief presentation of the main lines of Joachim's
hermeneutics is possible. In the twelfth century traditional
exegesis was based on the distinction between the literal and
the spiritual meanings of scripture and generally accepted a
division of four senses: the literal, the allegorical or doctrinal,
the moral or tropological, and the anagogical or heavenly. 17
Joachim's enumeration of senses, on the other hand, is based on
a distinction between allegory and typology, or, as the text
translated here from the Book of Concordance has it, between
allegoria and concordia. 18 Under the allegoricus or spiritualis
intellectus he counted five species or types, related to the tradi-
tional four senses. These historical, moral, tropological, con-
templative, and anagogic types were designed to show the
gradual transition from slavery to freedom in the course of the
history of salvation. The historicizing tendency of his

101
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

hermeneutics is even more evident in the seven species of the

typicus intellectus, which aim to show the historical concordance
(concordia) between the unfolding of history in the Old Testa-
ment and that in the New. These letter-to-letter comparisons
and parallels between the Testaments are not used merely to
understand the past, but also, and far more daringly, to reveal
the future. As Mottu has shown, the notion of concordia in-
volves not just a synoptic attempt to harmonize texts, or to
compare parallel series of events from the Old and the New
Testaments, but also the working out of the structural confor-
mity or correlation of the two Testaments necessary to under-
stand the coming third stage of history. 19 The Old Testament,
the New Testament, and especially the Book of the Apoca-
lypse, when illuminated by the typological understanding, can
show themeaning of what is to come in the light of the relation
of history to the most basic mystery of the divine life, God's
existence as a Trinity of Persons.
The relation of hermeneutical theory to the Trinity and to
the meaning of history is discussed in detail in the passage from
the Book of Concordance given here. Chapters four through
twelve of this selection demonstrate how Joachim made use of
both a pattern of twos and a pattern of threes in his attempts to
structure history, as Marjorie Reeves has pointed out. 20 The
proper exegesis of scripture reveals not only the grand plan of
the two Testaments, but also a scheme of three periods of time
(tempora), or what Joachim says are more properly called states
(status). These three states are complex, organic, progressive,

and interlocking in character. The first began with Adam and

lasted to Christ. It was ascribed to God the Father and was the
time of the order, or way of life, of the married. The second
started with King Josiah, began to bear fruit in Christ, and lasts
until the present. It is ascribed to the Son and is the time of the
order of clerics. The third status, the time of the monastic
order, is ascribed to the Holy Spirit. It began with Saint
Benedict and will bear fruit in the last times down until the
end of the world.
The pattern of twos is also trinitarian in nature. The Holy
Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son, and hence

102
 JOACHIM OF FIORE

the spiritual understanding of both Testaments has a double

beginning that signifies this: once in the prophet Elisha in the
Old Testament (showing the Spirit's relation to the Father),
and once in Saint Benedict in the New Testament (showing the
relation to the Son). Because both the pattern of twos desig-
nated by the Greek omega and the pattern of threes designated
by alpha are trinitarian, Joachim always sees them as comple-
mentary. The double procession of the Holy Spirit is essential
to each, as chapter ten of the selection indicates. This funda-
mental harmony is not always as clear to the modern reader as
it —
was to the abbot of Fiore an important reason for at least
some of the disagreement about his thought. Joachim did claim
that the time of the New Testament would last until the end of
—
the world and thus appears fully at one with traditional
Christian theology of history. But many other passages on the
third status can be read as expressing hope in a coming histori-
cal era that, whatever its deep roots in the abbot's organic view
of the past, was to be a form of new creation.
The application of this apocalyptic theology of history to
the abbot of Fiore's beliefs about the crisis confronting his own
time can be seen throughout his writings, but nowhere more
clearly than in the celebrated Book of Figures.Joachim has been
21
described as a "picture thinker," one whose mind moved
according to the rich combinations of symbolic thought rather
than the clarity of the logical or discursive mentality. 22 In his
later years, he apparently began to organize and correlate the
primary symbols through which the mystery of the Trinity
and of history had been manifested to him into increasingly
richer combinations. As these figures (figurae), which were at
times geometrical forms, at times luxuriant organic images,
grew more complex, Joachim explained them by means of
captions and comments that in some cases amounted to brief
treatises. The figures were collected and edited after his death
by his immediate disciples into the Book of Figures. Despite the
doubts expressed about its authenticity after its rediscovery in
1937, the careful study of M. Reeves and B. Hirsch-Reich has
demonstrated their claim that Joachim's "strange and intricate
patterns of thought convey themselves more immediately today

103
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

through these powerful figurae than through the endless repeti-

tions of his somewhat turgid Latin." 23
Five of the sixteen basic illustrations that make up the
Book of Figures are given here, together with translations of two
of the brief treatises that accompany them. 24 No figure more
immediately conveys the abbot's pattern of threes than the so-
called Trinitarian Tree Circles. 25 In this symbolic presentation
the tree of history springs up from the head of Noah, the just
man, who represents God the Father. Noah's three sons are
—
figured in three offshoots Ham is a barren stump, but Shem
on the Jewish people) and Japheth on the right (the
left (the

two peoples whose destinies will unfold God's

Gentiles) are the
plan throughout history. The first circle, the status of the
Father, saw the flourishing of the Jews and a lesser growth for
the Gentiles. The second circle, the state of the Son, reverses
the picture: Now the Gentiles are more fruitful than the Jews.
But in the final uppermost circle, the coming state of the Holy
Spirit, both Jews and Gentiles will give fruit in supreme abun-
dance. The melioristic character of Joachim's theory of history
is especially evident in this figure.
Another key figure illustrates the full complexities of Jo-
achim's notion of the three status and its relation to his under-
standing of the Trinity. The figure of the "Three Trinitarian
Circles" (Plate III) shows the relation of this basic symbol to
that of the Alpha and Omega, as well as to the abbot's special
sense of the meaning of the Tetragrammaton, the Hebrew
name for God. 26 Three interlocking rings demonstrate how
the mystery of the Trinity relates to the course of history. The
first circle ingreen belongs to the Father and forms the time of
the Old Testament. The middle blue circle, that of the Son,
—
interlocks with both extremities the median that joins the
extremes. The final flaming red circle of the Holy Spirit indi-
cates the double procession of the Third Person by its intersec-
tion with both the green and the blue circles. Its internal rubric
of novum testamentum shows that the New Testament is not to
be superceded; but the noninterlocking area of this last circle
does suggest a coming special era within history, not unrelated,
but still superior to what has gone before. The other elements,

104
PLATE III:

THREE TRINITARIAN CIRCLES

Reproduced from // Libro delle Figure, Plate XI b.
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

especially theAlpha and Omega on the left side (figuring the

pattern of threes and the pattern of twos), reflect the same
central message about the Trinitarian structure of history. 27
The fascination of this figura was not lost on later thinkers. An
extensive literature exists about the relation between Joachim
and Dante, and many of the suggested parallels between the
two great authors are too general to be really convincing. But
at the supreme moment of the Paradiso, when the poet attempts
to express his vision of the three persons in one God, it is hard
not to think that the image he is recalling is not that of this
figure:

That light supreme, within its fathomless

Clear substance, showed to me three spheres, which
bare
Three hues distinct, and occupied one space;
The mirrored the next, as though it were
first

Rainbow from rainbow, and the third seemed flame

Breathed equally from each of the first pair. 28
(Canto XXXIII, 115-20)

Like other apocalyptic authors, the abbot believed that future

triumph would come only after present trials. Joachim's sensi-
tivity to impending crisis is evident in his letters, but the Book

of Figures shows how his distinctive hermeneutic enabled him to

find a potent scriptural symbol to express his views. The great
seven-headed dragon of the twelfth chapter of the Apocalypse
is the image in which the abbot sees the whole history of the

Church's persecutions, past, present, and future, revealed to

the believer. In this figure and its accompanying text Joachim
historicizes the symbolism of the final book of the New Testa-
ment by making it an explicit prophecy of the seven major
persecutions of the Church of the second status. 29 The abbot
thought that Saladin's triumph over the Christians of the East
(Jerusalem had fallen in 1187) was a sign that the Church's
tribulation was reaching its culmination. The imminent sev-
enth head of the dragon, the Antichrist himself, would be a
false teacher from the West who would ally himself with

106
 JOACHIM OF FIORE

Saladin or with one of his immediate successors. Joachim's

reputation was as a prophet of the Antichrist. When we
initial
study the powerful figure of the seven-headed dragon we can
well see why. But not even this drawing is totally pessimistic.
The gap between the seven heads and the dragon's tail suggests
a millennial period of peace after Christ's defeat of the last head
and before the mysterious final Antichrist denoted in the tail.
It is the Book of Figures again that provides us with the most

ample and accessible presentation of the abbot's view of the

coming status of the Holy Spirit. In order to understand the
special way in which Joachim spelled out his millenarian
hopes, we must remember that the abbot's personal history
suggests that his life is to be seen as a continuing search for the
most perfect form of the monastic life. The progressive nature
of his pursuit of this ideal must have had a deep effect on his
theology of history. For Joachim history was the story of the
gradual triumph of spirit over flesh, of contemplation over
literal-mindedness. This triumph was inseparable from the
history of monasticism.
Oneof his early works, the Treatise on the Life of St. Benedict
and Divine Office according to His Teaching, already made clear
the
the connection, and it is also evident in another of the arboreal
images of the Book of Figures, the "Tree with Side-Shoots." 30
The two trees of this illustration form a concordance of the
lines of promise of the New
and the Old Testaments. The tree
on the left shows how of the sons of Abraham it was Isaac on
the trunk and not Ishmael (the side-shoot) who was chosen as
the heir of God's promise, just as Jacob was chosen over Esau,
Joseph over Ruben, and Ephraim above Manasses. The right
tree sketches a similar pattern of election in the time of the
second status, beginning from its germination in the patriarchs
through a succession of further divisions in which the trunk
represents those who are chosen, the side-shoots the rejected
Gentiles over Jews, Latins over Greeks, monks over clerics, and
Cistercians over Cluniacs. The Cistercians do not mark the
final stage in contemplative evolution. Still to come (signified
by the rich foliage at the top of the tree) is the monastic
perfection of the third status.

107
 a

APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

It was the future, not the past, of monasticism that was

Joachim's real concern. Though he himself was a monastic
reformer, there is no evidence that he ever saw the Florensian
order as any less of an interim stage than the Cistercians.
Joachim never showed the depths of his understanding of the
spiritual longings of his time to better effect than in the hopes
he expressed for imminent more perfect forms of the religious
life. The prodigious spiritual ferment of the twelfth century

that had led to the creation of so many experimental forms of

the perfect life, both orthodox and heterodox, had whetted the
hopes of men rather than exhausted them. Such hopes usually
centered on the image of the "apostolic life," the imitation of
Christ and the apostles, and were, for the most part, backward-
looking, given life by their attempt to revive a golden past. For
Joachim, however, the renewal of monasticism was to be a new
eruption of the power of the Holy Spirit within history —
renovatio from the future rather than from the past. 31
According to Joachim, there would be two stages in the
coming more perfect realizations of the monastic life. First of
all, during the imminent crisis of history two new religious

orders would arise to confront the Antichrist and his forces: an

order of preachers in the spirit of Elijah and an order of
hermits in the spirit of Moses. 32 Despite the vagueness of the
abbot's descriptions of these orders, it would demand consider-
able effort for the well disposed not to see in his descriptions a
prophecy of the two mendicant orders that were born in the
decade after his death. A generation later, various thinkers,
especially within the Franciscans, were finding in both the
authentic Joachim and the many works that came to be pseud-
onymously ascribed to him even more precise confirmation for
the apocalyptic significance of their groups. 33
The two orders of the coming crisis were not the final
word in history's drive toward the perfect terrestrial state of
contemplation. Joachim's most original contribution to the
theology of history, his belief in the three states, also included
an essentially monastic component.
There are numerous hints at this in the course of the three
major works, but the most detailed treatment of the abbot's

108
 #rrw

PLATE IV:

THE TREE WITH SIDE-SHOOTS

Reproduced from // Libro delle Figure, Plate XXIII.
PLATE V
THE TRINITARIAN TREE CIRCLES
Reproduced from L. Tondelli, M. Reeves, and B. Hirsch-Reich, // Libro delle Figure
(Turin: SEI, 1953), Vol. II, Plate XXII.
 JOACHIM OF FIORE

vision of the future state of the Churchfound in the figure

is

known as "The New Order of the People of God." 34 Despite

the detail of the accompanying text, and the helpful studies of
Grundmann and Reeves, 35 there are still elements of obscurity
in this fascinating diagram of the coming monastic Utopia. The
first involves its relation to an outside population, because
details of the text indicate that Joachim expected that even after
the Antichrist's persecution there would be some who would
not belong to the ideal community. A second, more difficult
question, concerns the relation of the monastic Utopia to the
institutions of the Church of the second state. Few areas of
Joachim studies have involved more heated debate than his
views concerning the future of the papacy. Proponents of
Joachim's radicalism would have it that the third status repre-
sents a clear break with the framework of the medieval church,
but the basic conservatism of the abbot and his close contact
with many of the popes of his time make this position difficult
to sustain, at least as a key to his intentions. The opposite
position, for which Marjorie Reeves has been the most cogent
proponent, tends toward a more spiritual and mystical reading
of the figure and related texts, and thus would emphasize the
inner evolution of the contemplative state, a reality not to be
measured by chronological boundaries or institutional details.
The debate cannot be settled in this context. The evidence of
the Dispositio figure, however, does seem to provide some im-
portant principles. The details of the rule and physical arrange-
ment of the monastic Utopia indicate that Joachim had a mate-
rial community in mind, and not merely some heavenly or

internal reality. The coexistence of other Christians with the

monastic Utopia is not totally anomalous, because the text
shows that the community is the religious center for all. Fi-
nally, the "Spiritual Father" who controls all facets of the
coming contemplative society that embraces monks, clerics,
and laity seems to be the equivalent of the spiritual pope of the
coming status spoken of in other texts, 36 despite the lack of any
explicit identification.
So brief a look at the enigmatic Joachim is bound to leave
many questions unanswered. Even a detailed treatment of the

111
 .

APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

complexities of his thought and a richer selection from his

writings might not bring us nearer to final answers, but only
heighten the difficulties. Joachim himself probably would not
have worried much about the problems that later interpreters
have had with his thought. He never considered himself any-
thing more than a servant of sacred scripture God's revela- —
tion about the meaning of history had already been made, and
he alone would choose those to whom he would reveal it.
In the midst of the repetitions and obscurities of his
thought, the abbot of Fiore is always able to reveal the sense of
the divine presence on which his spirituality is based. The
coincidence of opposities of optimism and pessimism in Jo-
achim's theology of history found striking expression in a
passage from his treatise The Articles of Belief

David the Psalmist says, "Taste and see how sweet the Lord
is" (Ps. 33:8), but for Paul "It is a fearful thing to fall into
the hands of the living God" (Heb. 11:31). Since almost
every page of scripture proclaims both how lovable and
how terrifying God is, it is perfectly right for people to ask
how such great opposites can be put together, so that a
person can rejoice for love's sake in his fear and tremble
with dread in the midst of love. But according to scripture,
the just and loving God is like fire, for it says: "Hear, O
Israel, your God is a consuming fire" (Deut. 4:24). Why is
the fire which so frequently burns homes and whole cities
sought out with such eagerness by those trapped in dark-
ness? Why is it so cherished by anyone who has endured
real cold? If one and the same material reality can be so
loved and feared, why is it that Almighty God in whom we
live and move and have our being (Acts 17:28) is not both
cherished for his indescribable loveliness and still feared for
his transcendent greatness? 37

112
SECTION A
Letter to All the Faithful 1

The beginning of the letter of the Abbot Joachim. Brother

Joachim called Abbot of Fiore advises all Christ's faithful
whom this letter reaches to watch and pray so that they do not
enter into temptation (Matt. 26:41). When the Lord spoke to the
prophet Ezechiel whom he set up as a watchman over the
house of Israel at the time of the removal to Babylon, 2 after he
commanded him to writedown many things he warned him:
"If I say to a wicked man 'You will surely die/ and you do not
make it known to him, he will indeed die in his iniquity, but I

will require his blood from your hand" (Ezech. 3:18). Since
what at that time was entrusted to one person in particular, in
these days holds for all who seem to have received more in-
formation than others, by a common law everyone is bound to
render an account of the function he has received.
The abbot writes. This is how it looked to me in the case of
the divine plan I seem to understand in the true scriptures,
especially since some monks have most urgently advised me
that I have an obligation not to keep silent about the wrath of
the Judge so soon to be revealed from heaven upon all the
wickedness and injustice of men who are unwilling to do
penance for their sins. If I am permitted to speak out to urge
and excite hearts to be on guard I do not hesitate to say with
the Apostle Paul, "I am innocent of the blood of all of you"
(Acts 20:26). For some time I wished to cast anchor in the
harbor of silence in deference to my priors, so as not to seem to
stir up scandal or bickering in Christ's Church, especially
because of those who run about more than others shouting,
"Thus saith the Lord," when He has not commissioned them.
But now: "Hear, O young men, and pay heed, you old men"
(Joel 1:2). I will not speak in riddles so that you cannot under-
stand because of the depth of the obscure speech, but I will
both openly declare what happened from our fathers' days and

113
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

will also incorporate what is our times so that even

to follow in
the little children can understand it plain and simple. You have
read in the Apostle Paul what you see has been fulfilled for him
and what you know has been truly foretold. He says, "In the
last days dangerous times will come, and men will be lovers of
themselves, covetous, puffed up, proud, blasphemers, disobedi-
ent to parents, ungrateful, wicked, without either affection or
peace, calumniators, incontinent, unmerciful, without kind-
ness, traitors, shameless, arrogant, lovers of pleasure more than
God, making a pretence of piety, but rejecting its power. Stay
clear of them" (2 Tim. 3:1-5).
I say, and ones similar to what Paul
All these statements,
said have been According to what is written in the
fulfilled.
Psalms: "You see that the land has been desecrated with blood
and defiled by their crimes" (Ps. 105:38-39). "All flesh cor-
rupted its way" (Gen. 6:12), and every generation of men has
committed evil. According to that statement of Genesis ("The
end of all flesh is known to God, and all men who dwell on
earth will be destroyed with the earth" Genesis 6:13), what
occurred there was a prior figure for what is happening now. 3
"The just man is also perishing, and there is no one who
reflects in his heart. Merciful men are taken away because
there is no one who understands" (Isa. 57:1). "They have all
gone astray and become useless at the same time; there is no
—
one who does good no, not one" (Ps. 13:3). "They all seek gifts
and expect a like return. They do not defend the orphan, and
the widow's plea does not reach them" (Isa. 1:23). "The priests
have not said, 'Where is God?' The magistrates ignored both
the law and God" (Jer. 2:8). "The harp and the lyre, the timbrel
and the flute are present at their feasts, but they do not regard
the Lord's work" (Isa. 5:2). "There is no truth, nor mercy, nor
knowledge of God on earth. Cursing and lying and murder,
theft and adultery have overflowed and bloodshed has followed
bloodshed" (Osee 4:1-2). As a result, there is no place for those
who seek the Lord, and the angel has been abandoned by those
who fear him.
Death cries out from the from the West.
East, destruction
The multitude of the Greeks has become Sodom, the Latins

114
 JOACHIM OF FIORE

have become Gomorrah, with the Greeks publicly proclaiming

Egypt's crime, the Latins Babylon's disorder. All have plotted
together at the same time against God, and all, as the prophet
says, "have abandoned God, have blasphemed the Holy One of
Israel, and have gone backward in retreat" (Isa. 1:4). "They
have transgressed the laws, they have changed the order of
justice, they have broken the everlasting covenant" (Isa. 24:5).
"All peoples, now listen attentively; give ear, all who dwell on
earth. He who has fled from fear will fall into the pit, and he
who shall be freed from the pit will be taken by the snare,
because the flood gates of heaven are open and the foundations
of the earth will be shaken. The earth shall be completely
shattered and totally crushed; like a drunken man it shall be
violently shaken and shall be borne away like a tent of a single
night. Its iniquity shall weigh it down, and it will fall and not
be able to rise again" (Ps. 48:2; Jer. 48:43^4; Isa. 24:19-21).
Take this to heart, apostate children (Isa. 30:1); think on it

and be afraid. Perhaps you may do penance for having rejected

God's word and abandoned the bosom of the Chaste Mother
who is now lowly and despised and preferred the Whore who
rules over the kings of the earth. Hear the judgment that the
Lord will perform in your days, a judgment He has not made
from days of old, from the birth of time. Lo, the pagan nations
will plot together and the kings of the earth gather and assem-
ble against you, daughter of Babylon. They will fight against
you like the fury of the sea and will root your offspring from
the earth. All you citizens will be swept from the earth. All
these things will come about as we have read; they will be
fulfilled as has been written.
Lest anyone say that these times are not very clear and
excuse himself from understanding and personal involvement,
let him know thatpeople found in the present world fall
all

into three groups. The first are those who have fallen away
from the faith, strangers to the Church's sacraments and to
every good deed. The second is those who "believe, but fall
away (Luke 8:13). "They profess that
in time of temptation"
they know God,
but they deny him by their deeds" (Titus 1:16).
"They are glad when they have done evil and rejoice in the

115
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

most wicked things" (Prov. 2:14). The third is those whose faith
and works are good, that is, those whom Almighty God fore-
knew would be such in belief and in deed. 4 The first have been
called the "scarlet multitude," the second "Babylon," the third
"Jerusalem." If you consider the crowd of those men who to
the full measure of their damnation are counted as members of
the Christian religion, you have what is called the first Bab-
ylon, because by Almighty God's just judgment the pagans will
rise against the bad Christians, will wreak vengeance on the
apostate nations and the revenge of the living God on wicked
sons. The multitude of the wicked have prevailed because the
just were tepid. As the sons of Jerusalem have vanished, the
sons of the unholy woman have filled the earth.
There is nothing more to be awaited for the execution of
the judgment, because surely the sentence has been put off till
now not for the sake of the wicked but for the meek. For when
there were fifty just people in the city of Sodom the Lord
spared the city for the sake of the fifty who lived there (Gen.
18:26 ff). And He spared it for the sake of the forty and thirty,
and up till the time that ten were found He was eager to spare
it. But when only Lot was found in the city of the vicious,

Almighty God did not wish to bear such a vast mass of crime
for the sake of one just man, but led him out of the city. As
Peter says, "He snatched the just man Lot from unholy contact
with the wicked" (2 Pet. 2:7). God knows how to snatch good
men from temptation. He punished all who lived by the fearful
chastisement of his condemnation; but Noah, that just man,
was preserved in the ark when the remaining crowd of wicked
were destroyed by the flood's waters. These things happened to
them in a figure (1 Cor. 10:11). Through these two judgments,
which happened in the earliest times, coming generations of
men could recognize the judgment that the Lord was to per-
form in the last days and also know and perceive by real
experience and not by threat how fearful it is to fall into God's
hand(Heb. 10:31).
What are we doing? We were seeking fifty, and hardly one
is to be found. Whoever that person is who is signified by Lot,
or whoever is designated by Noah, he should know that Bab-

116
 JOACHIM OF FIORE

ylon's judgment threatensin every way possible. Let him hear

the Lord's voice as mercifully cries out from heaven and says:
it

"Go out from her, my people, so as not to share in her sins and
so as not to partake of her punishments. For her sins have
reached up to heaven and the Lord has remembered her iniqui-
ties" (Apoc. 18:4-5). Depart from her through confession and
penance. Either ascend the mountain of contemplation, if you
5
can, or if this seems difficult, keep yourself in the humility of
the active life which is denoted by Segor, though it be small
and lowly. 6 Thus, our soul may live in it (Gen. 19:20). Other-
wise, former generations and those of your fathers' days will
not be pleased.
Forget the saying that "now it will not be today as it was
yesterday and the day before" (1 Mace. 9:44). Truly, it will not
be as it has been thus far for some of the sterile branches, but
"the ax is already laid to the root of the tree and every tree that
does not bear fruit will be cut down and thrown into the fire"
(Matt. 3:10). This will not take place in the days of your
grandchildren or in the old age of your children, but in your
own days, few and evil. "This generation will not pass away
until all these things have been accomplished" (Matt. 24:34).
After this the Lord will console the remnants of his people and
will relieve the oppression of his inheritance. He will restore
his leaders as they were in the beginning and his counselors as
they were of old, and He will descend upon them like a river of
peace (Isa. 48:18) and like a tower glorifying those who give
praise. 7 Do penance now and be converted and live, "lest He at
sometime seize upon your souls like a lion, while there is no
one to redeem you or save you" (Ps. 7:3). The End.

117
SELECTION B
Letter to the Abbot of Valdona 1

Brother Joachim wishes the venerable Abbot who by

God's grace is Lord of Valdona 2 an abundance of the power of
God's love.
The true knowledge approved in Christ's sermons is that
which is experienced in a vision by the spirit of piety and not
that which is seen in bodily form by the eyes of the flesh. The
bearer of this letter is Brother Al. of your monastery who came
here and told me how your friendship, based solely on God and
your own goodness, cherishes my lowliness. With complete
trust in my ability he urged me in the heart of Christ (Phil. 1:8)
to write something to your friendship, as if I were in debt to
the love that shines out in you. Instead of displaying gratitude,
I should thus appear to be someone who pays back grudgingly
and ungratefully. He forced this letter from me rather than
received it. This is not because I disdain requests, or, heaven
forbid, despise them in my pride, but because a little later on,
through the agency of the same brother, I was not able to "sing
a song of Sion" (Ps. 136:3) within the borders of Babylon. 3 I
should prefer to write these things to a friend caught in the
toils of the Great Whore in order that theymight forestall
rejoicing. 4 Rather than the "song of Sion," we ought to cry out,
"By the waters of Babylon there we sat and wept" (Ps. 136:1).
It is almost evening. We have been brought to the sunset of

this life. For an hour we must put up with weeping so that in

the morning we may find joy (Ps. 29:5). Now is the time for the
elect to weep over the imminent destruction of that youngest
Babylon lest perchance we share in her sins and be forced to
partake of her punishments, as if we did not have the letter
Thau written on our foreheads (Ezech. 9:4-6; Apoc. 7:4) and
were not able to avoid her threatening destruction. 5 "Behold,
the day of the Lord is coming; it is a cruel day, one full of
shame, a day of wrath and fury that will make the earth waste
and wipe out sinners" (Isa. 13:9).

118
 JOACHIM OF FIORE

Someone says: "How do you know this?" I think that I

have given account in the corrected and emended ver-

a full
sions of the minor writings that have already reached you. If
only those who were born according to the flesh would stop
persecuting those who want to walk according to the spirit! As
if I had not told the brethren day and night how Joseph was

sold into slavery and brought into Egypt by his owners! Those
who seek to snuff out the spirit and who despise prophecy
must exist, even in the present. Perhaps it is God's will that we
cannot bring the mystery to completion soon. This provides no
consolation. How many things distract me in many different
ways and form a hindrance, with the result that he who is holy
is still sanctified by faith and he who is filthy is still made un-

clean (Apoc. 22:11) until the hour of temptation suddenly ar-

rives that is to come to prove those who dwell on earth. 6
I am writing this to your goodness so that if there be talk

of it in your area some who without cause demand among

themselves my response can have an answer to their requests.
Where there is faith and the desire for an explanation, let the
whole Church realize that dangerous times approach in which
her children will come to a situation in which there will be no
power to produce anything. After the present temptation they
will cry out at some time. Not too late Christians will be seen
to come to the Lord and He will free them from the hand of the
persecutor. When they have been freed they will once again
take advantage of the peace that God has given to them.
The Lord will hand them over to their enemies so that
they learn not to blaspheme (1 Tim. 1:20). But when the time of
wrath and the hour of temptation will have been completed,
the Lord will gaze upon his people. His heart will rejoice, and
no man shall take his joy from them (John 16:22). There will be
a little while when the humble will not see their king because
the wicked will rule over the earth. And there will be another
little while (Jo. 16:19). When this little while is finished they

will begin to see a time of peace like nothing that has been
since men began to exist on earth. 7 No one will take their peace
away from them. Farewell in the Lord, and pray for the writer.
Amen.

119
SELECTION C
The Book of Concordance, Book 2, Part 1,

Chapters 2-12 (Translation and notes by E.

Randolph Daniel) 1

Chapter 2

We define concordia correctly as a similarity, equality, and

proportion of the New and Old Testaments. 2 I call it an
equality of number but not of dignity, when, by means of some
likeness, one person and another person, one order and another
order, one war and another war, seem to gaze into each other's
faces. Abraham and Zachary, Sara and Elisabeth, Isaac and
John the Baptist, Jacob and the man Christ Jesus, the twelve
patriarchs and the same number of apostles, as well as all other
similar cases, wherever they occur, are to be understood as
parallels between the two Testaments, not as allegorical inter-
pretations. Certainly a single spiritual understanding proceeds
from both of these Testaments. If we have wisdom we know
there are two that signify and one that is signified, showing us,
who believe in the living God, that there is one Father to
whom the Old Testament especially pertains, one Son of God
to whom the New pertains especially, one Holy Spirit who
proceeds from them both and to whom pertains especially that
mystical understanding which, as has been said, proceeds from
the two Testaments.
What has just been said ought to be explained more pre-
cisely. How can there be any greater similarity than when two
old men from two sterile mothers procreate two only sons?
You ought not to consider the fact that Isaac, the patriarch,
generated Jacob as different, even though John did not gener-
ate but baptized Christ. In Jacob the generation of the flesh has
been confirmed since he was the carnal father of that people
called Israelon account of their father's cognomen. In John the
Baptist the generation of the spirit has been confirmed since he
was the father in the spirit of that people called Christian. For

120
 JOACHIM OF FIORE

just as the former people has been procreated by twelve patri-

archs, the latter has been procreated by twelve apostles; but in
the former that which has been born from flesh is flesh, while
in the latter that which has been born from spirit is spirit.
Even if it is argued that the baptism of John, by which
Christ was baptized, did not have that same virtue 3 that bap-
tism has in Christ, still the similarity of the mystery 4 is not
dissolved by this argument, because even if God the Father was
unwilling to send his Spirit upon others who had been bap-
tized by John, he nevertheless sent him upon Christ, accompa-
nied by the testimony of his voice when he said to him: "Here
is my beloved son. In you I am well pleased."
5
Because John
himself was filled by the Holy Spirit without any baptism even
when he was in the womb of his mother, I do not see any
objection to saying that at least a hidden grace of the Holy
Spirit has been given also to those who have been baptized by
John's baptism, just as such grace has been given to other
righteous men who merited to be saved by grace under the law
and the prophets. If you think this argument is irrelevant
because John did not give the Holy Spirit but Almighty God
sent him, by the same token the baptism of Christ in which the
apostles baptized is not relevant, because even if they were the
men who baptized, nevertheless God alone infused the grace,
he alone performed the works and virtues.
Therefore, just as according to the flesh the generation of
Isaac is from that of Jacob, so in some way the
different
baptism of John is from the baptism of Christ. Indeed,
different
the seed of Isaac was elected only in Jacob. It was condemned
in Esau in whose case neither paternal vows nor merits were
able to warrant salvation. Jacob alone was foreshadowed by
maternal grace and gained a paternal benediction, both surely
in himself and in his seed. For the seed of Jacob was not
condemned in part and elected in part, but the whole Israel has
been reckoned his seed, even if we realize that some reprobates
were present in it, because it is one thing when scripture refers
to the mystery of temporal election, another thing when it
refers to eternal. Similarly, the baptism of John was, as it were,
useless to the others whom he baptized 6 because it was not able

121
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

to confer eternal salvation. Nevertheless, in another way it was

7
useful because it was like a road sign that pointed toward the
true baptism, that of Christ. Christ alone, foreshadowed by the
grace of the Holy Spirit, has been constituted the heir of all the
fathers of the prior Testament, so that those who have been
baptized in him have been made sons of Abraham, even if
among them there may have been weeds that ought to be
burned as there were also among the sons of Israel.
According to this pattern, therefore, the persons of the one
Testament and those of the other gaze into each others' faces.
City and city, people and people, order and order, war and war,
act in the same way, as well as any other things that are
similarly drawn to each other by some affinity. The difference
is that those of the Old Testament refer more to the flesh, these

of the New more to the spirit, albeit it must be recalled that

there were indications of the spirit in the former, reminders of
the flesh in the latter. Therefore, not only may a person be a
type of another person, but also a multitude of a multitude, as
Jerusalem of the Roman church, Samaria of Constantinople,
Babylon of Rome, Egypt of the Byzantine Empire, et cetera.

Chapter 3

Allegoria is the similarity of any small thing to an ex-

tremely large one, for example of a day to a year, of a week to
an age, of a person to an order, or a city, or a nation, or a
people, and a thousand similar instances. By way of illustra-
tion, Abraham is a single man who stands for the order of
patriarchs in which there are many men. Zachary is an individ-
ual man who stands for this same order.
Sara is an individual woman who stands for the syna-
gogue, not, I say, the synagogue of the reprobate, which Agar
signified, but that sterile church of the just which groaned and
wept daily over the shame of its barrenness, when it saw its

rival — if I may touch on —

another mystery rejoicing in its sons
and holding day amidst its riches. Sara has been given a
a feast
son (a son not of the flesh but of the promise) in her old age,
that is when the fullness of time has arrived, just as God sent

122
 JOACHIM OF FIORE

his Son, born from a woman and put under the law, in order
that he might redeem those who were under the law. Elisabeth,
therefore, has the same significance because she also conceived
in her old age after she had been sterile.
Furthermore, Jacob and Christ Jesus were born to young
mothers, but Jacob was born when Isaac was sixty years of age.
Christ was conceived in the sixth month after Elisabeth con-
ceived, because the church of the spiritual men was extraordi-
narily sterile until the sixth tempus of the second status. Now is
the time when this church should be multiplied by its children
and "should extend its palm fronds even to the sea and its
posterity even to the river." 8
According to the anagogical sense, Abraham signifies God
the Father, Isaac the Son, and Jacob the Holy Spirit. In the
same way Zachary, the father of John, stands for the Son, the
man Christ Jesus for the Holy Spirit. This is enough concern-
ing the spiritual understanding that is rightly called allegoria.

Chapter 4

That understanding which is called concordia is similar to a

highway that extends from a wasteland to a city. On the way it
crosses valleys in which a traveler may wonder if he is on the
right road and just as often passes over mountain heights from
which he can see backward as well as forward and determine
the right direction to take for the remainder of his journey by
contemplating the road he has come. Every traveler who goes
forward until the route ahead is unclear finds the correct route
to proceed by looking backward. Where the traveler is not able
to illuminate either the journey he has completed or that which
—
he ought still to finish as customarily happens in the val-
leys— he drags himself more by faith and reason than by vision
to the peaks, in order that from there he may either correct his
errors or reassure himself that he has traveled the right road
until now.
This journey, however, on which we have begun to pro-
ceed with God's guidance has a more secure route than our
traveler's, because our route is not left to chance as it was when

123
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

the trip started, but guided by the wisdom and teaching of

it is

God, which has its inns 9 spaced at regular intervals. These

intervals ought to be considered according to diverse modes,
broadly and narrowly, that is by distinguishing greater blocks
of time, medium blocks, and short blocks, all of which are
calculated on the basis of the number of generations and of the
which men
particular property of a tempus. For that tempus in
was one block of time, the period
lived according to the flesh
that began with Adam and continued up to Christ. This is
another tempus in which people live between two poles, that is
between the flesh and the spirit. This tempus had its starting
point with Elisha, the prophet, or with Josiah, king of Judah,
and has continued to the present time. There is still another
tempus in which people live according to the spirit, a tempus that
began in the days of Saint Benedict and will continue until the
end of the world. Thus the harvest or the particular property
—
of the first tempus or as we ought better say of the first status —
lasted from Abraham to Zachary, the father of John the Bap-
10
tist. The beginning of this first status was from Adam. The
harvest of the second status began with Zachary and will last to
the forty-second generation. 11 The second status began with
Josiah or in the days of Asa under whose reign Elisha was
called by Elijah to be a prophet. The harvest of the third status
will last from that generation which was twenty-second from
Saint Benedict until the consummation of the age. This third
status started with Saint Benedict. These status are proposed
and shown to us by faith but I know that few will accept them
unless manifest reason provides proof. Accordingly, it is neces-
sary in this second book to dig up those weedlike questions as if
preparing a field for the seed, so that in the other books that are
to follow, this cultivated earth, the divine page, may bear fruit
more abundantly in the hearts of the faithful.

Chapter 5

Just as these alterations of tempora and works demonstrate

that there are three status seculi} 2 although this whole present

124
 JOACHIM OF FIORE

may be called one age, so there are three orders of the elect,
although the people of God are one as we clearly know both
according to the holy fathers' authority and according to the
things themselves. The first of these orders is composed of
those who are married, the second is composed of the clergy,
the third of monks. The married order started with Adam and
began to bear fruit with Abraham. The clerical order started
with Josiah, who, because he was from the tribe of Judah,
offered incense to the Lord, though not without fear of punish-
ment. bore fruit with Christ who is both true king and
It

priest. The monastic

order, according to a certain proper form
in which the Holy Spirit, who is the author of good things, has
shown his full authority, started with Saint Benedict, a man
quite famous for his miracles, his work, and his sanctity. This
order will bear fruit in the last times. There were, however,
monks and justly famous monks before him, but the reason
why the monastic order preceded him in certain people will be
discussed below. 13 One oughtto know, however, that this same
order, which according to its proper form started with Saint
Benedict, began according to one signification from Elisha, the
prophet. It is evident that the same venerable Benedict came in
his spirit as their similar positions in time and perfection of life
prove.

Chapter 6

I want it to be carefully noted that when we talk about the

beginnings of these status, we may accept the tempus of Abra-

ham, of Isaac, and of Jacob as one beginning. In the same way
the tempus of Zachary, of John the Baptist, and of the man
Christ Jesus may be accepted as one tempus, so that, because
such statements require reasons, there is no difference whether
we set the beginning of the first status in Abraham or in Isaac
or in Jacob; whether we begin the second in Zachary or in
John, his son, or even in Christ Jesus; whether we begin the
third in the forty-second generation or in the two preceding
generations. When we say "even up to the present, even up to

125
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

these days," or something like this, it is to be taken as if ninety

years were one tempus because the end of any particular tempus
in scripture customarily is taken either broadly or narrowly.

Chapter 7

Our statement that three generations ought to be taken as

one beginning does not conflict with the sacred mystery of the
holy and indivisible Trinity. For if the Father, the Son, and the
Holy Spirit are not three beginnings but one beginning, this is
by reason of a mystery, so that any three righteous men who
stand typologically for the Trinity can be taken as one begin-
ning. Thus, any one of this trio may be accepted as a beginning
and all three as one beginning. Indeed, the fact that the three
orders spoken of above became illustrious in their proper times
pertains to the mystery of the Trinity, as will be shown be-
low. 14
Thus the concordia between the three status of the world
ought to be assigned to these same orders so that the concordia
may not be diverted either to the right or to the left. Even if
events are numerous, God still revealed them one after another
even up to the third status so that he might show himself to be
triune in his persons. 15 If God were one person, we ought not
seek three distinct works nor assign the concordia to one of them
alone. Because, in fact, there are three persons, although the
three are one God, the Son says about the Father and himself:
"My Father is working still, and I am working." 16 When did
the Father work without the Son, or the Son without the
Father? But the Son, who made the statement "is working
still," wanted the particular properties of the images to be

understood. Therefore, just as the likeness of the Father ought

to be venerated in those who are called Fathers up to Christ, so
in those who have been redeemed by his blood and have been
born by means of water and the Holy Spirit we should vener-
ate the image of the Son himself who has wanted to have
brothers on earth (although he is Lord of all and Creator of the
universe), in order that he should be, as Paul says, "the first-

126
 JOACHIM OF FIORE

born of many brothers. 17 When in fact the apostles had per-

formed baptisms already, the same Lord and Redeemer said:
"You will be baptized by the Holy Spirit before many days." 18
Hence the work of the Holy Spirit will be revealed after these
things in the spiritual men. This revelation, although it will
have been foreshadowed in some persons, ought to be expected
chiefly near the end of the age, when that promise of the Lord
which has begun in a few will be consummated in many. This
is the promise he made by means of the prophet Joel who said:

"It will happen in the last days that I will pour out my spirit on
19
all flesh; your sons and your daughters will prophesy." But
enough has been said on these matters for now.
Nevertheless, I will not keep silent on this point so that no
one can object to the promise because it is not yet possible to
assign works to the third status except in part, due to the works
being mostly incomplete. We will say what we can about these
in their place. Expectation of future events may be made cer-
tain by the unfolding of the present. With this all said, our
struggle is still not finished. For we have spoken about the
three status of this world according to the pattern that the three
great patriarchs and the three angels who appeared to one of
them, that is to Abraham, represent. We have not spoken
according to the pattern that Aaron, Moses, and the two cheru-
bim (whom we have mentioned above) represent. It is neces-
sary, therefore, to count the status of the world differently on
account of another trinitarian mystery, so that we who have
attentively counted the three status of the world because of the
three persons of the deity may by this different pattern count
not three tempora but only two. It ought to be done thus
because this way too has its rationale and its revelation of the
truth.

Chapter 8

According to the pattern we are about to discuss, the

tempus of the first Testament began with Adam and continued
even to Christ, bearing fruit from Jacob. The tempus of the New

127
 —
APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

Testament began with Josiah, King of Judah, and will last until
the consummation of the world, bearing fruit from Christ.
For we know that the carnal Jewish people imitated the
first parent in sinful corruption. Just as he is the first of all
men, so too is he recorded first in the order of fathers. The

Roman people, who are Gentile, began from a certain Moe-

chus, as Augustine teaches in his book The City of God. 20 He
generated Romulus and Remus through adultery in the days of
Josiah. Afterward both peoples of the Lord were shown mercy,
the former from the days of Jacob, the latter from the time
when Christ came into the world. Fathers were elected from
the former people by means of the law and circumcision; from
the latter people sons were chosen by means of the sacrament
of baptism. The likeness of the Father is found in the former,
the likeness of the Son in the latter. For this reason the former
have been called fathers in a special way, the latter not fathers
but sons.
Lest the likeness of the gifts of the Holy Spirit be miss-
—
ing the Spirit who proceeds from the Father and the Son
the kingdom that has been called Israel has proceeded from the
kingdom of the Jewish people. In the kingdom of Israel are
found the remnants of the elect, as well as the spiritual men,
among whom were Elijah and Elisha and the sons of the
prophets who lived in Jericho. Likewise the Church of the
Greeks has proceeded from the universal church committed to
Peter. In this Church are found the remnants in their days and
the renowned fathers who lived in the desert, like Elijah,
Elisha, and the sons of the prophets who dwelled in Jericho.
This should not be thought irrelevant to the mystery that then
ten tribes seceded from the house of David and now the Greek
churches have seceded as it were from the Roman Church,
because it is true what the apostle says: "There are different
kinds of grace, but the same Spirit." 21
You ought also to note that the letter of the Old Testament
was committed to the Jewish people, the letter of the New to
the Roman people. The spiritual understanding that proceeds
from both Testaments has been committed to the spiritual
men.

128
 JOACHIM OF FIORE

Chapter 9

We ought to review what we have just discussed about the

three orders and thetwo peoples, so that by paying attention to
the one the other be more easily understood. When the
may
two peoples were discussed, it was demonstrated that the Holy
Spirit is sent by the Father and Son. When he is sent, he
breathes where he wishes and gives his gifts to individuals as he
wishes.
The principle that the Holy from the
Spirit proceeds
Father and the Son without either beginning or end prompts
us to consider the three orders we spoke of above, because what
we unswervingly hold about his nature appears there even
more lucidly. For when we dealt with these orders, we said
that the order of monks according to one proper form was
started by Saint Benedict, but according to a likeness by Elisha,
the prophet. For we said: "There were monks, even rather
famous monks, before the time of Saint Benedict in whom the
monastic order had already preceded."
Both because this is the place to treat it and also because
we are bound by our promise, we ought now to fulfill what we
said when we vowed that we would explain the likeness of the
sacred mystery of the Trinity in these three orders. Note here
that he who made man in his image and likeness also created
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in order that they might bear the
type of the divine Trinity, just as he created many other trios.
God wanted to establish those three orders so that they them-
selves might be the image and likeness of the Trinity, accord-
ing to that saying of the apostle: "Until we all attain to the
unity of the faith, into a perfect man in the measure of the age
of the fullness of Christ." 22
For God considers the whole multitude of believers as if
they were a single man, created out of flesh, blood, and the
breath of life. For as blood is the medium between the flesh and
the soul, thus the clerical order is the medium between the
married and the monks. The married order bears the image of
the Father, because as the Father is the Father because he has a
Son, so the married order has been established by God solely in

129
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

order to procreate sons. This is so even though Moses allowed

them something contrary on account of the hardness of heart
that made them wise in the things of the world and Paul the
apostle permitted them one thing lest a worse occur. 23
The clerical order bears the image of the Son, who is the
Word of the Father, because it has been established to preach
and teach the people the way of the Lord and the rules of their
God. The monastic order bears the image of the Holy Spirit,
who is the love of God, because this order could not despise the
world and those things that are worldly unless it was invited
by the love of God and drawn by the same Spirit who drove the
Lord into the desert. It is also called spiritual because it walks
not according to the flesh but according to the spirit.
The first Adam; the second by Josiah,
order was started by
king of Judah; the third in one way by Elisha, the prophet, in
another by Saint Benedict. Why is it thus? Because the Holy
Spirit proceeds from the Father and from the Son. For if the
—
Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father alone like the Son it —
would seem to be more suitable for the clerical and monastic
orders both to begin simultaneously and to attain their con-
summation simultaneously. If, on the contrary, the Holy Spirit
—
proceeded from the Son alone as the Son did from the Father
—
alone then it would seem more suitable for the third status to
pertain only to the Holy Spirit, just as the second would
pertain to the Son. Because, in fact, there is one Father from
whom the Son and the Holy Spirit proceed, one Spirit who
proceeds simultaneously from the Father and the Son, two who
proceed from one Father, the first status is correctly ascribed to
the Father alone, the third to the Holy Spirit, 24 the second to
the Son and the Holy Spirit in common.
I do not say this in order that one should believe that the

kingdom or the work of one person should be divided from the

—
kingdom or work of the two other persons that would be
abhorrent to the hearts of believers. This statement ought to be
accepted simply in respect to the mystery. 25 For just as there
are three persons and one God, so frequently in those things
that are common to all three distinct significations are found
that show the respective likeness of the persons. For example,

130
 JOACHIM OF FIORE

Abraham signifies the Father because he has primarily been

called father. Isaac signifies the Son and Jacob the Holy Spirit.
The first status, therefore, ought to be assigned to the Father,
the second to the Son and to the Holy Spirit (although the
works assigned to the Son may be more noteworthy in it as is
fitting), the third status, to the Holy Spirit. For this reason the
Holy Spirit will reveal his glory in the third status, as the Son
revealed his in the second, the Father his in the first.

Thus, at that time when Christ came into the world, the
Holy Spirit came also, first to the Virgin, then to those who
were baptized in Christ as if to ones still infants in him. The
brightness of the Holy Spirit who cannot be seen could not be
manifested as could the brightness of the Son who had risen
from the dead in that visible flesh which he had assumed. The
Son says in the Gospel: "I will ask the Father and he will give
you the Paraclete, the spirit of truth whom this world cannot
receive because it neither sees nor knows him." 26

Chapter 10

On account of these venerable mysteries, the married or-

der started with Adam; the other two orders with Elisha, the
prophet, and Josiah, king of Judah, although the monastic
order, which has been seen to begin in one way with Elisha, in
another way began with Saint Benedict. The explanation of the
mystery has been given. In the first case the monastic order
began with Elisha in order to demonstrate the procession of the
Holy Spirit from the Father. In the second case it began with
Saint Benedict in order to show the procession of the Holy
Spirit from the Son. Although the monastic order has been
started twice, generically, nevertheless, it is one. Although the
Holy Spirit has been twice given, he himself is still one. Nor
has the Son been separated from the Father (an abhorrent
notion) as if the Holy Spirit were sent separately by the Father,
separately by the Son.
Because the minds of carnal people were not able to under-
stand this mystery unless it were shown in a clear way, on one
occasion the Holy Spirit was sent upon the Son in the likeness

131
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

of a dove in order to make evident that he proceeded from

it

the Father who had said to John the Baptist: "He upon whom
you will see my descending and remaining is the one
spirit
who baptizes in the Spirit." 27 On another occasion the
Holy
Holy Spirit was breathed out by the Son upon the apostles in
order to show that the Spirit proceeded also from him. 28 Nev-
ertheless, even when the Holy Spirit was sent in the likeness of
a dove, he was sent by the Son as well as by the Father. And
when the Son breathed on the apostles and said: "Receive the
Holy Spirit," 29 the Holy Spirit was given by the Father as well
as by the Son.
Thus the sacred mysteries are rightly to be understood not
wholly according to what they signify, but in accordance with
the Catholic faith. For it is not because a man speaks that his
image speaks as well, or because a man sees and hears that his
image is able to see, hear, work, eat, or walk. Nevertheless, each
act has a meaning that enables us to contemplate in some way a
man's outward appearance.
I do not think I should neglect to mention that just as the

letter of the Old Testament pertains especially to the married

order and the teaching of the New to the clerical order, so in
addition to that understanding which pertains to the Holy
Spirit in mystical fashion, the life-giving Rule of our holy
father Benedict, even when held according to the letter, also
pertains to the Holy Spirit. That which it contains about the
monastic institution is spirit and life. 30 That which properly
pertains to the Spirit is one thing, that which concerns the
bestowal of gifts is another. Thus there is one significance for
the Spirit himself, another that pertains to the bestowal of
gifts.

Perhaps we might seem to merit reproach here because in

a book on concordia we are discussing the Trinity, a topic that
both on account of its loftiness and especially of our limited
space ought rather to be venerated than written about here. 31 If
I am reproached about this, I also reproach myself. Neverthe-
less, when someone asks me about some point: "Why is this?" I

am obliged to explain it, especially where the point appears

absurd, lest a sterile and unsupported argument be held in

132
 JOACHIM OF FIORE

contempt by nitpickers, skeptics, rivals, and detractors. They

do not understand that the whole universe has been made
wisely and do not realize the greatness of the Lord's work,
done in accordance with his will. 32
Therefore, because there are two divine persons of whom
one is ungenerated, the other generated, two Testaments have
been set up, the first of which, as we have said above, pertains
especially to the Father, the second to the Son, because the
latter from the former. In addition, the
is spiritual understand-
ing, proceeding from both Testaments, is one that pertains
especially to the Holy Again, the letter of the Old
Spirit.
Testament pertains particularly to the married, the letter of the
New to the clerics, the Rule, under which monks live, to the
order of monks itself.
Because there are three coeternal and coequal trinitarian
persons, when we take into account that which exemplifies the
is reckoned from Adam
likeness of these persons the first status
to Christ, the second from King Josiah to the present time, the
third from Saint Benedict to the consummation of the age.
When, however, we omit the initial tempora and concentrate on
that phase which is crucial to each status, then the first status is
reckoned from Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, up to Zachary, the
father of John, or even to John himself and to Christ Jesus. The
second is reckoned from this same time up to the present. The
third is reckoned from the present time to the end.
Again, because of the two persons in the Trinity of whom
one is ungenerated, the other generated, the deeds of the first
Testament ought to be ascribed to the ungenerated person. The
tempus of this first Testament is reckoned from Adam to Christ.
The deeds of the second Testament ought to be ascribed to the
generated person. The tempus of this second Testament is reck-
oned from Josiah to the consummation of the age. When the
initial tempora are omitted and we
concentrate on the crucial
phase of each tempus, then the first tempus is reckoned from
Abraham to Zachary, the second from Zachary to the consum-
mation of the age. Because, in fact, there is one person who
proceeds from the two, and he is called the Holy Spirit, certain
special deeds that proceed from the others ought to be ascribed

133
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

to this person. These special deeds will be treated in their

proper place.

Chapter n
The first pattern isdesignated by alpha (A) which is a
triangular figure. The second is designated by omega (ft) in
which figure one rod proceeds from the juncture of two. Both
patterns ought to be grasped, because both are highly relevant
to the Catholic faith. 33

Chapter 12

Now we have shown why the tempora of the world ought

to be assigned to these two arrangement that
patterns, an
John implied when he mentioned the stone water jars, each of
which held two or three measures. 34 Next we ought to discuss
whether these tempora are to be reckoned according to their
number of years or according to some other measurement.
Saint Augustine, when he discussed the ages in The City of God,
said that there was one age from Adam to Noah, another age
from Noah to Abraham. When he said this, he added: "Not
because the second age has the same number of years as the
first, but because it has the same number of generations." 35

These tempora, therefore, ought to be reckoned not according to

their number of years but according to their number of genera-
tions. For there were also sixty-three generations from Adam
to Christ and sixty-three generations from Josiah to the end of
the second status. Indeed, the New Testament, which was
confirmed in Christ, was begun with Josiah, lest the Old should
appear to wither before the New, having been sown and taken
root, should germinate and produce fruit from the earth. It is,
indeed, written in the law of Moses that "you shall eat the old
until the new is born." 36

134
PLATE VI:
THE SEVEN-HEADED DRAGON
See the discussion of this figure in "Joachim of Fiore: Introduction" and the translation
of the accompanying text as Selection D under Joachim. Reproduced from // Libro delle
Figure, Plate XIV.
SELECTION D
Book of Figures,
The Fourteenth Table,
The Seven-Headed Dragon 1

I. The Captions 2
"There are seven kings. Five have fallen, one is present,
and one has not yet come. When he comes, he must remain for
a short time" (Apoc. 17:9-10).
Herod. The First Persecution, that of the Jews. The Time
of the Apostles. 3
Nero. The Second Persecution, that of the Pagans. The
Time of the Martyrs.
Constantius. 4
The Third Persecution, that of the Heretics.
The Time of the Doctors.
Mohammed. The Fourth Persecution, that of the Saracens.
The Time of the Virgins.
Mesemoth. 5 The Fifth Persecution, that of the Sons of
Babylon in the Spirit and not in the letter. 6 The Time of the
Conventuals. 7 "These five have fallen" (Apoc. 17:10). The fifth
persecution belongs to the King of Babylon. You will know
later why you can write down Mesemoth for that king.
Saladin. The Sixth Persecution has Begun. The Seventh
will Follow. "Another will arise after them and he will be more
powerful than the previous ones" (Dan. 7:24). There are ten
kings.
This is the Seventh King, who is properly called Anti-
christ,although there will be another like him, no less evil,
symbolized by the tail. This is that king of whom Daniel says:
"There will arise a king of shameless face who will understand
dark designs. His power will be strengthened, but not by his
own forces. He shall lay waste all things beyond belief (Dan.
8:23-24).
Gog. He is the Final Antichrist. 8

136
 JOACHIM OF FIORE

II. The Commentary 9

A. The Apocalypse: "A great sign appeared in heaven: a

vast red dragon having seven heads and ten horns. His tail
dragged down a third part of the stars of heaven and cast them
to the earth" (Apoc. 12:3-4). The seven heads of the dragon
signify seven tyrants by whom the persecutions of the Church
were begun. 10 The dragon's sixth head has ten horns because
in the time of the sixth king, he of whom it is said "He is one"
(Apoc. 17:10), many kings by destiny will be brought together
to do battle with Christ and his elect. As it says in the Apoca-
lypse: "The ten horns which you saw are ten kings who have
not yet received a kingdom, but will receive kingly power for
an hour after the beast. They have one design, and their power
and strength they will give to the beast. They will fight with
the Lamb and the Lamb will conquer them. Those who are
with him are called elect and faithful. And the ten horns which
you saw on the beast will hate the Harlot and will make her
desolate and naked. They will eat her flesh and burn her with
fire" (Apoc. 17:12-16).
From all this it can be understood that first of all the sixth
king must begin to rule alone, and then later gather many kings
to fight with the Lamb and to smite the sons of Babylon who
say they are Christians and are not, but are the synagogue of
Satan (Apoc. 2:9, 3:9). Their intention will be wicked in all
things and in every way. Even though they are unwilling and
unknowing, they will do God's will in both cases: either by
killing the just who are destined to be crowned with martyr-
dom, or by judging the wicked by whom the earth was cor-
rupted with blood (Ps. 105:38). n
After this destruction, which has already in some part
begun, the Christians will be victorious. Those who fear the
name of the Lord will rejoice when that head of the beast over
which the sixth king reigns has been brought almost to exter-
mination and ruin. Then, after a few years, its wound will be
healed, and the king who will be in charge of it (whether it be
Saladin if he is still alive, or another in his place) will gather a
much larger army than before and incite universal war against

137
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

God's elect. Many will be crowned with martyrdom in those

12
days.
In that time also the seventh head of the dragon will arise,
namely, that king who is called Antichrist, and a multitude of
falseprophets with him. We think that he will arise from the
West and will come to the aid of that king who will be the head
of the pagans. He will perform great signs before him and his
army, just as Simon Magus did in the sight of Nero. 13 "There
will be great tribulation, such as has not been from the begin-
ning, in order to deceive, if possible, even the elect. The Lord
will shorten those days for the sake of his elect" (Matt. 24:21,
14
24, 22), so that they will not exceed forty-two months.
I should like to consider more closely why the dragon's

two heads are joined together at the same time, and why the
Church's tribulations are doubled only in the sixth age so that a
twin tribulation arises in this time alone. 15 Just as the old Bab-
ylon was struck under the sixth seal, so the new one will be
pierced under the present sixth opening. 16 Also under the sixth
seal next Holofernes, the leader of the army of the king of As-
syria mentioned in the history of Judith, and then Aman from
the land of Agag found in the history of Queen Esther hard-
ened their faces to destroy the remnants of the Jewish people
everywhere. In the same way, after the imminent tempest and
the serenity of the peace that will follow, the eleventh king
mentioned in Daniel (Dan. 7:24) will rise up from the Saracen
race, though it might not be the one who is present now (be-
cause he could fall and rise again after his overthrow, or an-
other could be raised up in his place). There will be another
king from a group of heretics who will have an appearance of
piety and who will lie hypocritically. I say that he is the king of
whom it is said in Daniel: "There will arise a king with a
shameless face who will hatch dark designs. His power will be
strengthened, but not by his own forces. He shall lay waste all
things beyond belief (Dan. 8:23-24).
These two will make a conspiracy to wipe the name of
Christ from the earth. But Christ will conquer them, he who is
King of Kings and Lord of Lords (Apoc. 19:16). There are
bound to be many who will fight them for the sake of the faith.

138
 JOACHIM OF FIORE

They will die for Christ's name and wiil at some time gain a
triumph from the tyrants. Just as the sons of Israel used to walk
through the desert for five days and on each morning of any
week used to collect an omer of manna for the day, but only on
the sixth day would gather a double ration so they could rest
from labor on the sabbath (Exod. 16:16-23), so too he who says
to his people "I will strike you seven times because of your
sins" (Lev. 26:24) will permit the two final persecutions to
happen in the one sixth time so that at the opening of the
seventh seal peace may come and his faithful people can rest
from their labors. Therefore, these two last heads are joined
together, because both these tribulations of the final week are
destined to be fulfilled under the one sixth time.
B. Paul writes about the Antichrist: "He is lifted up and
opposed to all that is called God, or that is worshiped, so that
he sits in God's Temple, showing himself as if he were God" (2
Thess. 2:4). We should not think, as the holy teachers say, that
when he has been judged the end of the world will come soon,
just because he is said to come
at the end of the world. The end
of the world and the hour are not always to be taken for the
last
final moment, but for the time of the end, as John who wrote
over a thousand years ago openly teaches when he says: "Little
children, this is the last hour, and as you have heard that
Antichrist is coming, so now there are many Antichrists.
Hence we know that it is the last hour" (1 John 2:18). But we
must note that John and John's Master say many Antichrists
will come. Paul, on the other hand, foretells that there will be
one. Just as many holy kings, priests, and prophets went before
the one Christ who was King, priest, and prophet, so likewise
many unholy kings, false prophets, and antichrists will go
before the one Antichrist who will pretend that he is a king, a
priest, and a prophet.
After the destruction of this Antichrist there will be jus-
tice on earth and an abundance of peace, "and the Lord will
rule from and from the river to the ends of the earth"
sea to sea
(Ps. 71:8). "Men swords into plowshares, and
will turn their
their spears into sickles. One nation will not lift up the sword
against the other, and there will be no more war" (Isa. 2:4). The

139
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

Jews and many pagan races will be converted to the Lord, 17

and all people will rejoice in the beauty of peace because the
great dragon's heads will be crushed and he will be imprisoned
in the abyss (that is, in the remaining races who will live at the
ends of the earth). God alone knows the number of the years,
months, and days of that time. 18 When they have been finished
and brought to end, once again Satan will be freed from prison
to persecute God's elect, because there is still that other Anti-
christ who is symbolized in the dragon's tail.
At the end of the times and of the years "Satan will be
freed from his prison, and will go forth and seduce the nations
that are at the four corners of the earth. He will lead them in
battle; theirnumber will be like the sands of the sea. They will
surround the camp of the saints and the beloved city" (Apoc.
20:7-8). That will be the final battle, in the last moment at the
dragon's because the heads will have been already crushed.
tail

Then the commander of the army will be Gog, the final

Antichrist. God will judge him and his army by fire and
brimstone poured down from heaven. The devil who led men
astray to do all these evil deeds will be cast into the lake of fire
and brimstone where the Beast and the False Prophet are
(Apoc. 20:9-10). The Beast and the False Prophet (that is, the
eleventh king mentioned in Daniel, along with his army) and
the Seventh King written of above along with his group of false
prophets are next thrown into the lake of fire. At the end Gog
and his army will be judged; after them the devil and Gog
himself will be cast into the lake of fire where the Beast and the
False Prophet already are.
Among all the Antichrists who will appear in the world
two are worse than the others: the one who is denoted by the
seventh head and the one denoted by the tail. He who is
denoted by the seventh head will come in hidden fashion like
John the Baptist, who was not known to be Elias. He who is
denoted by the tail will come in open fashion like Elias, who
will come openly. The Lord promised one Elias and nonethe-
less two come, one of whom will be called Elias. God's
will
saints have specifically spoken of one Antichrist and nonethe-
less there will be two, one of whom will be the Greatest

140
 JOACHIM OF FIORE

Antichrist. 19 The devil strives for nothing more than to appear

like the Most High in every way possible. Because Jesus Christ
came in hidden fashion, Satan himself will do his works
hiddenly, that is, signs and false wonders will be designed to
seduce even the elect if possible. Because at the end of the
world Jesus Christ will come to Judgment in open fashion, so
too the devil himself will go forth at the end of the world and
will appear openly in the days of Gog. He will incite the pagan
nations and will lead them to war so that he can pretend that
he is Christ come to judge with his saints, avenging all who
have suffered wrong. Just as Jesus Christ came with true signs,
but cloaked and hidden because of the likeness of sinful human
nature so that he was hardly recognized as the Christ by even a
few, so too the seventh king will come with false signs and will
be hidden and cloaked because of his appearance of spiritual
justice, so that only a few will be able to recognize that he is the
Antichrist. For this reason even the elect may be led into error
if possible. And because the same Christ Jesus will come openly

in the glory of his majesty surrounded with a heavenly army of

angels and men, so too Satan will appear openly with armies of
wicked men, so that on the basis of dread of his forces he may
pretend to be him who will come to judge the living and the
dead and the world by fire. 20

141
SELECTION E
The Book of Figures,
The Twelfth Table

The Arrangement of the New People of God 1

Pertain-
ing to the Third State after the Model of the Heavenly
Jerusalem

Paul the Apostle. 2 "J ust as the body is one and has many
members, all the members of the body, although they are
many, are one body. It is the same with Christ. For a body is
not one member but many. If the foot were to say: Since I am
not a hand I do not belong to the body, it would not therefore
not be a part of the body. And if the ear were to say: Because I
am not an eye I do not belong to the body, it would not
therefore not be a part of the body. If the whole body were an
eye, where would the hearing be? If the whole body were
hearing, where would the power of smell be? God put the
members, each of them, into the body on purpose. If they all
were one member, where would the body be? So there are
indeed many members, but one body" (1 Cor. 12:14—20).
John the Evangelist. "I, John, saw a door open in heaven
and behold a throne was placed there. Around the throne and
at its very center were four animals filled with eyes before and
behind. The first animal was like a lion, the second animal like
a calf, the third animal had a face like a man, and the fourth
animal was like a flying eagle" (Apoc. 4:1-7). "Grace is given to
each of us according to the measure of the gift of Christ. And
hence he has said: 'Ascending on high he led captivity captive,
and gave gifts to men' (Ps. 67:19). He gave to some the gift to be
Apostles, some to be Prophets, some to be Evangelists, others
to be pastors and doctors, for the fulfillment of the saints in
their ministry in the building up of the Body of Christ, until
we all come together into the unity of faith and the recognition
of the Son of God, into the perfect man, into the measure of the
maturity of Christ" (Eph. 4:7-13).

142
 TAVOIJt XI

PLATE VII:

THE NEW ORDER OF THE PEOPLE OF GOD

Reproduced from // Libro delle Figure, Plate XII.
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

The Oratory of the Holy Mother of God, Mary, and of

I.

Holy Jerusalem. 3 The Dove. The Seat of God. The Spirit of

Counsel. The Nose. 4
This house will be the mother of all. The Spiritual Father 5
who will be over all will be in it; all will obey his direction and
authority.
The brethren of this house will live according to a rule in
all things so that everyone else can be shaped by the example of
their patience and sobriety. In fasts they will follow the model
of the Cistercians. At the will of the Spiritual Father who will
be in this house the brethren of the lower orders can move to
the stricter life but in such a way that no one can do so without
an examination, lest (God forbid!) someone who lacks the gift
and calling of God desires the first place and must begin in
shame to take the last (Luke 14:9).
II. The Oratory of Saint John the Evangelist and of all the

Holy Men and Cloistered Nuns. 6 The Eagle. "The fourth ani-
mal was like a flying eagle" (Apoc. 4:7). The Spirit of Wisdom.
The Eye.
In this oratory there will be approved and perfect men
who are afire with spiritual desire and wish to lead a contem-
plative life. They will each have their own cells into which
they can quickly enter when they wish to pray, but these will
not be where each might have wanted, but next to the cloister
according to the order and will of the Spiritual Father who will
be over all. Their Prior will not rebuke them, but will entreat
them like fathers and like those of the first rank who do not
need compassion.
They will fast perpetually except in case of illness. They
will drink no wine and will eat nothing seasoned with oil save
for Sundays and major feasts. If anyone of them has such a
stomach ailment that he cannot keep the established fast, he
should be moved to the oratory of the aged and stay there until
he be cured. These men will not have scapulars, but only cowls
(except perhaps for some necessity), because they are not re-
quired to work but to pray and sing the psalms. 7
III. The Oratory of Saint Paul and of All the Holy Doc-

144
 JOACHIM OF FIORE

tors. The Man. "The third animal had a face like a man" (Apoc.
4:7). The Spirit of Understanding. The Ear.

In this oratory there will be learned men and also those to

be instructed and taught by God (John 6:45). They desire and
have more power than the others to devote themselves to
reading and to apply themselves to spiritual teaching. Hence
they have the means to bring forth new things and old (Matt.
13:52). They will fast every day in winter and three days in
summer. Both in summer and winter they will always go
without wine on Monday, without a meat dish on Wednesday,
and on Friday will fast on bread and water, except in case of
illness or if perhaps the Father of the monastery who rules all
will wish to make a dispensation for the place or the time in
someone's case.
IV. The Oratory of Saint Stephan and of All the Holy
Martyrs. The Calf. "The second animal was like a calf (Apoc.
4:7). The Spirit of Knowledge. The Mouth.
In this oratory will be those brethren who are strong in
manual advance to a greater degree in
labor, but are not able to
spiritual discipline. They will fast three days in winter and one
in summer, that is, on Friday. They will obey their Prior
according to the order and will of the Spiritual Father who will
be over all and who will render an account of all. They will not
have cowls, but only scapulars and capes. They will work for
themselves and also for those who lead the eremitical life so
that what they fail to supply in prayer and abstinence may be
made up for by those who live in a more spiritual manner. 8
V. The Oratory of Saint Peter and of All the Holy Apos-
tles. The Lion. "The first animal was like a lion" (Apoc. 4:7).

The Spirit of Fortitude. The Hand.

In this oratory will be the old and the weak brethren who
possibly because of stomach trouble are not able to bear the full
austerity of the rule in fasting but who nevertheless strive to
walk according to the purity of the rule insofar as they can and
who for their simplicity and modesty invite a fitting respect. In
wintertime they will fast daily insofar as they can, in summer-
time on Friday, but in such a way that there be a merciful

145
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

regard for them so that if necessary they may anticipate the

canonical hours. If possible let them have every day two cooked
meat dishes and wine, but in such measure and temperance
that the precept of the rule be not abandoned in their regard
and a dispensation changed into wanton freedom. Let them be
given as far as possible a house full of Christian love, and let
them receive it with thanks and in all humility and fear of God.
They are not to be compelled to go out in the fields to manual
labor, but they will work inside on whatever is commanded
them. Above all they will restrain themselves from idle words
and they will keep the strictest silence whenever there is read-
ing and especially on feast days. At other times when there is
necessity let them speak with the Prior of the house in an
orderly manner. Entry into this oratory will not be permitted
to anyone of his own will and choice, but to whom the Abbot
will have commanded upon consideration (as is found in the
rule) of the real necessity of those in need and not the bad will
of the envious. Anyone who hasshown that he desires such a
thing without the order of the Abbot is to be expelled from the
monastery if he does not remain peacefully in his place.
Between monastery and the clerics' place there ought
this
to be a distance of about three miles. 9
VI. The Oratory of Saint John the Baptist and of All the
Holy Prophets. The Dog. The Spirit of Piety. The Foot. "So
that your foot may be dipped in blood; your dogs tongue have
7

their share of your enemies" (Ps. 67:24).

In this oratory will be gathered priests and clerics who
wish to live chastely and in common, but who do not wish to
abstain completely from the eating of meat and warm clothing.
In winter they will fast on Wednesday and Friday, and they
will obey their Prior according to the direction and order of the
Spiritual Father who They will not use
will be over everyone.
mantles, but only capes so that there may be a difference
between their dress and that of the laity. They will study the
art of grammar and teach the boys and young men to learn how
to speak and write Latin and memorize the Old and New
Testaments as far as they can. They will give a tithe of their
labor and a tithe of the tithe they receive from the married into

146
 JOACHIM OF FIORE

the hands of the Spiritual Father for the support of Christ's

poor if they perhaps be in need of anything. 10
They will receive tithes and offerings from the order of
the laity, as much for their own use and that of the students
who will be with them as for the support of the poor and
strangers. They will not receive a sister in their oratory, but
will enter the oratory of the laity on feast days and celebrate the
liturgy with them. They should take care that no one ever dare
spend the night within the confines of their enclosure. None of
the priests or clerics should enter the house of any sister, sick
or well, for a visit without approved and suitable witnesses.
This should be done at the command of the Prior and accord-
ing to the order of the Spiritual Father who will be in the
Mother Church.
They will have a hospice outside the confines of their
enclosure in which will be prepared beds and other things
necessary for the use of guests both sick and well. It will have
its own means of support according to its location and type of
countryside, both with regard to livestock and to agriculture. It

will have God-fearing servants who know how to show fitting

honor to all so that God may be blessed in all things. If a rich
person should wish to visit the oratories of the monks for the
salvation of his soul, he should leave his horses there and
proceed to them in a simple fashion. Strengthened by prayer,
he may then return to his own.
Between these two oratories there ought to be a distance of
about three stadia. 11
VII. The Oratory of Saint Abraham the Patriarch and of
All the Holy Patriarchs. The Sheep. The Spirit of Fear. The
Body. "We are his people and the sheep of his pasture. Today if
you would hear his voice, harden not your hearts" (Ps. 94:7-8).
Under the name of this oratory will be gathered the mar-
ried with their sons and daughters living a common life. They
will sleep with their wives for the sake of having children
rather than for pleasure. At set times or days they will abstain
from them by consent to be free to pray, taking into account
the physical constitution and age of the young people lest they
be tempted by Satan (1 Cor. 7:5). They will have their own

147
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

dwelling places and will guard themselves from every accusa-

tion. They will have food and clothing in common, and will
obey their Master according to the direction and order of the
Spiritual Father to whom all these orders will be obedient like
a new ark of Noah finished down to the cubit. They will fast in
winter every Friday, except in the case of illness, and they will
be clad with simple mantles only. No idle person will be found
among these Christians, someone who will not earn his bread
that he may have that from which to help those in need (Eph.
4:28). Let each one work at his own craft, and the individ-
ual trades and workers shall have their own foremen. Anyone
who has not worked up to capacity should be called to account
by the Master and censured by all. Food and clothing will be
simple as befits Christians. Worldly garb will not be found
among them nor dyed clothing. Honest and approved women
will spin wool for the need of Christ's poor, and they will
serve like mothers of the other women, instructing the young
women and girls in the fear of God. They will give tithes to the
clerics of all they possess for the support of the poor and
strangers, and boys who are studying doctrine.
also for the
They do this so that in case they have more than they need and
the rest have less, at the command of the Spiritual Father the
surplus will be taken from those who have more and given to
those who have less so that there may be no one in need among
them but all things held in common. 12

148
Part IV
THE FRANCISCAN
SPIRITUALS

In the summer of 1317, while under house arrest and ban of

excommunication at Avignon, a much-tried hermit who pro-
tested that the greatest trial of all was life at the Roman Curia
sat down to pen a defense of himself and his followers to the
implacable Pope John XXII. Angelo of Clareno's Letter of De-
fense brings us closer to the experience of the Franciscan zeal-
ots, or Spirituals as they are usually known, than any other

contemporary document. 1
In at times gripping fashion, it re-
counts the story of the trials and tribulations of a group of
Spirituals from the Province of the March of Ancona in east
central Italy over the span of more than forty years. While it
only touches on apocalyptic ideas in a few places (John XXII
would scarcely have been placated by an apocalyptic mani-
festo!), the context within which the work is to be understood

is based on Angelo's hopes for vindication of his form of life at

the imminent end of the present evil age. A glance at his life
and times will make this evident.
Angelo was born Peter of Fossombrone probably around
As a young man he entered the Franciscans at the
1250. 2
convent of Cingoli, and first appeared in history in the late
1270s when, along with a number of the more influential

149
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

Franciscan radicals, he was cruelly imprisoned for his adher-

ence to the standard of absolute poverty he found in the Rule
and Testament of Saint Francis. The remainder of Angelo's
long life spans the history of the encounter between the Spiri-
tuals and the established Conventual party.
It would be easy to simplify the struggle between the two
parties within the Franciscan Order into an issue of black
versus white, to see Angelo and his associates as either refrac-
tious fanatics or as spiritual idealists protesting against the
corruption of their order and of the medieval Church. There is
a bit of both sides in the Spiritual camp, and perhaps even in
Angelo. In order to understand this dual character, we must
first take a look at the relation between the Spiritual party and
apocalypticism in the thirteenth century.
Angelo was heir to a tendency within the Franciscans that
understood the unique role of Saint Francis, the meaning of his
special devotion to poverty, and the historical significance of
the order he founded in terms of a theology of history based
largely on the thought of Joachim of Fiore. The Calabrian
abbot had not only predicted a key role for coming orders of
viri spirituales ("spiritual men") in the imminent crisis of his-
tory, but had also looked forward to a millennial state of the
Church on earth under the aegis of the most perfect form of the
religious life. While Joachim's vision was bounded by his own
monastic outlook, the pseudo-Joachite writings that began to be
produced in the early 1240s vindicated these prophecies for the
new mendicant orders, especially the Franciscans.
Disputes about the role of poverty among the Franciscans
began before the death of Francis himself. In the Testament he
wrote shortly before his death in 1226, the founder had given
express orders that no glosses or modifications of his own
practice of poverty were to be allowed, but the first papal bull
regulating the Franciscan way of life, "Quo elongati" of 1230,
declared the Testament null and void and began the process of
accommodating Francis's poverty to the demands of a large and
growing international organization.
The Spiritual Franciscans of the late thirteenthand early
fourteenth centuries, such as Angelo, looked back on a long

150
 THE FRANCISCAN SPIRITUALS

history of struggle within the order over the issue of poverty,

though it is not correct to speak of a full-fledged Spiritual
movement much before 1280. Angelo's major work, the History
of the Seven Tribulations of the Franciscan Order written in the
3
early 1320s, placed the earliest trial in the Poverello's struggle
with the laxists of his own time. While his History gives a
partial and at times misleading account of the development of
the order, it does reflect an ambiguity present from the begin-
ning. How could the Franciscans both be completely poor in
the manner of Francis and yet of service to the Church in the
myriad ways demanded of them? Was poverty or obedience the
greater good? Other religious groups in the history of Western
Christianity have had to deal with similar problems; the Fran-
ciscan case was the more extreme at least in part because of
their greater success.
From about 1240 on those in favor of the most rigorous
observance of poverty within the order began to make use of
elements of Joachite apocalyptic to further their case. Many of
the treatises ascribed to Joachim but written in the thirteenth
century probably originated in Franciscan circles. A distinctive
Franciscan Joachite apocalyptic was developed whose basic
elements continued to influence Angelo and the later Spiritu-
4
als. From the broader Joachite tradition these Franciscans
absorbed not only the expectation of the imminence of the end
of the present age, but also belief in a current confrontation
within the Church between the agents of good and the Anti-
christ and his followers. Like Joachim, too, the Franciscan
Joachites looked forward to the defeat of the dread Last Enemy
and the establishment of the contemplative Church of the
perfect in the third status or seventh age of history about to
dawn. More distinctive of the Franciscan version of this sce-
nario were three themes: the identification of the Franciscans
and the Dominicans with the two groups of viri spirituales
prophesied by Joachim, the specification of poverty as the
special sign of the spiritualmen, and the belief that Saint
Francis was the Angel of the Sixth Seal of Apocalypse 7:2,
whose advent marked the beginning of the critical period of
history immediately preceding the coming of the Antichrist.

151
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

These hopes were shared in the highest circles of the

order, as evidenced by the Generalate of John of Parma (1247—
1257), a convinced Joachite, proponent of strict poverty, and
later hero of the Spiritual cause. Unfortunately, some of the
less balanced Franciscan Joachites pushed these apocalyptic
ideas to a radical conclusion that predicted the collapse of the
present Church in 1260 and its replacement by a totally new
Joachite world order. This "Scandal of the Eternal Gospel"
(1254-1255) resulted in perpetual imprisonment for one radical
and the withdrawal of John of Parma from the Generalate. His
successor, the noted Paris theologian Bonaventure (1257-1274),
was not loath to use apocalyptic ideas in his theology of history,
but always in a guarded way. 5 Bonaventure made a valiant
attempt to preserve poverty of life, ecclesiastical obedience, and
universal charity within the order, but the events following his
death proved the effort to have been in vain. In the late 1270s
definite groups of rigorists whose defense of the absolute pov-
erty enjoined in Francis's Testament was buttressed by their
apocalyptic understanding of history soon came into conflict
with the majority sentiment in the order.
Angelo's Letter tells the story of one group of these, that
from the Province of the March of Ancona, during the years
from about 1275 to 1317. 6 What may not be obvious from his
account is that, alongside the group under Angelo and Fra
Liberato who were allowed to leave the Franciscans by Pope
Celestine V, there were others, such as those around the noted
Conrad of Offida, who held similar ideals but were not
tempted to separate from the order. The extent of Angelo's
adherence to apocalyptic ideas may be muted in this text, but
his reference at the end to a sevenfold scheme of the persecu-
tions of the true followers of Francis reveals an apocalyptic
understanding of the meaning of his out
trials that is spelled
more fully in the History of the Seven Tribulations. The longer
work shows that Angelo believed that the sixth persecution of
the viri spirituales begun under Boniface VIII and now reaching
its culmination with John XXII would shortly be followed by
the final persecution, that of the Antichrist, and then by the
reign of peace on earth.

152
 THE FRANCISCAN SPIRITUALS

Angelo's other writings include translations from the

Greek of monastic classics, notably The Ladder of Paradise of
John Climacus. During his lengthy exile in the East, the Italian
hermit took the opportunity, unusual for the time, to become
fluent in that language. This fact has led to an intriguing guess
on the part of Herbert Grundmann, one of the foremost schol-
ars of medieval apocalypticism. Early in the fourteenth century
a new form of apocalyptic text spread through Western Eu-
rope, the Prophecies concerning the Supreme Pontiffs, consisting of
brief illustrated predictions of coming popes, frequently as-
cribed to Joachim of Fiore. Grundmann showed that these
texts were based on twelfth-century Greek imperial proph-
ecies, the Leo Oracles, and that they appeared to be historical
(according to the typical apocalyptic device of vaticinium ex
eventu) up to about 1304, because Celestine V appears as a holy
monk and Boniface VIII as an evil hypocrite. 7 These two fig-
ures are followed by predictions of coming holy popes, the
pastores angelici, crystallizations of the positive side of the apoca-
lyptic hopes for the papacy that had been developing since the
days of Joachim of Fiore. 8 Grundmann went further and sup-
posed that the Papal Prophecies, as well as another contempo-
rary document reflecting on the apocalyptic role of the papacy,
the Book of Fiore, were written by one of Angelo's group during
the long papal conclave of 1304-1305 as propaganda for their
own ideas of what future popes should be like. It is impossible
to prove the claim, given the present state of our knowledge,
but the intimate involvement of Angelo's Poor Hermits with
Celestine V, the archetype of the coming Angelic Popes, and
their Greek contacts give it a certain plausibility. Angelo him-
self does not make use of the Angel Pope in his known writ-
ings. He and his followers later laid more emphasis on negative
apocalyptic notions of the popes, as well they might given their
experiences. Many of his followers came to see John XXII as
the prophesied false teacher sitting in the Temple of the
Church, the papal Antichrist who condemned Franciscan pov-
erty and persecuted its adherents.
On December 30, 1317, in the Bull "Sancta Romana et
Universalis Ecclesia," Pope John issued his definitive censure of

153
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

Angelo's Poor Hermits and related groups as a part of his

program to crush the Spiritual movement. Angelo, more fortu-
nate than those Spirituals of Provence who were imprisoned or
executed, was allowed to enter the Celestine Order and re-
mained at Avignon in the house of his protector, Cardinal
Jacopo Colonna. After the cardinal's death in 1318 he returned
to Italy, taking up residence at Subiaco. In defiance of the papal
bull, he devoted the last two decades of his life to the organiza-
tion and guidance of his followers throughout Italy. These and
like groups, usually called Fraticelli, were to keep the heritage
of the Spirituals alive for almost two centuries. The hostility of
the Roman Inquisitors eventually forced Angelo to flee south
where he died at S. Maria del Aspromonte in the Basilicata on
July 15, 1337. Angelo's later writings show that he never
adopted the intemperate language of his Fraticelli followers.
The letter that he wrote to Philip of Majorca sometime after
1329 gives us some idea of his views in the final years of his
9 It shows that he believed that
life. John's condemnation of
Franciscan poverty had been heretical and that he feared a
coming false pope, but Angelo continued to counsel patient
endurance of all trials. What is clear from his activities in Italy
is that the aged hermit had refused to obey papal authority on

an issue he thought openly sinful. As he claimed earlier in the

Letter of Defense: "I have never despised or broken obedience
with any prelate, although in the case of open sins I have been
obliged to be disobedient."
The depth of Angelo's spiritual vision grows out of an
almost unbearable tension between his allegiance to the struc-
tures of the medieval Church and his belief that these struc-
tures were no longer responsive to God's action in history. 10 In
the Letter we find a desperate last appeal, based on four decades
of struggle and suffering, to an unresponsive hierarchy. In his
own way, and within the confines of his own vision, he had
eventually to confront the perennial problem of the relation
between conscience and authority that has taken a larger and
larger role in Christian history since the fourteenth century. It

isimpossible to read the Letter and think that he found the

answer he was forced to adopt after 1318 an easy solution.

154
 THE FRANCISCAN SPIRITUALS

The Spiritual movement was especially strong in two

other areas in the late thirteenth century, in the Province of
Tuscany and Umbria, and in Provence in southern France. In
Tuscany and Umbria Ubertino of Casale (c. 1259-c. 1330) was
the primary leader, though other noted figures, such as the
poet Jacopone da Todi (c. 1230-1306), were also involved.
Ubertino was a noted theologian and preacher whose support
of Angelo's group resulted in his suspension in 1304 and retire-
ment to La Verna where Francis had received the stigmata.
During this retreat Ubertino wrote his famous The Tree of the
Crucified Life of Jesus, succinctly described by Decima Douie
as "a prose epic of the life and passion of Christ, to which has
been added a commentary on the Apocalypse bearing the un-
mistakable traces of Joachite influence." 11 Despite its length
and digressive character, this work is one of the masterpieces of
Franciscan apocalyptic spirituality and was widely read, by
Dante among others. Ubertino was more radical than Angelo
he denied the legitimacy of Celestine V's resignation and saw
Boniface VIII and his successor Benedict XI as together form-
ing the Mystical Antichrist. Like Angelo, he looked forward to
a coming period of triumph for the Franciscan spiritual men.
Ubertino was directly involved in the drama of the con-
demnation of first the Spiritual and then the Conventual posi-
tion on Franciscan poverty. As the chaplain to Cardinal Napo-
leon Orsini, the protector of the Poor Hermits, he was the chief
advocate of the Spiritual case before Pope Clement V during
the years 1309-1312, and was largely responsible for Clement's
bull "Exivi de paradiso," the last attempt at a compromise
between the two parties within the order. He was also present
at Avignon from 1316 to 1318 when John XXII, in cooperation
with the Conventual Minister General Michael of Cesena,
crushed the Spiritual party. Like Angelo, he had won the
personal favor of the pope and was thus allowed to enter the
Benedictines rather than remain under the control of his Fran-
ciscan enemies. Ubertino stayed on at Avignon and took part
in the debates of 1322-1323 leading to John's condemnation of
the Conventual view that Christ and the apostles had owned
nothing and that the poverty of Francis and the order was

155
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

modeled on this. 12 Finally, he too broke with John XXII.

Accused of heresy, he fled Avignon in 1325 and appears to have
spent his last years as a fugitive in bitter attacks on the pope.
Angelo and Ubertino, and indeed the whole Spiritual
movement, were deeply influenced by the more complex and
mysterious figure of the Provencal Franciscan Peter John Olivi
(c. 1248-1 298). 13 Olivi did not live to see the fate of the Spiritu-
als. Heremained loyal to the hierarchy of the order during his
life, and even more than Angelo preached and practiced obedi-

ence to the papacy; yet more than any other figure he was the
intellectual and charismatic center of the whole Zealot cause.
Olivi studied theology at Paris where he heard and was
influenced by Bonaventure. Most of his life was devoted to
academic concerns; he taught theology at Florence (1287-1289),
where he met Ubertino, and at various houses in his native
Provence. Denounced for unsound theological and philosphical
views, he was condemned by the order in 1283, but vindicated
in 1287. It is clear that he remained under suspicion in many
circles for the rest of his life. Most of the issues advanced
against him were highly technical theological and philosophi-
cal questions, but a number involved his interpretations of
Franciscan poverty. Olivi was no radical. He defended the
legitimacy of earlier papal bulls abrogating Francis's Testa-
ment and defining the nature of Franciscan poverty, but he
took a clear stand for the usus pauper "poor use", that is, the
most stringent observance of the law of poverty in everyday
life. In September 1295 he wrote to Conrad of Offida condemn-

ing those Franciscans who denied the legitimacy of Celestine's

abdication or who attempted to separate from the order, thus
distancing himself from Angelo and his group. What was truly
dangerous about Olivi's thought was the apocalyptic theology
of history he worked out during his lifetime. His final book,
the Lecture on the Apocalypse, written in 1297, summarized his
apocalyptic theories and was the most important statement of
the underlying theory of history common to most of the Spiri-
tual party. Olivi maintained a division of Church history into
seven periods, seeing his own era as that of the overlapping of
the Fifth Age of laxity and the Sixth Age, inaugurated by Saint

156
 THE FRANCISCAN SPIRITUALS

Francis, of evangelical renewal. The conflict between the car-

nal Church and the spiritual Church comprised of the adher-
ents of true poverty would culminate in the onslaught of a
double Antichrist, the first, Mystical Antichrist, a false pope
who would attack the Franciscan Rule, and the second, Great
Antichrist, who would openly slaughter the faithful. After
Christ's defeat of these foes a spiritualized Church under the
direction of the Franciscan Order and coming holy popes
would rule the world in the millennial Seventh Age before the
end of history. Olivi believed that these events were imminent.
Though he did not identify any living ecclesiastical figure,
even Boniface VIII, with the Antichrist or his agents, it was
almost impossible for the later Spirituals not to see in his view
of the future a prophecy of the activities of John XXII in
persecuting the Spirituals and condemning the Franciscan in-
terpretation of the Rule of Francis.
Olivi was not only an intellectual master for the other
Zealots, but was also their spiritual leader as well. The radical
Franciscans tended to be hero-worshippers, always prone to
create a pantheon of charismatic servants of absolute poverty.
In this pantheon Olivi ranked second only to Francis himself.
To Angelo in his History Olivi had been foretold by Joachim
and many other prophets; to Ubertino meeting Olivi had been
the turning point of his life; among his Provengal followers
Olivi's grave became a place of pilgrimage and miracle until it
was destroyed by ecclesiastical authority. The influence of the
Lecture on the Apocalypse, translated into the vernacular and
eagerly read by the laity, was not quashed even by its condem-
nation by John XXII in 1326. It is difficult to determine what
the nature of Olivi's personal magnetism was from his surviv-
ing writings. Undoubtedly, his qualities as a preacher and
spiritual guide must have been great. One of the few docu-
ments where we can catch a glimpse of Olivi the master of
souls at work is in a letter that he wrote to the imprisoned sons
of King Charles II of Naples in May of 1295. Though parts of
this document may strike us as rather formal today, the theme
that burns through it was as precious to Olivi as it was to
Angelo and the other Spirituals —the necessity of suffering in
157
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

order to enter into glory. Ernst Benz summarized the theology

of history implied here when he wrote: "The essence of all
historical occurrence is the rebirth which comes to pass
through death and suffering." 14 Olivi's apocalypticism enabled
him endure and give meaning to his own trials; his ability to
to
convey this message to others was central to the influence he
wielded in the Spiritual movement both before and after his
death.

158
ANGELO OF CLARENO
A Letter of Defense to the Pope concerning
the False Accusations and Calumnies Made by
the Franciscans 1

Most Reverend and Holy Father. Your Apostolic Holiness

and the Sacred College of Cardinals should know that the
sentence of apostasy, heresy, and excommunication against me
and my companions contained in the letters of Pope Boniface
of happy memory and of the well-remembered Peter, Patriarch
of Constantinople, was unexpectedly read out to me for the
first time in the presence of Your Holiness and the College of
Cardinals. 2 This condemnation is now fixed in your mind and
has become completely believable to the extent that you seem
to think that wild beasts have devoured us and that we are
apostates from religion and faith and excommunicates from the
law and the Church. Because unchangeable truth overcomes all
things, it should be clear to Your Holiness and the Sacred
College of Your Brethren that in God's truth we without doubt
have a very different view of ourselves. We know that we are
not and never have been apostates, heretics, or excommuni-
cates, unless perhaps it be a heresy worthy of excommunication
humbly and without regard to the opinion of those who think
otherwise to believe, confess, love, and work for what Saint
Francis believed and confessed about the observance of his
Rule. 3 He taught this while alive and loved it as he was dying.
He worked for it and commanded it to be kept. I confess that I
have always held that heresy and that I hold it now. I stand
ready for your judgment and I am ready to receive it with
obedience.
In sound mind and good conscience we declare that the
other things directed against me and my companions at the re-
quest of the Franciscans and contained in these letters are all
lies coming from evil hearts and bad consciences. What was re-

159
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

ported to the pope about us was false and mendacious. There is

not and never has been nor ever will be, to the best of my
knowledge, in me or in any of my companions a single one of
all the faults contained in those letters or the petition of the

Franciscans. These papal letters were procured not only by

hiding the truth, but also by making false statements, wicked
calumnies, and evil defamations. We did not and do not claim
to observe the Rule of the Franciscans, but we live as Poor Her-
mits, just asPope Celestine granted and desired. We did not at
that time build any permanent dwellings, but lived in the
houses of others like pilgrims and poor men. We did not preach
to either the people or the clergy. We did not nor do we hear
confessions, either by authority granted us or in any other way.
The only exception was when a bishop we obeyed ordered it.
I would never doubt the existence of papal authority, even

if angels and apostles supported by miracles claimed otherwise.

The same holds true for such declarations as that Boniface was
not true pope, 4 or that authority had long since left the Church
and resided in us until the Church could be reformed, or that
we and those like us alone were true priests, or that priests or-
dained by papal and episcopal authority were not truly or-
dained, or that the Eastern Church is better than the Western. I
have never been so light-headed, foolish, or stupid as to allow
myself to hear such things from anyone. I have always de-
fended and will defend the contrary by my words and even by
eager acceptance of death, though the whole world turn to the
other opinion.
I am sure and I always have been sure of the faith of the

Roman Church. I have never doubted it. There is only one Ro-
man Church and no other, and the Eastern Church is schis-
matic and void. The unique, full, and perfect authority has al-
ways existed only in the prelates of the Roman Church, both
the just and the sinful. True orders and the true power of the
keys that leads to eternal life is found only in those ordained by
them. I believe and have believed that papal decrees and
decretals are divine and holy and that the rules and holy ordi-
nances of the bishops and doctors are just and necessary. I have

160
 THE FRANCISCAN SPIRITUALS

never thought otherwise, nor have I supported anyone who

thought otherwise.
The things they accuse us of are more bitter than death
because they lead to stain and error of the Catholic faith and to
denial of Christ either from consent or from silence. Hence, I
request Your Holiness and the whole Sacred College to send
me each and every one of the accusations in writing, together
with the names of the witnesses, especially the things that
touch my person and denounce me as a heretic. I offer myself
ready to respond in defense by word or deed. If need be, I will
undergo poison, fire, any legal procedure, ecclesiastical judg-
ment, or trial to clear me and my companions from the charge
of heresy that has been wrongly and falsely placed on us.
Your Apostolic Holiness and the College of Your Sacred
Brethren should know that I do not perceive or recognize
myself to be or to have been an apostate or excommunicate
from the law or from the Church. I have never despised or
broken obedience with any prelate, although in the case of
open sins I have been obliged to be disobedient. Because of this
I suffered savage and inhuman persecution, although I believed

that according to God it was lawful and advisable for me to

disobey. The devil's envy could not bear that we were unwill-
ing to turn back to what was behind and to ease off into what
was inferior, but were ardently seeking to reach out to what
was ahead and to ascend to what was above.
Gratuitously and completely without cause the Francis-
cans condemned us to perpetual imprisonment as schismatics
and heretics when both Fra Liberato and I were quite ready to
be completely obedient and when the stain of no refusal or
other crime had been found in us. 5 They deprived us in life and
death of confession and all the Church sacraments, and also
conversation with all the Friars, even with the one who
brought us the necessities of life. Under threat of like punish-
ment they commanded that no one presume or dare to say that
what was done to us was either unjust or wrong. A certain
brother named Thomas of Castromili grew angry when he
heard the sentence that was read once a week to the Friars

161
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

gathered in chapter in order to frighten those who had a

similar intent. When he declared that what had been done was
displeasing to God and was wrong, they held him in prison
until death because of it. There is testimony of this in the
whole province. They cannot deny it or hide the facts.
Brother Raymond, the Minister General, 6 inquired and
asked all the Friars of the province gathered in a provincial
chapter about our unjust punishment and sentence. By the
testimony of the Provincial Minister and all the other Friars he
discovered that they had thus punished us not because of any
offense or sin, but only because we were seeking to preserve
the Rule in its vigor and rigor according to the will of God and
of the founder. For this they had condemned us to the punish-
ment of godless heretics. Then the Minister General strongly
rebuked them about it, and absolved all who had been con-
demned to such penance and punishment. He sent Brothers
Thomas, Angelo of Tolentine, Mark, Liberato and me to the
King of Armenia with a special authority and permission that
he would not have granted to heretics or schismatics. 7 The
King was edified by our actions and our life. In the letters he
sent the Minister General through his special messengers he
made clear to all at the General Chapter of Paris how much
thanks he returned to the General for sending such brothers to
him and how much praise he gave us. 8 These letters gave joy to
the General and glory and favor to the whole order. The King,
the Princes, the clergy and religious all rejoiced in our actions
and were edified to such an extent that the King himself
decided to give up the throne and to live and die with us in the
service of God. The Friars of Syria raised such commotion and
anger against us that the Minister, with the consent or rather
under the compulsion of those Friars who could not bear to
hear of our name or our life, sent defamatory letters to the
King and all the barons on his behalf and that of the whole
order. He warned them to take care to guard themselves and
their kingdom vigilantly and warily against us because we
were apostates separated from the order, men who had once
been imprisoned as schismatics and heretics. The King then
held council with his wise men about the Friars' letters and

162
 THE FRANCISCAN SPIRITUALS

summoned us. He was when he heard what we had to

satisifed
say about their letters and loved us more than he had before.
But the rage of the Friars was growing ever greater. Perceiving
this, we said goodby to the King and returned to Italy.
9
In
weakened state we crossed through our own province. We
were not able to ask Fra Munaldo the Vicar of the Province for
a place to stay as long as we had not yet seen the Minister
General. The response we got from him was that he would first
rather take in and harbor more fornicators in the province than
the two of us. 10
Because of such persistent displeasure on the part of the
Friars and because of their disobedience toward the General, it
pleased Brother Raymond the Minister General that we should
go to the Supreme Pontiff Celestine of good memory to beg
from him assistance for the salvation of our souls and those of
our companions. At his command we went to Celestine while
he was in L'Aquila and explained to him our situation, resolu-
tion, afflictions, desires, and vows. He investigated everything
he heard before all present, and invited us to keep our rule and
way of life in his own habit. 11 After he heard from us about the
differences regarding the vow of poverty and everything that
Saint Francis commanded in his Rule, his Testament, and
other writings, as well as how the Franciscans hated the Testa-
ment of their father, 12 he accepted our resolution and vow in
the presence of all. He commanded us to preserve the Rule and
Testament according to the will and order of Saint Francis
faithfully and sincerely all the days of our lives, but to do so
without the name of Friars Minor. We were even to add to the
Rule and Testament if we could. Before all present he freed us
from every tie and obedience to the Franciscans, saying: "My
will is that you obey me alone and Fra Liberato in my place. I
grant him the power this one time to absolve all your compan-
ions and brethren from penalty and fault. I give him the power
to receive all those who wish to do penance and to lead the life
that you have vowed." He recommended us to the Reverend
Lord Napoleon, 13 and desired, as he said to us, that Napoleon
should cherish us and care for us as a willing and generous
promoter of pious causes. He ordered that we should respond

163
PLATE VIII:

POPE CELESTINE V APPROVES THE POOR HERMITS OF CELESTINE

Folio 57v of Cod. Vitt. Emm. 1 167 of the Bibliotheca Nazionale of Rome. Reproduced
from A. Frugoni, Celestiniana (Instituto Storico Italiano per il Medio Evo. Studi
Storici, fasc. 6-7. Rome: Sede dell'Istituto, 1954), Plate V.
 THE FRANCISCAN SPIRITUALS

to those who asked us who we were with the answer: "We are
poor men and brother hermits keeping the life and poverty we
have promised in the desert and serving the Lord in the sim-
plicity of faith." He recommended us in word and letter to the
abbot of his own order. He wanted him to receive us and
regard us as poor hermits, the same as his own brothers. He
also desired that he provide us from his own hermitages with
whatever was fit for such a life.
So up to the present day we do not perceive or acknowl-
edge ourselves as apostates from any order. We believe that we
really would be apostates before God and fugitives from the
eremitical state if of our own will we were to abandon the way
of life to which we have been called by the inspiration of God
and the confirmation of the Supreme Pontiff. This would make
us perjurers before Christ and worthy of damnation.
So we beg Your Holiness, after a legitimate dismissal of
the charges made against us, to provide us with some way
through which we can keep the vow we have given, a vow that
was received and confirmed by the Supreme Pontiff. These
reasons move us to believe and hold that the hearing of Your
Holiness will show that we are not and never have been
excommunicated. First, because we never defied any order
given us by any official, and second, because no summons or
legal actionwas ever sent us or given to us, or if sent, it was not
delivered. Third, because for one year we waited and asked
that what the pope had ordered should be done. Fourth, be-
cause we were unjustly cast out and the legal proceedings were
held after our dispersal when it was impossible for them to be
shown to us. (After the Patriarch's death, for many days we
could scarcely come back to one spot and gather as a group.)
Finally, because even if an excommunication done in that way
had any effect, we have been absolved from it. 14
If it is asked: "Why did you abandon those hermitages in
that way?" the vehement persecution of the Franciscans is the
answer. We could also cite the flight in the face of persecutors
that Christ advised, 15 and the love of peace and quiet that is the
end appointed before the final end of all the sons of God. 16
When the Franciscans heard that Celestine had freed us from

165
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

their authority and order they straightaway came in arms to

capture us, contemptuous of the fear of God and the dignity
and command of the Supreme Pontiff. When Celestine re-
nounced the papacy, Fra Liberato saw that for our safety and
for the sake of peace with the Franciscans we should go to
remote places where we could serve the Lord freely without
the disturbance and scandal of men. 17 We crossed the sea and
served the Lord on an island. 18 After two years news of us
reached the Franciscans. As was their custom, they immedi-
ately tried to make trouble for us with the bishops and barons
of that region. 19 In their false and evil suspicion they accused us
of being Manichaeans, claiming that we did not eat meat and
were not saying Mass. They said that we did not believe in the
sacrament of the altar and that we had abandoned the Church,
and many other similar things. Envy, that worst and most
unjust of evils, taught them all this.

The and clerics discovered that they said

princes, bishops,
this about us out of envy and with great sin. Their wary agents
came to the island unexpectedly and found that we did say
Mass and made commemoration at Mass both for Pope Boni-
face and for the whole Church. We also said the canonical
hours. Our rivals were quite disturbed. When the Franciscans
saw that to purge the infamy placed on us the bishops and
princes wanted us to sing Mass before the whole people, to eat
meat with them, and to confess and preach before all the
Catholic faith that we held they were not able to endure it.
Upset and raging more bitterly against us than usual, they
went to Pope Boniface. First they said how some apostates
from the order had come to the province of Achaia and dis-
played a manner of life and a dispensation that came from
Celestine. When they had spoken Boniface, as trustworthy men
who were present have reported said: "Leave them alone; they
act better than you do." Before this great man the Franciscans
then advanced once more the lies against us already refuted.
They said: "Holy Father, they are heretics and schismatics and
they preach through the whole earth that you are not pope,
that there is no authority in the Church, and similar things."
These lies are clearly found in the Letters of Pope Boniface and

166
 THE FRANCISCAN SPIRITUALS

of the Patriarch of Constantinople, as well as in the petition to

You made by the Franciscan Minister General and the whole
order. The great man was deceived by their falsehoods. Letters
that I first heard read out in your presence were sent by Pope

Boniface to three prelates of that province. 20 Rumor had

reached our ears that very severe letters had been issued against
us by the Supreme Pontiff. When we heard this, we all gath-
ered together and decided that whatever they commanded, we
would stand by the papal letters unto death and would obey
them in everything. After the officials received the letters, we
waited for one year, contrary to the will of the local lords who
said they had the power from the bishops to expel us. We
presented ourselves twice to the Bishop of Athens and more
frequently to the Bishop of Patras. 21 He said that he would
sooner allow himself to be deprived of his bishopric than to
proceed against us, whose faith and innocence was certain, on
the basis of letters obtained with such great lies. We asked the
local lords to hold us prisoners somewhere and to write to the
Supreme Pontiff about us, but we were not able to obtain
either of these requests. Therefore we had to withdraw. Since
we could not cross the sea, and since all human counsel and aid
had been taken from us and the Franciscans were preparing
traps on all sides to capture us, we entered the land of the
Sevastocrator, which was quite near the island where we had
served the Lord. 22
The Patriarch of Constantinople returned from Venice
when we had already scattered. The Franciscans immediately
approached him in the person of a man as perverse as Torqua-
tus in everything, named Brother Jerome, whom the Friars of
the province had made their leader against us. 23 He came from
the province of Catalonia, had left the Franciscans, and come
into this area in clerical garb with several women, one of whom
he said was his mother, another his sister. He carried books
with him, which I afterward heard had been stolen or
snatched. He lied that he had been sent to us by Brother Peter
John of holy memory. 24 A few days afterwards, Henry, the
parish priest, who had heard the womens' confessions, came to
us with much sadness and said: "Brethren, beware of that man,

167
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

because the one not his mother and the other not his sister;
is

the man is and an imposter." When he saw that he was

a liar
found out, he was not able to bear the reprimands and shame.
He left us and entered the Franciscans, resolving to put all his
own error on us in order to find favor with those who hated us.
When he was discovered to be a liar, a perjurer, and a cad, he
poured his poison of spite upon us. He entered as testimony
against us eighteen erroneous articles he had thought up by
himself or along with the women he had seduced, and which in
his mad wandering from the faith he and a companion had
written down. With violence he began to persecute and to
defame for heresy the women he had known and had at one
time cherished and commended as holy. They had disclosed his
evil deeds and shown him to be an open liar, falsifier, perjurer,
and ravisher. Later on the Franciscans, in the company of this
vessel of iniquity and witness of falsehood, gained their aim
from the Patriarch in the legal proceedings held against us
when we were absent, expelled, and harassed.
Not being able to put up with Jerome and his mother, they
sent him to the Tartars, cleverly hiding his evil works. The
mother and daughter were thrown out of the area to remove
the memory of such a great disgrace. He is the prime witness
against us. He set wickedness in motion there and completed it
here. Just as there he stole control of a province through false
testimony, so here in the Roman Curia he received a bishopric
as a fixed and evil witness to the spiritual death he gained
through the deposition he gave the Inquisitors against us,
though we were innocent. 25 The Patriarch, having completed
what he thought was his task against us, died immediately. 26
When he was dead, Franciscans, that is, the Vicar for the
Orient and his eleven companions with their papal privileges,
were sent from Rome to the infidels. 27 At the request of the
Provincial Minister and all the Franciscans of the Roman Prov-
ince they passed through our territory and stayed with us for
six months. Brother Jacopo de Monte, the Vicar for the Orient,
thought kindly of us when he heard from some Franciscans all
the things that we had suffered. He was sad along with them,
he cursed past mistakes, and the crimes of that evil man. He

168
 THE FRANCISCAN SPIRITUALS

assured them about our faith and way of life. Although he

believed that we were bound by no bond of excommunication,
he came to us and absolved us conditionally by the authority of
the papal privileges he possessed giving him power over all
who lived outside the jurisdiction of the Roman Church in the
lands of the infidels.
After they left us, we at once sent two brothers to Pope
Boniface with letters from all of us, offering ourselves to his
command and obedience. We also sent two others whom the
Franciscans captured and detained so that they could not pre-
sent themselves to the Pope. 28 Then Fra Liberato took a secret
route and went to Perugia to see Pope Benedict of holy mem-
ory. 29 Soon after his arrival, the pope was taken from the
misery of the present life and went to the Lord, and so Liberato
was prevented from explaining in his presence his deeds and
those of his companions. 30 When Pope Clement was elected, 31
he eagerly took the road to the Curia with Brother Paul as
companion; but he took sick on the way and lay ill for two
years. In the third year he was called to God and died. 32
I labored for a full year before I was able to arrange the

return of the brethren to Italy. 33 When all the brethren had

already gone on ahead, I returned last of all. I found that Fra
Liberato, along with all the companions he had in those parts,
had been summoned by Fra Thomas of Aversa, the Inquisitor.
He presented himself to him and was interrogated concerning
the Catholic faith. He was detained for many days, but he and
his companions were found to be most faithful Christians.
Finally, Brother Thomas called him and all his companions
together and said in the hearing of all: "Fra Liberato, Fra
Liberato, I swear to you through him who created me that
never had the flesh of one poor man been sold as dearly as I
might have sold yours. The Franciscans would drink your
blood if they could. Depart and hasten to the Pope with your
companions because the tribulation that the Franciscans seek
to bring upon you all is unbearable." On the same day Liberato
left the Kingdom of Naples and went to the Curia, following
the advice of the Inquisitor. But then he was called and went to
another Court.

169
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

The same he could who

Inquisitor returned and seized all

wore the habit of a group not approved by the Church. 34 He

seized many of our companions among them. They were led to
Naples and kept prisoner for many months. Afterwards, he let
go those born in the Kingdom of Naples. The Inquisitor imme-
diately became ill and confessed with bitterness and sorrow
that he had afflicted our companions unjustly at the incitement
of the Franciscans.
When we had come to Perugia, I approached the Reverend
Lord Napoleon and recalled our deeds to him. 35 He received
me graciously and wished to take me with him, but I was
stricken by sickness and was not able to follow. I remained in
the Roman territory. The Franciscans defamed me and all my
companions to the Curia with many false accusations. The
Supreme Pontiff decided that we should be investigated on all
those articles of which we are again accused. A careful investi-
gation was made by Patriarch Isnard, then Vicar of the
City, 36 the Bishop of Rieti, 37 Peter de Capocci, 38 the Penitentia-
ries of the Dominicans and Franciscans, 39 and four other
Dominican Inquisitors. An
inquiry was also made concerning
the brethren living in other places in the Kingdom of Naples,
and all were found to be faithful and Catholic Christians.
I came to the Curia in the year the Council of Vienne was
celebrated. 40 Through Patriarch Isnard my business and that
of my companions was presented to Pope Clement. He decided
that we should serve the Lord in the state in which we were,
but my heart was not put at rest by this. Although I have
always hated to be at the Curia with my whole heart (more
than any other pain I have thus far felt in the world), and
although I would not dwell anywhere except as a poor little
pauper, a stranger and not a member of the household, never-
theless, because of God's will, I put off my return to my
companions in order to bring our business to a definite conclu-
sion. 41 I know that it was God's will that I was unable to
return, since he arranges all things for the best.
Now, in the security in which Ihave been held by Your
Holiness, my heart has grown joyful and my soul has rejoiced
in God more fully and more perfectly because it is guarded

170
 THE FRANCISCAN SPIRITUALS

under the hand and command of the Pastor. The witness of the
Spirit of Christ, which I think is in me, gives testimony to my
42 a heretic, or an excommuni-
spirit that I am not an apostate,
cate. I have never turned away from the life-giving love of
Christ and from his sanctifying worship, and I have never
wavered in the faith of the Holy Roman Church and have not
spurned its sacred authority. On the contrary, I have preferred
and honored it, and have always been prepared to die for the
confession of its holy faith and authority. Despite all this, I do
not seek what to believe by my own testimony, but as a
suppliant I ask what the investigation of me and my compan-
ions looks like, and what is going to happen this second time. I
also ask that whatever the Franciscans say can be fully proven
against me should be given me in writing. Your Holiness and
the Sacred College should make your judgment on the basis of
what you find out through men who are not enemies and
subverters of the court. The Franciscans have not only assailed
my righteousness 43 and that of my companions, but also first of
all that of Saint Bernard of Quintavalle, the earliest companion

of Saint Francis, and then Fra Cesarius of Spira, who was

struck with a club and died, and of all their companions. I have
seen some of them and heard from them what they saw and
suffered. 44 Second, they assailed the righteousness of that most
holy man Simon of Assisi and Fra Simon of Comitissa and all
their companions. They were hampered by fraud, were scat-
tered by apostolic authority, and defamed as heretics through-
out the order. Many of them became famous for miracles. 45
Third, they afflicted Brother John of Parma and his compan-
ions, who were stained with the reputation for heresy, the same
Brother John whom Almighty God has made famous with
apostolic miracles. 46 Fourth, they persecuted the holy man
Peter John and all who followed and favored his way of life and
teaching. They abused him during his life as someone who held
errors about the faith, and they oppressed those who loved him
both during his life and now after his death, although God has
glorifed him with many miracles. They seek to destroy and
slaughter them all like schismatics, heretics, and apostates in
faith and morals. 47

171
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

So it is no wonder that they boldly persecute and devour

me and mine, simple and abject men. They indict us as bereft
of all human aid, like heretics and excommunicates. They have
learned to gain their desire with this sword and to complete
their revenge to the damnation of their own souls and the
abuse of God and his Church. The Supreme Pontiff and the
Sacred College of the Roman Church has never known how to
destroy men with judgment, but rather how to free the poor
man who has no one to help him from the powerful man. 48
Thus, I beg Your Holiness to free me and my companions from
the anger and fury of the Franciscans and to show us how and
in what way we may be able to keep the vow that we made.
Otherwise, God himself will judge and require our blood at
your hands. 49

172
PETER JOHN OLIVI
Letter to the Sons of Charles II 1

Greetings in the special love of Christ Jesus to the Lords

Louis, Robert, and Raymond Berengar, revered sons of the
famed King of Sicily, 2 from the poor little man called Brother
Peter John Olivi. In life I am a sinner, in dress a Franciscan
who ever gazes on the great deeds of Christ's Cross and glories
triumphantly in his Passion. You are distinguished beyond all
others and particularly endowed in a marvelous manner be-
cause of your royal and Catholic ancestry.
When we look at the order of the universe, the sacred law
that Christ solemnly promulgated presents itself in many and
—
admirable ways "Unless the grain of wheat falls dead upon
the ground, it will remain alone; if it has died, it will bear much
fruit." 3 This law is the foundation of the whole process of
natural change and movement according to which the corrup-
tion of one thing is the generation of another. 4 By means of this
law the potency of matter passes from the unformed to the
formed state; even more remarkably, the very lack of form
itself serves at the same time as the stable source and founda-
tion of forms. In imperial fashion, every external act of God
has its beginning from this law. The fundamental preamble of
creation is that God make his work out of nothing and that
works already created be subject to the rule of Almighty God
in such a way 5 that they may be changed from one thing into
another as he wishes and at his simple pleasure. This is why the
root of all grace, both in the celestial and the terrestrial
Church, stands in the center, that is, in humility. If I may so
speak, it receives its foundation and its increase in the central
nothing. From this divine law comes that hidden and ineffable
mystery of our redemption by which the Only-Begotten Son of
God the Father, equal to Him in all things, emptied himself
and took the form of a servant, suffering the death of the cross
for the just at the hands of the unjust. 6

173
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

We confirm this law in many ways in our whole manner

of living and dying. As John says, the seeds or fruit from whose
eating we not life-giving unless they first die. 7 Unless
live are
these seeds are separated from their chaff and hulls through
many kinds of threshing, cleansed by being passed through
different sieves, pounded fine by millstones, presses, and
threaded filters, and transformed through cooking and
finally
the heat of digestion, they cannot refresh our bodies with their
flavor. After they have been swallowed, they do not become
our flesh unless they have been despoiled of their own forms.
The first stage in our own making is reception into a mother's
womb as into a kind of prison burial, so that we can then go
forth into the light as if rising from the tomb and being given
liberty from the confines of a cell and dark penitentiary. In-
fants' limbs are bound with bonds and swaddling clothes so
that they are not bent from the proper straightness by twisting.
The ignorant and crude levity of youth, always prone to evil,
needs educational discipline, as the apostle says: "As long as the
heir is a youth, he does not differ from a slave, although he is
the lord of all that his father has." 8
By means of this wonderful law Christ's Church was con-
ceived in the Synagogue's womb, burst out with bitter labor,
and departed from it. Christ spoke to his disciples about this
U
birth at the Last Supper: A woman has sadness when she
bears; when she has given birth, she no longer remembers the
pains because of her joy at the offspring who is born." 9 Accord-
ing to this form and law the people of Israel went forth from
the iron furnace and hard slavery of Egypt. They split the Red
Sea by God's strong hand and crossed it dry-shod. So, too,
the whole army of the elect ascend the path of bodily death, as
through the midst of the Red Sea, hastening from the exile of
this world and the devil's tyrannical power to the Kingdom of
Heaven.
Thus, the meaning of Christ's word is clear "It was nec- —
essary for Christ to suffer and so to enter into the glory of his
kingdom." 10 The same is true for the apostle's saying that we
have to enter the Kingdom of Heaven through many tribula-
u
tions. 11 Listen to the Lord's brother James telling us: Hold it

174
 THE FRANCISCAN SPIRITUALS

all joy, my brothers, when you fall into various temptations,

knowing that the proof of your faith creates patience, and
patience possesses a perfect work." 12 He adds, "Brothers, take
up the example of the patience of the prophets. We
them bless
who endured. You have heard of the endurance of Job and you
have seen the purpose of the Lord." 13 For this reason in He-
brews Paul challenges us to the difficult and triumphant strug-
gle:

Since we have such a great crowd of witnesses over us, let

us put aside every weight of earthly things through pa-
tience and hasten to the struggle before us, gazing upon
Jesus, the author and finisher of our faith. Because he had
joy set before him, he endured the cross, putting aside all
shame. For this reason he sits at the right hand of God.
Think upon him who bore such insult from sinners against
himself so that you may not grow weary and lose heart.
God punishes those whom he loves; he corrects every son
he receives. God offers himself to us as to sons. Who is the
son whom his father has not corrected? 14

From this he then draws a consequence that is even more

noteworthy: "But if you are without the discipline in which we
all share (that is, all God's sons), you are illegitimate and not

sons." 15 From this the Gloss concludes that anyone who does
not suffer chastisement is not in the number of God's sons. The
apostle says it again: "In the present all discipline seems to be a
matter of grief rather than joy, but afterwards, to those who
have been tried by it, it yields the most tranquil fruit of
peace." 16
So that no one should think this arrangement unreason-
able, a triple law and the threefold teaching of the practical arts
also repeat it. The law of justice proclaims it, for it is just that
the sinner who conceived in evil does not return to the
is

fullness of grace without some paying of penalties. For this

reason, one who is zealous for justice ought to wish that the
rule of equity be fulfilled in himself, so that at least in this he
might be a friend of justice and thus justified. The law of grace

175
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

also proclaims it, not only because the source of redeeming

grace was crucified for men, but also because the realization of
the highest and dearest friendship is proven and manifested in

undergoing tribulation and death for a friend. As Christ said:

"Greater love than this no man has, than to lay down his life
for his friends." 17 In approval and support of the supreme act
of love we ought to long for and to prefer eagerly and joyfully
every form of pain and death for the love of Christ who loved
us so much and redeemed us so dearly. The law of the glorious
victory and crown also proclaims it. The apostle testifies that
no one will be crowned who has not fought the good fight. 18
Anyone who triumphs without a good fight has really lost. By
giving us contests that are real and difficult battles, God pro-
vides a greater merit and crown for us. Then these words can
be sung of us as well as of the martyrs:

These are those whom the imprisoning world despised,

They completely scorned its aridity and sterile flowering,
O Christ, Good King of Heaven, they followed you!
These were the ones who for you trod upon
The furies, savageness, and cruel blows of men.

And further:

What voice, what tongue is able to disclose

The gifts you are preparing for the martyrs
Shining with laurels amidst the blood's red flow? 19

The art of medicine, purgative, preservative, or conserva-

tive, proclaims this too. Why do we use corrosive powders,
burning cauteries, and bitter medicines on various illnesses,
except that the art of purgation demands it? Why do the sick
and even healthy people diet in various ways, if not to be
preserved from illness and kept in good health? What wise man
doubts that spiritual ills, the wounds of passion, the abscesses

of bodily lusts, are less in need of the smart of medication and

spiritual plasters? The art of warfare and of military pluck and
skill proclaims this.You cannot be a real soldier without daily

176
 THE FRANCISCAN SPIRITUALS

experience of difficult encounters and terrible dangers. You

must endure blows and strokes in many ways. Ecclesiasticus
says, "What does he know who is not tempted?" 20 as if to say,
"nothing." No wonder, because Paul says of Christ in Hebrews
that he learned obedience from the things that he suffered. 21
He gained an experimental knowledge of difficulty unto death
through the experience of the Passion. This is the reason why
the whole arrangement of an army in battle demonstrates no
little wisdom and beauty —
shadowy and carnal in the things of
earth, divine and celestial in the things of heaven.
The art of building, the art of agriculture, and, in general,
every mechanical action shows the same thing. Why are silver,
gold, and other kinds of metal cast, hammered, and forged,
except that one cannot make the artificial form of a container
otherwise? Stonecutters hammer rocks this way and that so
that a beautiful image can be carved and portrayed. Farmers
make furrows with a plow, dig with hoe or mattock, pull out
thorns, cut away brambles, and cutand root out anything
off
superfluous according to Christ's statement: "Every branch in
me that bears no fruit will be taken away, and everyone that
does bear fruit will be cleansed so that it can bear more." 22
Come then, noble knights, gird yourselves for battle! The
time of pruning has come and the voice of the turtledove
sighing with a groan rather than a song is heard in the land. 23
It is necessary that at the full opening of the sixth seal the sun

and the moon will be deeply darkened, the stars will fall from
heaven, and there will be an earthquake so great that all the
mountains and the islands will be moved from their places. 24
When the sixth angel blows the trumpet, the four angels that
are bound in the great river will be freed so that a mounted
force of twenty thousand times ten thousand horses and riders
will go forth against the battle line of Christ our God. 25 The
sixth vial is poured out by the sixth angel into the great river
Euphrates so that its dried up waters can be a road for the
kings coming from the rising of the sun, and the three unclean
spirits can go forth to the kings of all the earth and gather them
in battle on the great day of the Judgment of Almighty God. 26
Just as the fountains of the great abyss burst and the cataracts

177
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

of heaven were opened in the six-hundredth year of Noah's life

so that no one could be saved unless he was in the ark made at
God's command, so must that whore Babylon be sunk in the
depths of the sea. It will happen under the sixth head of the
beast, the one carrying the prostitute, when the ten horns that
are like kings will seize power for an hour. They hate the
whore and will make her desolate. They will also battle the
Lamb, but the Lamb, like the King of Kings and Lord of Lords,
will conquer them, just as the ark overcame the flood and
rested on the highest mountains. 27
Then the dove that was sent out will bring back an olive
branch in its beak, that is, it will preach evangelical peace to all.
This will take place according to the passage in which as the
sixth angel blows the trumpet, John receives and devours the
book once closed but now open. The angel with a face like the
sun holds the book and says to him: "You must prophesy again
to many peoples, nations, tongues, and tribes." He is the angel
of the sixth seal ascending from the rising of the sun, having
the sign of the living God marked on him in order to sign the
twelve tribes of Israel and to call together and sign with the
sign of the cross a great and innumerable crowd from every
nation and tongue and people so that with white stoles and
palms of triumph they may stand before God's throne in the
sight of the Lamb, serving him day and night. The Lamb who
is in the midst of the throne will rule them and lead them to the

fountains of the waters of life. He will wash away all lamenta-

tion and sickness from them. 28
I have provided a foretaste of these things in succinct and
typological fashion so that amidst the trials of this world your
royal hearts may not be oppressed, but rather lifted up. It was
certainly not from any lack of desire or of love that I have not
yet come to see you nor written a letter of response to your
very humble letters and petitions. There was a threefold cause.
First, some might be displeased by the sudden rumor (coming
not from me but from others) and try to substitute another
person for the visit because it seemed to smack of some kind of
future honor or promotion. As soon as I understood this, I
decided to abandon the idea of visiting and to keep silence.

178
 THE FRANCISCAN SPIRITUALS

Although the world is not as worthless to me as it should and

ought to be, nevertheless, I truly acknowledge that I do not
enjoy the company of anyone save a person I perceive eagerly
longs for the world's contempt and Christ's embrace now or in
the future. I would consider it much more honorable and
precious to me to visit you in your humble state and to serve
you in a familiar way than to attend you when you are exalted
in the glory of your Kingdom with formal ceremonies of any
kind. In this latter kind of meeting, the glory of our little

brotherhood 29 would be darkened and endangered, and an

unedifying appearance of ambition and lust for gain would be
shown to the whole world unless the meeting took place before
a retinue of the most virtuous and noble bystanders. In the
former case, humility, piety, and faithful gratitude would be
evident at once, although there could be the possibility that I
was deceiving you in hope of future gain.
The second reason is that in the Minister General's letter
to me about this I was given permission on that occasion to
visit you under certain conditions. Among these was that un-
less you expressly guaranteed that I would be able to see you
freely without any impediment or prohibition, my journey
would not be a service or a consolation on either side. I did not
want to obtrude myself in an ambitious and presumptuous way
by requesting this from you, so I decided to write nothing to
you then, but to keep telling you and others that I was person-
ally prepared to go whenever you would simply command it or
recommend it. The third reason is that although I would never
urge anything against anyone, especially the lords and princes
of the earth, I was still afraid to reveal even trivial matters in
writing. Things written in complete simplicity are frequently
perversely interpreted. 30 A trustworthy man told me that even
your father the King feared that you would be made
beguines, 31 or, to speak more properly, that you would be made
fools of in religious matter through my fine words. If he
believed that it would happen according to the way the apostle
describes when he says, "We are fools for Christ," 32 or, "Who-
ever wishes to be wise in this world must become foolish in
order to be wise," 33 or "The foolishness of God is wiser than

179
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

men," 34 that is, than the human wisdom of the world, then I do
not have the wisdom and power to fill you with this supremely
wise foolishness. If he spoke about the opposite kind of foolish-
ness, far be it from me to want to pour back my foolishness or
that of others into you or anyone through silly talk or advice. If
I have received any real gift from God, I know that this is the

most important: to be faithful to the truth of his faith and to

the sound advice of our neighbor. And so I almost always
choose and have chosen to condemn my own miserable life in
public and private so that the radiance of the life of Christ is
not obscured by the darkness of mine. Despite all this, if it is
your pleasure to have me come to you, please have the Lord of
the territory remove the obstacles, command me through a
messenger, and I am ready to agree without delay.
May Jesus Christ, the Son of God, strengthen and confirm
your hearts through the overflowing excess of his consolations,
which are taught by the Spirit's anointing and the joyful shout
of psalmody, the key of David that unlocks the secrets of the
house of God. We enter this house through the asceticism of
prayer and tribulation, just as David himself entered through
the many attacks that Saul and others inflicted on him, as he
makes known so beautifully in all his psalms. Recall how he
advanced to the Kingdom under God's tutelage through hard-
ships and persecutions of many types so that he learned the art
of ruling before he taught it. Joseph, too, gained the prudence
of a ruler through being sold and cast into prison. By means of
this prudence he later was the ruler and savior of Egypt, his
brothers, and the whole house and family of his father. Jonah
did not preach saving penance to the Ninevites until he had
been sunk in the sea, swallowed by the whale, imprisoned in its
belly, and wonderfully delivered by being vomited forth. I do
not doubt that the time will come when you will say in praise
of God: "The Lord slays and gives life, He leads down to hell
and back again; He injures and restores." 35 He strikes, but his
hands will heal. He frees us from six tribulations, and in the
seventh surpassing peace will come after every evil has been
removed. 36
I humbly ask you to greet Brother Peter, your companion

180
 THE FRANCISCAN SPIRITUALS

and by your leave your lector. 37 If you deign to order or

provide anything for my arrival, please command me at once,
because if I do not come to you, I perhaps will have to hurry
somewhere else.

May the surpassing sweet memory Most Delightful

of the
Jesus and the redolent fragrance of his name make your souls
drunk with his unspeakable joy and peace that surpasses all

understanding. 38 Given at Narbonne on May 18, 1295.

181
PLATE IX.

THE PREACHING OF THE ANTICHRIST

Antichrist stands on a pedestal with the devil whispering in his ear. Behind to the
right are clerical supporters centered on a prominent Dominican. From the fresco in
the San Brixio Chapel in the Orvieto Cathedral. Reproduced from Gli Affreschi del
Signorelli ad Orvieto (Milan and Geneva: Fabbri and Skira, 1965), p. 15.
 V
Part
SAVONAROLA
On the walls of the San Brizio chapel in the cathedral of
Orvieto stands the most powerful portrayal of the career of the
Antichrist in the history of Christian art. Painted by Luca
Signorelli about 1500, the story of man's Last Enemy unfolds
in epic proportion and fascinating detail. Several incidents in
the large fresco are puzzling, notably the prominence of a
group of Dominicans among the religious being seduced by
Antichrist's preaching and miracles. Why this emphasis on the
Preaching Friars? Indeed, why so monumental a treatment of
the Antichrist at all since the subject was not a usual one in
Christian art? A plausible answer has been given by Andre
Chastel, who suggests that Signorelli was giving visual form to
the views of those, like the eminent humanist Marsilio Ficino,
who saw in the recently executed Dominican Friar Girolamo
Savonarola the immediate forerunner of the Antichrist. 1 Sig-
norelli's fresco then was in part a polemical attack on the most
famous apocalyptic preacher of the end of the Middle Ages.
Like Joachim of Fiore and many other apocalyptic think-
ers, Savonarola was a sign of contradiction both during life and
after death. The attacks of Ficino and Signorelli can be con-
trasted with the extravagant praise of Giovanni Nesi whose
Oracle of the New World of 1497 saw the Dominican as a messi-
anic initiator of the mellennial age of history. Savonarola's
sense of his own mission was also an exalted one, though
expressed more modestly in terms of the roles of preacher and

183
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

prophet, the first a one for any Dominican, the

traditional
second less usual, but one he defended on the basis of the
theology of the great Dominican Thomas Aquinas.
The drama of Savonarola's life and death needs no empha-
sis here. In order to understand the significance of his ideas,
the source of his appeal, and the reason for the intense opposi-
tion he aroused, one must glance at the role of apocalyptic
thought in the later Middle Ages, because while apocalyptic
spirituality during the period 1300 to 1500 shared a common
dialectic of hope and fear with expectations of the end found in
any age, it also possessed its own character, both from the
content of its special hopes and fears and from the manner of
their application to current events. There is no room here to
follow the rich variation in the use of apocalyptic themes
during these two hundred years, 2 but some broad generaliza-
tions will help to understand the kind of apocalyptic prophet
that Savonarola became.
The fears for the future that loomed over the people of the
later Middle Ages were not totally different in kind from those
of previous ages. They may have differed in degree, though this
seeming intensity could be the result more of the relative
abundance of our sources than of any statistical increase in
terror. As
in other times, pressure from external foes, particu-
larly the continuing success of the Turks, was a factor in
expectations of an imminent crisis of history. There were, of
coming crisis resulting
course, variations in the details of the
from expansions of the traditional apocalyptic scenario, 3 but
perhaps the most distinctive characteristic of the pessimistic
pole of late medieval apocalyptic thought was its obesession
with the state of the Church. Corruption in head and members
of Christ's Mystical Body was the most evident sign that evil
was mounting to a point of culmination. Key stages in the
history of the recent papacy, such as the Avignon Captivity
(1309-1377), the Great Schism (1378-1418), and the worldly
Renaissance papacy, all fed an intense sense of gloom for the
future.
The hopes that balanced these pressing fears were even
more distinctive and original. Not only were they also largely

184
 SAVONAROLA

ecclesial in setting — renewal, reform, and ren-

a desire for the
—
ovation of the Church but they were also usually intraworld-
ly and millenarian, centered on the triumph of the Church
Militant in this world after the defeat of the Antichrist and the
Joachim of Fiore had had an unmistakable impact
forces of evil.
on the history of Western apocalypticism. Without reducing
the history of late medieval thought about the end of history to
the story of Joachim's influence, the abbot of Fiore's myth of
the coming third status of the Holy Spirit was the catalyst
responsible for the new optimism of the later Middle Ages.
This optimistic side took different forms of expression.
Although the work of reforming the Church could be done
only by God, in the later medieval apocalyptic scenario it was
commonly thought that he would make use of three special
agents. Two of these originated with Joachim; the other ante-
dated the abbot but was soon absorbed into Joachite apocalyp-
tic by his followers. We have already noted the early history of
the figure of the Last World Emperor and remarked on his
absence in Joachim; but it has been shown that by the middle of
the thirteenth century the Joachite script also began to call for
a good Last Emperor who would chastise the Church in order
to reform it. 4 This final ruler's destiny included universal
dominion, the conquest and conversion of the enemies of
Christianity, the recapture of Jerusalem, and the establishment
of an era of peace.
After 1300 the ally and superior partner of the Last Em-
peror was frequently seen as a coming holy pope, the Pastor
Angelicus. The creation of an important role for the papacy
both at the time of the attack of the Antichrist and in the
coming status of the Holy Spirit had been Joachim's work. The
development of the distinct hope in a future Angel Pope or
Popes during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries was the
result of a dialectical tension between negative judgments of
current unreformed popes and intense but frustrated commit-
ment to the institution of the papacy. These hopes seem to have
reached their apogee in the fifteenth century. 5
The third key role in the hopes for the renewal of the
Church on earth was that of a group or groups of spiritual men

185
 —
APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

(viri spirituales) who would suffer persecution under the Anti-

christ but be vindicated in the renewed Church. Joachim
viewed them as two monastic orders; later thinkers frequently
identified them with the two major mendicant orders. The
most crucial question regarding the viri spirituales concerned
their relationship to the coming millennial age.Where a partic-
ular religious order, such as the Franciscans, or a new spiritual
movement, such as the Apostolic Brethren of late thirteenth-
century northern Italy, came to be seen as the present histori-
cal realization of the coming more perfect state of the Church,
conflict with ecclesiastical hierarchy became inevitable. 6
The late fifteenth century was rife with apocalyptic specu-
lations, most notably in Germany and Italy. The prevalence of
such ideas in Renaissance Italy should come as no surprise
the optimistic side of late medieval apocalypticism could blend
quite well with Humanist hopes for a returning Golden Age, 7
and the darker side of the Renaissance world with its concern
for magic, astrology, and demonic forces could thrill with
delicious terror at rumors of the Antichrist. In these years Italy
was aprey to uncertainty. The delicate balance among her five
—
chief powers Milan, Venice, Florence, Rome, and Naples
led to frequent political crises. Great wealth and a remarkable
cultural flowering not only had produced a sense of moral
crisis in the minds of many, but also had attracted the rapa-
cious interest of the powers beyond the Alps. The peninsula
was about to enter a troubled century when she would become
the battleground for the ambitions of other lands. It is no
wonder that wandering preachers of gloom filled the land in
the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. 8 Girolamo Sa-
vonarola began his prophetic career as one of these.
Savonarola was born at Ferrara in 1452 and entered the
Dominicans at the age of twenty-three. He was at San Marco in
Florence between 1482 and 1486 before being sent on a preach-
ing mission in northern Italy. Recalled to the city in 1490 at the
request of Lorenzo de'Medici, his preaching grew in popularity
and influence during the next four years. The content of the
friar's sermons during this time was largely one of apocalyptic
pessimism. Based on visionary experiences that seem to go back

186
 SAVONAROLA

as far as 1484, hismessage was simple: The Church and Italy

must be scourged severely and soon before they could be
reformed. 9 Events were to bear out this message of doom and
to give what seemed to be miraculous confirmation to the
prophecies.
The young and foolish Charles VIII of France (1483-1498)
was in themidst of planning a major expedition to Italy to
vindicate French claims to the Kingdom of Naples. Charles's
crowning in his fourteenth year matched the initial details of
the most famous of late medieval imperial prophecies, the
"Second Charlemagne Prophecy," which had it that:

Charles, the son of Charles, from the most illustrious nation

of the lily will have a lofty forehead, high eyebrows, wide
eyes and an aquiline nose. He will be crowned
about at
thirteen years of age, and in his fourteenth year he will
gather a great army and destroy all the tyrants of his
kingdom .... He will make war until his twenty-fourth
year .... He will destroy and burn with fire both Rome
and Florence. He will gain thedouble crown. 10

Originally created for Charles VI in 1380, a revised vernacular

version of this oracle was issued in 1494 by a Guilloche of
Bordeaux. 11 A number of other prophetic texts appeared at the
same time in both France and Italy.
In the fall of 1494 the powerful French army drew near
Florence. Fear of siege and sack reduced the population to
despair. Piero de'Medici, the ruler since his father's death in
1492, fled in terror to Charles and made concessions suicidal to
the safety of the city. At this juncture Savonarola and several
others were sent by the Signoria, the council of the chief men
of the city, to treat with the French king. While they were
absent the city rose against the Medici. Charles entered Flor-
ence on November 19 in an atmosphere of hope and fear.
Despite some tense moments during his brief stay, there was
no sack; instead, a treaty was signed and Florence's great peril
was averted. Savonarola's key role in the almost miraculous
—
events that saved the city first the bloodless revolution
against the Medici, and then the leniency of the "Last-Em-

187
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

peror-Elect" —cannot
be denied, nor can his importance as a
new republican form of government
force in the creation of the
in the following months. Though the picture he paints of his
own role is doubtless exaggerated, his was certainly the single
most influential voice in Florence. But if the prophet led the
city, the city in turn decisively changed the prophet. Donald
Weinstein in his penetrating study Savonarola and Florence.
Prophecy and Patriotism in the Renaissance (Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1970) has shown how during this time
strongly optimistic millenarian hopes centered on Florence as
the harbinger of the renovated Church came to dominate the
friar's preaching and writing. 12 The Kingdom of God on earth
was about to begin on the banks of the Arno.
This dramatic new stage in Savonarola's preaching found
its expression in the text entitled The Compendium of
fullest
Revelations. The friar began it in the spring of 1495 as a
defense of his prophetic message against his Florentine ene-
mies. Soon more pressing reasons for such a defense became
evident. The army of Charles VIII, after considerable initial
success, suffered a series of reversesand began an inglorious
retreatfrom Italy during the middle of the year. Pope Alexan-
der VI, one of the least savory occupants of the Chair of Peter
in any age but a leading member of the league of Italian states
that had banded together to oppose the French invasion, sum-
moned the friar in late July to come to Rome to explain his
prophecies. Pleading ill health and his duties at Florence, Savo-
narola said he could not come, but promised to send his forth-
coming Compendium instead. On its publication in August, the
—
work was a nine-days' sensation five Italian editions and
three in Latin were published during the course of a year.
Not quite three years remained in the stormy career of Fra
Girolamo, years marked by continued proclamation of his mes-
sage on the one hand and increasing opposition from two
quarters on the other. Savonarola's attacks on corruption in the
Church gradually came to focus more and more on Rome and
—
the Roman Curia his observations of evils here scarcely de-
manded prophetic insight. It is not surprising that the final
years of his life were dominated by his increasingly bitter

188
 SAVONAROLA

relations with Alexander VI. But within Florence itself opposi-

tion also grew, fueled by the political, financial, and economic
difficulties of the new republic on which the Dominican had
staked so much. Suspended from preaching by Alexander in
September of 1495, Savonarola was obedient until the follow-
ing spring. After intricate legal maneuvering, he was finally
excommunicated on May 13, 1497. Further fruitless negotia-
tions with the pope followed, and in 1498 the friar took the
radical step of preparing letters asking the secular powers to
summon a General Council to depose the unworthy pope, elect
a suitable candidate, and undertake the work of reform.
Threatened by papal interdict for their harboring of the
excommunicate prophet and given ammunition by the increas-
ing troubles that Florence had endured under the new govern-
ment, Savonarola's enemies tightened the net around him.
Hatred of the friar came to a head in the spring of 1498. A
foolish proposal of an ordeal by fire between a Dominican
adherent of the prophet and a Franciscan opponent was a
fiasco, and despite the ardent group of Piagnoni (the hard-core
supporters of the Dominican) that were still in the city, the
vindictive Signoria arrested Savonarola and with papal appro-
bation had him put to the torture. Under repeated torments he
broke down and at first confessed that his prophecies had been
self-serving lies. Soon, however, he regained his composure,
renounced the confession extracted under duress, and contin-
ued to maintain his innocence until his execution as a heretic
and schismatic on May 23, 1498. His death can scarcely have
been an unexpected one. In 1496, in response to an offer of a
red hat made through the procurator of the Dominicans, he
had thundered: "I want no hats, no mitres great or small. I only
want the one You, O Lord, gave to your saints, death. A red
hat, a hat of blood, that is want." 13
what I

Modern historians have not always found it easy to appre-

ciate The Compendium of Revelations, 1 * but this combination of
apology and vision gives us much insight into late medieval
spirituality. The text falls into two unequal parts, an account of
Savonarola's early revelations up to 1495 and the sermon that
he gave for the Octave of the Annunciation on April 1 of that

189
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

year. Weinstein has shown how the prophet interpreted his

early career to fit the delicate situation in mid- 1495, though this
was done with no intent to deceive. Despite the polemical
context, the apology provides an immediate and convincing
portrayal of the prophetic consciousness of its author. The
lengthy sermon, a highly allegorical account of a journey to
heaven, is more difficult for the modern reader to appreciate.
Almost one half of this sermon is taken up with a debate with
the devil, a section that forms a theological defense of the
prophetic role of the friar parallel to the personal apology at
the beginning. Savonarola makes use of his solid knowledge of
Thomistic theology, especially the treatment of prophecy in
the Ilallae of the Summa, to rebute a series of attacks that
doubtless reflect those that had already been made and would
continue to be made against him.
—
The description of the heavenly court the ranks of saints,
choirs of angels, and the presentation of the ornate crown
representing the prayers of Florence to the Virgin —must be
visually imagined in order to be appreciated. Works of art
frequently helped shape the religious imagination of the late
Middle Ages. 15 Savonarola is painting a tableau, similar to a
large Quattrocento altarpiece, centered on the Madonna sur-
rounded by carefully orchestrated registers of saintly and an-
gelic intercessors. In a similar fashion, the involved allegory of
the gems and colors of the crown was meant to appeal to the
visual imagination of the hearers, many of whom would also
have been acquainted with the ancient traditions of the alle-
gory of colors and precious stones on which the descriptions
are based. The friar was calling on a battery of resources
designed to move his audience as much through visual as
through verbal means, and we have to try to picture the heav-
enly vision if we would try to understand the popularity of this
sermon.
The apocalyptic content of the Compendium, especially
when compared to other key texts such as the Sermons on Haggai
preached during the Advent of 1494, shows how much the
broad Dominican's predictions fit the general sce-
lines of the
nario previously described. Savonarola held a seven-age theory

190
 SAVONAROLA

of history that he found revealed in the Apocalypse. He saw his

own time as the end of the fourth age, that of indifference, soon
to be followed by the fifth age of the persecution of the Anti-
christ, whose defeat would usher in the sixth age of renovation
when the pagans would be converted and there would be one
flock and one shepherd. 16 While the Dominican was not pri-
marily an apocalytic theorist as such, but rather essentially a
preacher of reform, he gives much attention to the three key
dramatis personae of the forces of good of late medieval apocalyp-
tic beliefs. The coming Cyrus who would scourge the Church

seems to have been a part of his preaching even before the ru-
mors concerning the invasion of Charles VIII. The Compendium
gives a full account of his moderate conception of the imperial
role in the coming renewal. It also stresses the importance of
future holy prelates (in one place spoken of as "angelic"). Other
texts, such as the Italian Sermons to the Florentines and a letter
written during 1495, show that he also believed that "in this
renovation of the Church, which is a supernatural thing, there
will be a holy and good Pope." 17 As the Dominican Friar came
into more direct conflict with the papacy, undoubtedly the dia-
lectic of Angel Pope and Papal Antichrist exercised a greater
influence on his thoughts. It was to end in his explicit break
with Alexander VI and his appeal to a General Council.
At first might seem that there is no place in
glance, it

Savonarola's thought for the viri spirituals, and it is true that

they do not appear, at least in the traditional form. But it may
be regarded as Savonarola's most dramatic innovation to have
replaced the customary notion of a religious order as the car-
rier of ultimate apocalyptic significance with the populus
Fiorentinus, the entire population of the city of Florence,
purified of vice and conceived of as the vanguard and model of
the millennium to come. It is true that Joachim of Fiore had
envisaged a monastic Utopia composed of oratories for all the
classes of Christian society for his third status, but this was but
a distant preparation for Savonarola's bold transformation of
Florentine civic patriotism into a new kind of apocalyptic
vision. In this, as in much else, the friar takes his place as one of
the most notable apocalyptic prophets of the Christian tradi-
tion.

191
GIROLAMO SAVONAROLA
The Compendium of Revelations 1

For along time by divine inspiration I have predicted

many future events in various ways. But because I remember
that Our Savior Jesus Christ said, "Do not give what is holy to
dogs or cast pearls before swine, lest they trample them under-
foot and the dogs turn and tear you," 2 I have always been
sparing in speech and not gone further than what seemed
necessary to men's salvation. Therefore, my proposals were
limited, although the exhortations, persuasions, and proofs I
made were many. I never disclosed the manner and great
number of the visions and many other revelations I had, be-
cause the Holy Spirit did not inspire me to, nor did I think it
necessary for salvation. I did not think that men's minds were
ready to accept them. Now necessity compels me to write
down the coming events I publicly preached about, especially
those that are more important and of greater weight. Many
who tried to write these things down as I spoke from the pulpit
have not expressed the full truth, but given one butchered and
much mixed with error since the pen cannot keep up with the
swiftness of the tongue. Some people, either through lack of
understanding or wrong interpretation and malice, have
spread my words among the crowd with additions, subtrac-
tions, and many distortions.
Therefore I will try to gather whatever I have publicly
preached up till now about the future into a brief Compendium,
leaving out the special manner in which each of the revelations
was made and the scriptural proofs I used when I preached.
I do intend to introduce a full account of the vision I

preached on the Octave of the Annunciation of the Blessed

Virgin Mary because many took it down imperfectly and cor-
ruptly and sent it to various parts of Italy. 3 I must write,
because I cannot and will not for God's honor allow his mys-
teries to be derided or profaned, particularly by those who say

192
 SAVONAROLA

that our predictions, collected faultily and with many errors by

some, should be spread abroad by the printers. I have taken
care to publish these prophecies in both Latin and the vernacu-
lar so that they cannot be corrupted or distorted in any way
and that they may be equally available to everyone. 4 I beg all
whom this Compendium reaches that if they have ever heard that
I said something that was different from what is contained

here, they should not believe it in any way. Our lukewarm

friends, 5 that is, those wise in the ways of this world, have
fabricated many things against me inside the city of Florence
and more outside it. I know that there will be those who will
interpret these writings in various ways, as Daniel puts it:
"Many will pass by, and knowledge (that is, opinion) will be
Many will mock these ideas. Nevertheless, I hope that
varied.'' 6
devout readers and the simple of heart will gain much from
reading this under the illumination of Truth Itself. It is writ-
ten: "His conversation is with the simple"; 7 and again: "You
have hidden these things from the wise and prudent and have
revealed them to the little ones." 8
Before I begin what I have to say, the character of pro-
phetic revelation must be clarified in order to understand these
matters. Each one can then understand how God teaches
prophets the things they preach to the people. Because it is
written in the ninth chapter of the First Book of Kings, "One
who today is called a prophet was at one time called a seer," 9 he
is properly said to be a prophet who sees things that are beyond

the natural knowledge of every creature, even though by means

of the light of prophecy he also sees many other things that are
not beyond human knowledge. 10 Since that light can attain
divine things, it reaches human matters even more easily. Fu-
ture contingent acts, especially those that depend on free
choice, are farbeyond the natural knowledge of any creature;
neither man nor anyother creature can know them in them-
selves. They are present to eternity alone because it embraces
the whole of time. The rational or intellectual creature cannot
know them in their causes, because the causes are balanced
between producing or not producing contingent effects of this
kind and the created intellect cannot discern which side they

193
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

will come down on. Therefore, all arts of divining, of which

"judicial" astronomy is the chief, have been condemned by the
divine scriptures and the ecclesiastical canons. 11 Knowledge of
future contingents is proper to divine wisdom before which
everything that is past, present, and future stands open at the
same moment, as it is written, "All things are naked and open
to his eyes." 12 Future contingents cannot be known by any
natural light; God alone knows them in his eternal light. Those
to whom he deigns to reveal them receive them from him
alone.
He does two things in a revelation of this kind. First, he
infuses a supernatural light into the prophet, a form of partici-
pation in his eternity. From this source the prophet discerns
—
two things in the revelations that they are true and that they
come from God. This light is so effective that it makes the
prophet as certain of these two things as the natural light of
reason makes philosophers certain of the truth of the first
principles and makes any man certain that two and two make
four. Second, God sets before the prophet in a clear way
whatever he intends him to know or to predict, and he does
this variously, as is written in Osee: "I have spoken over the
prophets and have multiplied the vision, and I have been
revealed in the hand of the prophets." 13 Sometimes he inspires
what he is to predict in the prophet's intellect without any
images, the way he gave wisdom to Solomon and the way
David prophesied; other times he imprints in the imagination
different figures and images that signify what the prophet is to
understand and predict. From the power of this same light the
prophet himself clearly understands the meaning of these vi-
sions, otherwise he would not be able to say, as is written in
Daniel, "There is need of understanding in a vision." 14 In such
visions he frequently perceives various words pronounced in-
ternally by different persons within his mind. He knows that
God forms these words from the same light through the minis-
try of the angels. Sometimes God sets forth things to the
exterior senses that signify what is to be revealed. This is
especially true of the eyes, as in the fifth chapter of Daniel we
read about the hand that wrote on the wall before the eyes of

194
 SAVONAROLA

King Belshazzar, "Mane, Thecel, Phares", which Daniel saw

with his bodily eyes and interpreted by means of an internal
light. 15 Note that God makes these external apparitions and
images through the ministry of the angels, as Saint Denis says
in his book The Celestial Hierarchy. lb Whatever comes from God
proceeds in an orderly way, as the apostle says: "The things
that are of God are ordered." 17 The order of divine wisdom is
to arrange the lowest things through those in the middle and
those in the middle through the highest. Since the angels are in
the middle between God and men, prophetic illuminations
from God are presented through the angelic spirits who not
only internally illumine and move the imagination to various
apparitions but also speak to the prophets from within. Very
frequently they even show themselves to the prophets exter-
nally in human form, predicting future events and teaching
them the many things they must do. Through the light men-
tioned above the prophets clearly know that these are appari-
tions of angels and that the things the angels speak are true and
come from divine wisdom. In these three ways, sometimes one
and sometimes the other, I have grasped and known future
events. In whichever way these matters came to me I have
always grasped them as completely true and certain through
that light's illumination.
As Almighty God saw the sins of Italy multiply, especially
and secular princes, he was unable to bear
in her ecclesiastical
it any longer and decided to cleanse his Church with a great

scourge. And since, as the prophet Amos says, "The Lord God
will not work his word without revealing his secret to his
servants the prophets," 18 he willed that the scourge upon Italy
should be foretold for the sake of the salvation of the elect, so
that thus forewarned they could prepare themselves to bear it
with greater firmness. Since Florence is located in the middle
God himself deigned to choose
of Italy, like the heart in a man,
her to receive this proclamation so that from her it might be
widely spread through the other parts of Italy, as we have seen
fulfilled in the present. 19 Among his other servants he chose
me, unworthy and unprofitable as I am, for this task, and saw
to it that I came to Florence in 1489 at the command of my

195
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

superiors. That year, on Sunday, August first, I began to

interpret the book of the Apocalypse in public in our Church
of San Marco. 20 Through the whole of the same year I
preached to the people of Florence and continually stressed
three things: first, the renovation of the Church would come in
these times; second, God would send a great scourge over all
Italy before that renovation; and third, these two things would
happen soon. I worked at proving and establishing these three
conclusions by firm arguments, by figures from the Holy
Scriptures, and by other likenesses or parables formed from the
things that are now happening in the Church. 21
I urged the case at that time only with these arguments

and kept secret the fact that I had also received knowledge of
them from God in another way, because it seemed that the state
of souls was not then ready to receive that mystery. In the
following years, finding minds more ready to believe, I some-
times introduced a vision, not disclosing that it was a prophetic
vision but setting it forth to the people only in the manner of a
parable. Indeed, I suffered great opposition and every form of
mockery on the part of all kinds of people. In my discourage-
ment I had firmly and frequently decided to stop and to preach
something else. But I was not able to. Any reading or study I
began faded and brought on disgust, and whenever I thought of
other things or tried to preach them, they became so empty to
me that I was displeased with myself. I remember in 1490 when
I was preaching at Florence in Santa Reparata. I decided to

supress a sermon on these visions that I had already composed

for the Second Sunday of Lent. I had determined that I would
abstain from them thereafter. As God is my witness, I dragged
through the whole preceding Saturday and the entire follow-
ing night until dawn without sleep. Every possibility was
closed to me and every message except this one unavailable, so
that I literally did not know where to turn. Finally at daybreak,
worn out by the long watch and in the midst of prayer, I heard
a voice that said to me: "Fool! Do you not see that God wants
you to announce these things in this way?" And so the same
morning I gave a terrifying sermon.
My faithful listeners know how fittingly my expositions of

196
 SAVONAROLA

the scriptures always agreed with the present times. One that
especially caused admiration in men of great intelligence and
learning was that from 1491 to 1494 every Advent and Lent
(with the exception of one spent at Bologna)
undertook con- I

tinuous sermons on Genesis, always beginning from the last

point of the reading of the previous Advent or Lent. I was not
able to reach the chapter on the flood until after the tribula-
tions began. I thought that I would be able to expound the
mystery of the building of Noah's ark in a few days, but so
many and such important things about its making struck me
every day that I spent the whole Advent and Lent of 1494 on its
mystery and construction. With God's will and prompting, I
22
left off where it says "Make it with second and third stories."

In the following September, on the Feast of Saint Matthew the

Apostle, I began from the following text, that is, "Behold! I will
bring waters upon the face of the earth." Since everyone knew
that the King of the French had entered Italy with his forces,
when I started my sermon with the words "Behold! I will
bring waters upon the face of the earth," many were immedi-
ately astonished and acknowledged that this passage of Genesis
had been gradually prepared by God's hidden inspiration to fit
the times. 23 Among them was Count Giovanni della Miran-
dola, a man unique in our times for his talent and broad
learning. 24 He later told me that he was terrified at these words
and his hair stood on end.
To return to the subject. In those first years I used to
predict coming events only by means of scripture, rational
arguments, and various parables, due to the lack of readiness in
the people. Then I began to hint that I had knowledge of future
events by another light than the understanding of scripture
alone. Finally, I began to disclose it still more clearly, now
making known the words divinely revealed to me frankly and
exactly. 25 Among them I often repeated: "Thus says the Lord
—
God the sword of the Lord will come upon the earth swiftly
and soon." 26 And again these others:

Rejoice and exalt, O you just; but prepare your souls for
temptation by reading, meditation, and prayer, and you

197
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

will be freedfrom the second death. And you evil servants,

filthy as you are, stay filthy still; let your belly be filled
with unmixed wine, your loins rotted with lust, your hands
defiled with the blood of the poor. This is your part and
your lot. But know that your bodies and souls are in my
hand and after a short time your bodies will be destroyed
by scourges and I will hand your souls over to everlasting
fire.
27

These words were not taken from the sacred scriptures, as

some thought, but newly come from heaven at that time. Since
in any one vision sent from heaven there were many words of
this kind, revealed only a part then. I concealed the vision
I

be mocked by unbelievers. I thought it necessary at

itself lest it
that time to reveal only this part so that the order of the words
I publicly proclaimed then could be understood.

In 1492 on the night preceding my last Advent address in

Santa Reparata I saw a hand in heaven with a sword on which
was written: "The sword of the Lord will come upon the earth
u
swiftly and soon." Above the hand was written, The judg-
ments of the Lord are just and true." 28 The hand's arm seemed
to proceed from three faces in a single light. The first face said,
"The iniquity of my sanctuary calls to me from the earth." 29
The second responded, "I will visit their iniquities with a rod
and their with
sins The third added, "My mercy I
stripes." 30
will not takeaway from him, nor will I suffer my truth to fail,
and I will have mercy on the poor and needy." 31 The first one
spoke again, "My people have forgotten my commandments
countless days." 32
The second responded, "Therefore I will
destroy and crush them and not have mercy." 33 The third
added, "I am mindful of those who walk in my precepts." 34
Then a great voice from the three faces thundered out over the
whole world:

Hear, you who dwell on earth, thus says the Lord. I the
all

Lord am speaking in my holy zeal. Behold the days are

coming and my sword will be unsheathed against you. Be
converted unto me before my fury is fulfilled, for at the

198
PLATE X:

THE SAVONAROLA MEDALLION

Above the profile of the friar; on the reverse Florence under God's scourge.
Reproduced from D. Weinstein, Savonarola and Florence (Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1970), Plate 4 (Alinari photograph).
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

time when distress has come upon you, you will seek for
peace and you will not find it. 35

When the words were finished the whole world was pre-
my
sent to sight. Then a multitude of white-robed angels came
down from heaven to earth carrying countless white stoles on
their shoulders and red crosses in their hands. They went
through the whole world offering everyone a white stole and a
cross. Some accepted the gift offered and were clothed; others
refused, but did not prevent people from accepting; some both
spurned it for themselves and prevented others from taking it.
These last were the tepid and those puffed up with human
wisdom. They made fun of the gifts and sought to persuade
others not to take them.
Then the hand lowered the sword toward the earth and
soon the air was seen to be darkened with dense clouds. It
rained swords and hailstones with dreadful-sounding thunder,
as well as arrows and bolts of fire. On earth war, pestilence,
famine, and countless tribulations arose. I saw the angels walk-
ing through the midst of the nations giving cups of pure wine
to those clad with stoles and bearing crosses. When they had
emptied them they said: "O Lord, how sweet are your words in
our mouths!" 36 The angels brought the dregs left at the bottom
of the cups to those who did not want to drink, but seemed to
want to do penance though unable, saying "Why have you
forgotten us, Lord?" 37 They wanted to raise their eyes to look
on God, but they were hindered by the severity of the tribula-
tion. They were like drunken men; their hearts seemed to be
taken from the midst of their breasts. They sought the comfort
of human pleasures and did not find them; they carried on like
the senseless and insane.
Then I heard a very powerful voice from the three faces
saying: "Hear the word of the Lord. I have waited for you in
order to have mercy on you. Come to me because I am kind and
merciful, bestowing pardon to all who call upon me. But if you
do not, I will turn my eyes away from you forever." Then the
voice turned to the just and said, "Rejoice, you just, and exult,

200
 SAVONAROLA

because when my brief wrath has passed I will break the power
power of the 38 And
of sinners and the just will be exalted.
immediately the vision vanished and this word came to me:
"Son, if sinners had eyes they would certainly see how hard
and difficult this plague and sharp this sword can be." The
Spirit said that the hard plague and sharp sword signified the
rule of evil prelates and those who preach human philosophy.
They neither enter the Kingdom of Heaven nor allow others to
enter. By this he indicated that the Church had fallen so far
because their spiritual attack was much worse than any corpo-
real tribulations that could happen. The Spirit told me that I
should exhort and beg the people to beseech God to send his
fear on the earth, to renew the love and memory of the benefits
of the Passion of his Only-Begotten Son in the hearts of men,
and to give the Church good pastors and preachers of the
divine word who would feed his flock and not themselves.
After that, again at the God's inspiration, I predicted that
someone would cross the Alps into Italy, like the Cyrus of
whom Isaiah says:

Thus says the Lord to my anointed Cyrus, whose right

hand I have grasped to subdue the nations before his face,
and to turn the backs of kings and to open the doors before
him that the gates be not closed. I will go before him and
will humble the great ones of the earth; I will break the
bronze gates and will burst the bars of iron. And I will give
you hidden treasures and the mystery of hidden places so
that you may know that I am the Lord who calls you by
your name, the God of Israel, for the sake of my servant
Jacob and Israel my elect. 39

I also said that Italy should not trust in citadels and fortresses,
since he would overcome them without any I pre-
difficulty.
dicted to the Florentines, especially to those who then con-
trolled the government, that they would choose a plan and
course of action contrary to their safety and profit, that is, they
would weaker side that would be beaten. Like drunken
join the
men they would lose all their judgment. Even when these

201
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

events were already breathing down their necks they did not
believe though I frequently said they would be fooled by
it,

human wisdom. I omit the private and personal predictions

that I made; to avoid scandal it is not right to reveal them in
public. But at that time I did make known to some of my
friends the time set for the deaths of Innocent VIII and of
Lorenzo de'Medici. 40 I also predicted the revolution in the
government and state of Florence that was to come when the
King of the French first approached Pisa, 41 and many other
things that, were I to enumerate them now, might not be
believed at all because they were not then made public.
As the French King approached and the Florentine revolu-
tion loomed, even though the sword had appeared to me over
Florence, as well as much bloodshed there, I reflected that God
had especially chosen this city in which to announce these
things and I strongly began to hope that the prophecy was
conditional and that if the people did penance the most merci-
ful God would withdraw his judgment at least in part. On
November first, the Feast of All Saints, and the two following
days, I spared neither voice nor lung. As everybody knows, I
declaimed from the pulpit so strongly that my body grew weak
and I almost fell sick. I proclaimed a fast on bread and water
alone and frequent prayers from the whole people. I often
shouted out words that came from the same source as the
others cited above: "O Italy, adversities will come upon you
because of your sins. O Florence, adversities will come on you
because of your sins. O clergy, this tempest has arisen because of
you." frequently repeated that Italy, especially Rome, would
I

be destroyed, and I called out the following words revealed to

me by the same Spirit:

O nobles, men of learning, and common folk, the strong

hand of the Lord upon you and neither power nor
is

wisdom nor flight can resist it. Therefore I the Lord have
waited for you in order to have mercy on you; be converted
to the Lord your God with your whole heart, because he is
merciful and kind. If you do not, he will turn his eyes away
from you forever.

202
 SAVONAROLA

Then, when the most Christian King of France drew near,

I was asked by the Signoria of Florence to undertake a legation
to his Majesty along with some other citizens. I quickly con-
sulted with my fellow Dominicans and other citizens and was
unanimously advised to undertake the journey. I was forced to
accept the burden even more by charity than by their advice,
and therefore set out with the chosen ambassadors for Pisa.
There I set forth in the vernacular before his Royal Majesty the
divine warnings as follows. 42

Most Christian King and Great Minister of Divine

Justice, know that Almighty God, in whose hand is all power
and rule, gives and bestows his goodness on his creatures in
two ways: through mercy and through justice. Through
mercy he attracts the creature to his love and converts it;
through justice he often casts the creature from him be-
cause of its faults. These two ways are so connected that
they always accompany each other in every work and every
creature, as is written, 'All the paths of the Lord are mercy
and truth.' 43 He exercises justice on the damned by inflict-
ing punishment for sins on them; He also brings them
mercy because he afflicts them without regard to what they
deserve and punishes them more mildly than they should be.
He shows mercy to the blessed by giving them more abun-
dant glory than their works and labors deserve, and pre-
serves justice by bestowing glory on them according to the
greater or lesser merits done in life. 44
Because what is in the middle partakes of the nature of
the extremities, what we said about the blessed and the
damned can be imagined to be true of other creatures,
easily
that is, that mercy and
justice always accompany each
other, although they have different conditions and different
effects. Mercy's job is to bear sins patiently, with long
suffering to wait for sinners to come to repentance, to call
to them pleasantly, and when they are sweetly attracted to
draw them to herself, to embrace them when they are
drawn in, to forgive them with gentleness, justify them
with kindness, give them great increase in grace, and gener-
ously fill them with the infinite treasures of heavenly glory.
This is justice's task: after the sinner has been endured with

203
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

patience, awaited with long-suffering, sweetly and fre-

quently called, but has still completely rejected all this, to
deprive him of grace, strip him of virtues, remove the light,
darken his intellect, and permit him to fall into any pit of
sin so that all things may work together for ill in his case
and he may be finally punished forever in hell. The im-
mense goodness of God, the lover of men, had endured the
grave sins of Italy most patiently, and now these many
years had waited with long-suffering for her to do penance,
and had sweetly and frequently called her through his
many servants. But because she did not wish to open her
ears, nor to acknowledge the voice of her Shepherd, nor to
do penance for her sins, God, Almighty and Supreme,
decided to let justice follow its course and to exercise judg-
ment upon her lest his patience be consumed by her pride.
Otherwise, her sins would multiply and grow worse day by
day because she completely disregarded God's mercies, and
rejected baptism and the Blood of Christ, prefering a har-
lot's face and stony countenance.

Mercy and justice always go together in every divine

work, as I said before. So great was God's goodness that in
order to show mercy and justice to his people he revealed to
one of his unprofitable servants the mystery that he in-
tended to reform his Church for the better through a great
scourge. The unprofitable servant began to preach this in
the city of Florence four years ago under divine inspiration
and command. From that time until this he has never
ceased to call the people to penance with loud proclama-
tions. The whole city is the witness, nobles and commoners,
old and young of both sexes, town folk and country folk. A
few believed; others did not believe at all, and others
mocked. But God, who cannot lie, made everything that up
to now had been foretold on his orders to follow perfectly,
so that mortals cannot doubt that what remains unfulfilled
from the predictions will also take place. All of the listeners
mentioned above are witnesses that this is the way it was.
Even though the unprofitable servant never put forth the
name of your Majesty because God's will did not yet permit
him, nonetheless it was you he was describing and pointing
to in hidden fashion in his preaching and you whose com-
ing he awaited.

204
 SAVONAROLA

So you have finally come, O King. You have come,

Minister of God. You have come, Minister of Justice. May
your coming bring good luck everywhere! We receive you
with happy heart and joyful countenance. Your coming has
gladdened our hearts, lifted up our minds, and made all the
servants of Christ and lovers of Justice and a holy life burn
with joy. They hope that through you God will put down
the proud, lift up the lowly, overthrow vice, magnify vir-
tue, straighten what is bent, renew what is worn, and
reform what is hideous. Come then joyfully, fearlessly, and
triumphantly, seeing that he who sends you is the one who
triumphed on the wood of the cross for our salvation.
Nevertheless, Most Christian King, listen to my words
attentively and take them to heart. The unprofitable ser-
vant to whom this mystery was revealed by God, that is, the
Most Holy Trinity, Father, Son and Holy Spirit, and by
Our Savior Jesus Christ, true God, God's Son, and true
man, King of Kings and Lord of Lords, and also by the
whole heavenly court, exhorts and warns you who are sent
by God that in imitation of him you should show mercy
everywhere. This is especially the case for his city of Flor-
ence, which even though it labors under a heavy weight of
sins still has many servants of God, both seculars and
religious of both sexes, for whose sake you ought to leave
that city unharmed. Thus with tranquil minds they may be
able to beseech God to be propitious to you and to aid you
in this expedition. The same unprofitable servant exhorts
and warns you on God's behalf that you should use all care
to protect and defend the innocent, widows and orphans,
and all who deserve mercy. You should especially protect
the chastity of the spouses of Christ in religious houses, lest
because of you sins be increased. If this happen through
your fault the solid strength of the power given you from
on high will be weakened. Also on God's behalf he exhorts
and warns you to forgive offenses freely, that is, mercifully
to pardon whatever has been done against you either by the
people of Florence or by others. It was done in ignorance
because they did not know that you had been sent by God.
Remember your Savior who when he hung on the cross
mercifully forgave those who crucified him. If you give
heed to this, O King, God will increase your earthly king-

205
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

dom, will grant you victory everywhere, and will at last

reward you with the Kingdom of Heaven. He alone is
blessed and powerful, King of Kings and Lord of Lords. He
alone has immortality and dwells in inaccessible light
which no man sees nor can see, to whom is honor and
dominion through infinite ages. Amen. 45

With these words I fulfilled the commands of the people of

Florence, which there is no need to put in here.
In the meantime the Florentine state had gone through a
revolution. I returned to the city and began again to preach
that everyone should be intent on prayer and penance. It was
quite clear that divine mercy had freed the people of Florence
from the greatest dangers through these means. Continuing to
preach the saving message, I said that the Florentines still had
to cross many perilous shoals, that they would be shaken by
other tribulations, and that all Italy, particularly Rome, would
be disturbed. (I never disclosed by whom, when, or how.) I said
there was no remedy left for the rulers of the Church and the
—
princes of Italy aside from penance neither heaps of money,
nor armies, nor fortified places and castles could help them.
Even if they had an infinite treasure, the strongest and largest
possible army, iron walls and adamantine fortresses, not only
would this not be enough, but they would even flee like weak
women. God would blind them and at the same time deprive
them of strength and good sense, as is written in Job: "He
brings counselors to a foolish end and judges to stupidity. He
loosens the belt of kings and binds their loins with a cord." 46 I
also added that one barber would not be enough to shave all of
Italy, but that others would come. This will certainly happen.
I foretold many things in the same vein, although from

i.time to time in different words. 'I added that the Turks and
^5*^, Moors would be converted to the Christian religion in our
>b
^ time,/ saying "Many of you who are standing here will see
this." 47 The revelation regarding this had come to me a long
time before. In 1492 during Lent when I was preaching in the
Church of San Lorenzo in Florence I saw two crosses on the
night of Good Friday. The first one, in the midst of Rome, was

206
 SAVONAROLA

black. It touched heaven and spread its arms through the whole
world. On it were written the words "The cross of God's
wrath." When I saw it, the air at once grew dark and turbulent
with swirling clouds allmixed with winds, bolts of lightning,
arrows, hailstones, fire and sword. A countless multitude of
people were destroyed so that very few were left on earth.
Afterward I saw a peaceful and clear time come and a golden
cross in the midst of Jerusalem, the same height as the other,
and so shining that it lit up the whole world and filled it with
new flowers and joy. Its inscription was "The cross of God's
mercy." Without delay all the nations of the earth, men and
women, gathered from all sides to adore and embrace it. I
received many other much clearer visions on this theme, as
well as on the other things I predicted, especially about the
renovation of the Church and the scourge. I have been
strengthened by many visions and proven illuminations at
different times.
I further predicted that the city of Florence would be

reformed for the better. This was God's will and the Floren-
tines would have to do it. On God's behalf, I also foretold that
by this reformation the city would become more glorious, more
powerful, and richer than it had been up till now. 48 The fact
itself has proven that this was God's intention. A reformation
of this sort that seemed a contradiction (because anyone would
have thought it completely alien to the behavior and custom of
the city) had an effect that would have seemed impossible to
human judgment. This contradiction and the bad will of many
was the reason for the delay of the universal peace and the
suspension of the graces divinely promised us. Hence I roused
the people to prayer and fasting, which made them become
devout and well disposed, and so peace itself was finally ob-
tained. The "Appeal against the Six Beans" of the Signoria to
the General Council, which I advised for the greater security of
the citizens and the stability of the whole city, was established
in the correct order and with the right statutes. 49 As hope grew
I labored with the most urgent prayers to be reconciled with

God so that he would restore the graces once promised to the

Florentines. This is clearly stated in the sermon for the Octave

207
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

of the Feast of the Annunciation of Mary, which we set down

in the following form just as it was preached.

Blessed be God, the Father of Our Lord Jesus Christ, the

Father of mercies and God of all consolation, who consoles us
in our every tribulation so that we too can console those who
are in any distress through the exhortation by which God has
also exhorted us.
Dearly beloved in Christ Jesus. A living faith with con-
stant prayer and long-suffering patience has so much merit
with God that there is nothing so great that it cannot be
obtained from him by this means. This is proven not only by
the authority of the Old and New Testaments and the experi-
ence of our fathers of old, but also in these dangerous times by
the frequent touch of our own hands, so to speak. By means of
these three weapons we have often been miraculously freed
from the greatest perils that threatened our city of Florence
and the whole populace. In the midst of the deepest opposition
we have also obtained the reform of the city, peace, and much
else besides —things that went against the expectations of hu-
man wisdom and the views of almost everyone. It is fitting that
these three virtues joined into one should be worthy to be
heard by God in the case of great matters that surpass the
ordinary course of his other works. First, because faith is a
virtue that extends and strengthens the intellect in those high-
est truths that natural reason cannot prove. Among the other
virtues it rests in a special way on the divine omnipotence,
which it believes can do all things. Because of faith the faithful
man lets go not only of sense knowledge and imagination, but
also of natural reason. Believing in God with a simple heart, he
is worthy to attain splendid things that surpass nature's course,

every created power, and all sense knowledge, imagination,

and human wisdom. Second, because God is the first mover of
spiritual and corporeal things, our every thought and good
resolve come from him before they come from us, as the apostle
says: "We are not able to think something on our own as if it
came from us." 50 Since any natural cause and mover looks to a
preordained end for whose sake it produces its effect, so much

208
 SAVONAROLA

the more does the cause of causes, God the Supreme Good,
move the souls of the just to long for, hope for, and beg for
great things from him, especially those that contribute to the
common welfare of the Church, as Paul says, "The Spirit
pleads on our behalf with unspeakable groans." 51 He will lead
allsuch longing, hope, and petition to the desired goal. There-
fore do not wonder that faith asks for great things through
constant prayer, especially because God so frequently and
firmly promised in the scriptures to hear our prayers. He even
taught us to pray with a certain importunity. Discouragement
in the midst of tribulations produces many evils, such as anger,
hatred, indignation, and other unjust works. Patience, on the
contrary, drives discouragement away or at least lessens it in
view of Christ. It restrains the one who has it from many sins
and strengthens him in virtues. And so it is written: "Patience
possesses a perfect work." 52 A person who bears the adversities
of this world with equanimity for God's sake deserves to be
consoled and to get his wish from God. Paul says, "Tribulation
produces patience, patience endurance, and endurance hope.
Hope does not disappoint because the charity of God is poured
out in our hearts through the Holy Spirit who has been given
to us." 53 And so no one should be amazed that after having
patiently borne so many tribulations and having been devoted
to frequent prayer with living faith, from him who is good
through essense and not through accident we have attained
lofty things that surpass what is usual in our time. We will
speak of these clearly and in order, first asking that you put
human wisdom completely aside and in the simplicity of a pure
faith hear us with cleansed ears.
Beloved citizens, when I saw that the revolution of the
state and government was near and knew that so great a change
could not take place without great danger and bloodshed unless
divine mercy brought aid because of the penances, fasts, and
prayers of good people, under God's inspiration I decided to
encourage the people by constant preaching to do penance in
order to obtain mercy. On the Feast of Saint Matthew, Septem-
ber 21, 1494, I used all my power to arouse the people to
confession, fasts, and prayers. They did this gladly, and God's

209
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

goodness changed justice into mercy. On November ninth by a

divine miracle the state and the government were changed
without bloodshed or scandal of any kind. 54
People of Florence, when you had assumed the new form
of government I called you together in the Duomo, without the
presence of the women, before the Signoria and all the magis-
trates. After I spoke at length about the correct government of
cities according to the traditions of philosophers and theolo-
gians, I then set out what should be the natural government of
the Florentine people. 55 I continued to preach on the following
days, proposing four courses of action. The first was the fear of
God. The second was to prefer the common good of the repub-
lic to one's own private concerns. The third was to make
common and full peace with those who had shortly before
governed the city. I added to this the "Appeal against Six
Beans" so that by means of this no one could make himself
head of the city in the future. The fourth was to set up a full
General Council like the Venetians, so that the benefits of the
city could be restored to the whole people and not kept by any
individual, and so that no one could make himself too power-
ful. 56 I maintained that it was God's will that these four coun-

sels be fulfilled and that he had decided that the people of

Florence were to be ruled under this form of government in
the future. I added that no one could resist his will because
God would turn the white beans into black ones, that is, he
would change the hearts of those who were in opposition and
would cause those who had firmly decided to resist it in the
Council by voting no to approve and consent to it.
That was the way it happened, as everyone in your city
knows. Many of those who in the beginning were opposed to
the measures confessed that they had undergone such a change
of heart. I not only recommended these four items to the
people by the authority of God's will, but I also demonstrated
their truth by firm arguments and showed that no other form
of government would be advantageous to you, people of Flor-
ence. I promised on God's behalf that if you adopted them your
city would be more glorious than ever in its temporal and
spiritual government. It would also be stronger and richer.

210
 SAVONAROLA

Because of the lack of faith, the foolishness, and the malice of

many who opposed the peace and the "Appeal" when the
Great Council had been set up, I was afraid that God had been
provoked to anger because his advice had been spurned. I
feared that he had so withdrawn his protecting hand that the
promises he freely made to you, Florence, were revoked and
invalidated. Nevertheless, having taken account of the great-
ness of God's goodness, we increased our prayer and fasting.
After a short while, as we predicted, the peace and "Appeal"
won approval, to the great surprise of all. Considering this, I
realized that God's promises were withdrawn for a time rather
than lost by our fault. Hence when your prayers were re-
newed, I offered myself to undertake the role of ambassador to
God in your name to regain these graces. After continual
prayers and fasts I did not presume to approach immediately to
the high throne of Infinite Majesty ("under which those who
bear the world bow down") 57 but went to the Glorious Virgin,
Mother of God, on the day of her Annunciation, which is for
you the beginning of the year, begging that due to the joy of
the feast she might deign to become our advocate with the
Most Holy Trinity. She most graciously accepted. On the same
day, my people, I brought you the joyful news in San Marco.
As we kept on praying during the Octave of the Feast, I
announced to you that I had been told that a positive response
would be given on the last day of the octave. I urged you to
complete the prayer and good resolve you had begun so that
these promises would overflow with every manner of grace.
On the night before the octave's last day, as I was about to
set out to receive the hoped-for response, I thought that I ought
to have fit companions and the correct garb. While I was
thinking about the kind and number of companions I should
choose, many women presented themselves. Among them
Philosophy first promised her services, declaring that great wis-
dom was fitting for an embassy to such an exalted place.
Rhetoric also presented herself, recommending the highest
eloquence in this affair. But I responded to them and to the rest
of the daughters of human wisdom that since their knowledge
begins from the senses it does not surpass sensible things. Even

211
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

if sensible things afford some knowledge of God, yet it is so

small that it can be considered almost nothing. It is covered by
three veils: the veil of accidents by which the human sciences
come to know
corporeal substances; the veil of corporeal sub-
stances through whose imperfect understanding we rise by
intellect to a consideration of the soul and spiritual substances;
and the veil of the substances of the soul and of spiritual beings
through which, much more imperfectly known than bodily
things, our intellect strives to rise to the knowledge of God,
who infinitely surpasses everything else. Therefore, the knowl-
edge of God gained through reason is very weak.
The knowledge of the saints is incomparably more perfect
and greater than natural knowledge. They see God face to face
and through him they also behold all things in the opposite
way from philosophy. Faith holds a middle place between these
two kinds of knowledge, more perfect than the knowledge of
philosophy and inferior to the knowledge of saints. 58 Because
we name things insofar as we know them, philosophy and
rhetoric, which depend on the light of natural reason, are too
lowly and childish to have a place with the Divine Majesty and
the saints. Therefore I rejected philosophy, rhetoric, and the
other human sciences as unfit for this legation, and I chose
simplicity of faith, of wisdom, and of the eloquence of the
sacred scriptures. I put it on within and without with all my
—
strength and in every way in believing, understanding, speak-
ing, setting out, contemplating, and even in my attire. I would
do all things in simplicity. I diligently meditated on that saying
of Solomon's, "He who walks
in simplicity walks confidently.
And his conversation with the simple." 59 Having taken
is

Simplicity as a companion, and accompanied also by Faith,

Prayer, and Patience, we directed our journey to the threshold
of paradise.
Lady Simplicity bore a very beautiful and precious cov-
ered gift to offer the Supreme Majesty. We shall unfold its
mystery below. When we had just begun our journey, the cun-
ning Tempter of the human race, pretending to be an aged and
bearded hermit, met me and drew near. After he had saluted
me he said: "My son, for many years I have done penance in

212
 SAVONAROLA

the neighboring hermitage you are passing. By the revelation

of the Holy have at this moment understood the fruit of
Spirit I

your preaching and your good intention toward God and the
salvation of souls. At the same time, however, it was revealed to
me that you have been led into error in your simplicity, for, in
order to call the people back from vice to virtue, you have
predicted many tribulations and at the same time promised
good things as well. This is not at all permitted, because God
who is Truth wishes his preachers to be completely filled with
the truth." I answered him: "I am not a little surprised at these
words, Father. The Holy Spirit reveals only what is true, but
your objection to me is false because I never have used such
deception. I am not so ignorant that I do not know that God,
who is of the most simple nature, places the highest value on
simplicity and hates duplicity, which in any way it exists,
whether in word or work, is a lie. It is written: 'You will
destroy all who speak lies; evil not to be done that good
is

might come.' 60 This is especially true because the sacred doc-

tors think that every lie spoken in seriousness by a preacher
from the pulpit is a mortal sin. It cannot be possible that I

should bear fruit in preaching by means of lies; the fruit itself

shows that I have not been a deceiver. Indeed, as I often
testified before the people and now again testify and swear on
my soul: may God erase me from the Book of Life if I have ever
used deception in my preaching. And so this inspiration of
yours cannot have come from the Holy Spirit."
The Tempter then spoke. "Granted that you did not He
about them, you still foretold unusual and unheard-of things.
Many thought that you made them up and proclaimed them
under the influence of a melancholic spirit. Or perhaps they
came from your dreams or wild imagination." I responded:
"Father, I do not sense such a spirit in my heart, but rather the
highest joy, a light that is not natural, and the revelation of
images that are beyond nature. Since I spent a good deal of
time studying philosophy, I understand well how far the natu-
ral light of reason and the power of imagination go, and I know
that they do not reach what has come to me, especially regard-
ing future contingent acts. I know this both because of the

213
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

precise order I have always maintained in speaking, and be-

cause of the insight and perfect harmony I have had in apply-
ing the sacred scriptures to the course of the present life. I have
done this without distortion or violent wrenching or disso-
nance, as my hearers know. Anyone of mediocre intelligence
knows that this cannot come from a melancholic spirit or from
dreams or wild imagination."
He said: "Then some constellation under which you were
born or the influence of some planet or star has caused you to
meditate, propose, and predict these future events." I said:
"Father, it is extreme folly to believe that the influence of the
heavens allows knowledge of the future. 61 As the Philosopher
says, 'There is no determined truth about future contingents;
about such matters there is neither science nor art.' 62 There is
no leading philosopher, Greek or Latin, ancient or modern,
who followed divinatory astronomy, even though some falsely
claim certain writings composed by others for Albert the Great
in order to have authority for their errors. 63 If you look at this
art carefully — —
if art it can be called you will understand that
it has no foundation or proof for its claims. You may want to

pay attention to those things; I would rather follow foolish old

wives' tales than something of such little weight and science!
Anyone can deny such things just as easily as they are sense-
lessly affirmed. If I had time, I would show that this supersti-
tion belongs to fools and dolts rather than men of sense and
intelligence. But now for us who profess Christian teaching it
should suffice that astrology is condemned in many places in
sacred scripture. In the forty-seventh chapter of Isaiah the
Holy Spirit speaks against Babylon and says: 'Your wisdom
and your science have deceived you.' 64 And later: 'Let the
diviners of the heavens stand up and save you, those who
contemplate the stars and compute the months so that from
them they can tell you what is coming upon you. Behold, they
have been made like straw, the fire has burned them up, they
did not free their souls from the flames.' 65 And in the tenth
chapter of Jeremiah: 'Do not learn according to the ways of the
Gentiles, and do not fear the signs of heaven that the nations
fear, because the laws of the people are vain.' 66 In brief, the

214
 SAVONAROLA

holy books show that knowledge of future contingent events is

a property of God. God alone knows them, and he to whom he
deigns to reveal them, as Isaiah says: 'Announce the things that
are to come in the future and we will know that you are
gods.' 67 Therefore, those who pay attention to these supersti-
tions sin gravely because they claim for themselves what is
proper to God. Hence all the doctors and sacred canons detest
this art.Those who pursue divinatory astronomy are not only
fools and men of weak mind and no judgment, but also bad
Christians. The heavens do not act without the mediation of
lower causes in the disposition of matter. For example, it is not
within heaven's right to produce a vine from an olive seed.
Even though the heavens influence man's senses, they cannot
dispose them to phantasms other than what nature allows.
Father, knowing my nature for a long time, I have recognized
much more excellent phantasms in my senses than those which
nature affords. Further, the heavens cannot act directly on the
intellect, 68 because the corporeal cannot act directly on the
incorporeal. Therefore the heavens are not able to influence
the supernatural light I perceive in myself. And again, the
heavens and nature do not make artificial things. They con-
struct neither clothes, nor homes, nor the like. Because the
significant sounds and the order of the words and sentences
which I often heard inside me and outside me in both Latin
and Italian belong to the realm of art and reason, what I heard
and preached in this manner can in no way come from the
heavens or nature."
The Tempter then said: "This could be done by the power
and work of the devil, for he is able to fashion artifical things
and to make something that is superior to bodily nature. There-
fore you have surely been deceived by diabolic fraud." I an-
swered: "Father, I have been through the sacred scriptures and
the lives and teachings of the saints from beginning to end and
thus I understand well enough all the marks of diabolical as
well as divine apparitions. I grasp how much they differ not
only on this basis but also from experience. For a long time I
have known that my visions could in no way have come from
the devil, particularly because the things I understood and

215
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

foretold were much more certain to me than the first principles

of the sciences were for philosophers. It is clear that a light of
such certainty cannot have come from the devil. Furthermore,
even the devil cannot know future contingents. I see and
always have seen everything happen just as I have known and
predicted that it would for many years. Not even an iota fails. I
have not been mistaken in the smallest detail. Besides, the devil
is virtue's enemy and so it is unbelievable that when so much
fruit has come from my preaching he would not have left me.
At he would have openly deceived me so no faith would
least
be placed in me any longer and the trust that had been given to
me and other preachers would be wholly destroyed. In Flor-
ence, where I preached for a long time, all, or nearly all, who
live a good and pious life follow my teaching. Those who are
openly known to be evil and not living a Christian life attack it
as enemies. They try to defame me and even to kill me. None-
theless, my teaching has always increased and borne richer
fruit, so that the number of my disciples has continually in-
creased, while my adversaries have decreased. At the same time
my deeds have prevailed and those of my enemies have been
weakened and almost destroyed. So, Father, this teaching and
work is not the devil's, but Christ's, who desires always that his
teaching and work grow in the midst of supreme opposition."
The Tempter again spoke. "Whatever you say, my son, I
will never be persuaded that Christ has spoken to any mortal
after his Ascension into heaven." I answered. "Father, you are
very much against the witness of the Bible, for in many places
we read that after his Ascension he appeared to many, among
others the Apostle Paul as he affirms in the First Epistle to the
Corinthians. 69 By your claim the stories of the saints would lie,
and Saint Francis, who said he received his Rule from Christ,
would have deceived the world. There are many other saints
who claimed they had spoken with Christ. If Christ was cruci-
fied for sinners, what wonder is it if he himself or his angels
address a sinner for the good of Holy Church? If Christ daily
does not shrink from the ministry and touch of countless
wicked priests in the sacrament of the altar, why do you think
it unworthy that he speak to sinners? Men today are blinded by

216
 SAVONAROLA

so much darkness that what is very easy in God's sight seems

impossible to them. They are not in awe at the greater deeds,
but the rarer. It is greater to justify a sinner and to dwell in
him by grace than to speak to someone. They believe in the
former and are not surprised at it; the latter, they cannot
believe."
The Tempter said: "I acknowledge that in the earliest
times Christ spoke to many. But now it is not necessary for
salvation since there is a large fund of scripture and doctors." I
answered: "Holy scripture and the doctors are completely suf-
ficient in themselves to instruct men in the way of salvation by
exterior teaching. Nevertheless, unless a person has the inte-
rior light of grace, he gains little from Catholic teaching. It is

necessary for God to infuse the light of grace within, a light

common to all who wish to live in an orthodox manner. Be-
yond this, a more specific and particular light is often needed,
especially for those whose task it is to enlighten others. They
need itbecause of the details and numberless circumstances
that come from diversity of men's ages and conditions and
from the variety of their states. Because of all that there is very
often doubt about what to do or to choose in the present or the
future. Unless a person were specifically illumined by God, he
could not be sure from scripture and the doctors what was the
more useful course. It is not possible to put these details in
books, because the world itself could scarcely fit so many
volumes. Therefore Plato ordered anyone who talked about
details to be still. 70
"Since a change in the Church Universal never takes place
without serious spiritual and bodily tribulation, there is need
to prepare God's elect and strengthen them in the life of
goodness so that they are not found unprepared. If we carefully
consider the Old and New Testaments, we see that Almighty
God has always foreseen these changes and through the mouths
of his servants has forewarned, comforted, consoled, and illu-
minated them about what to do. The Prophet Amos in his third
chapter says: 'Will there be an evil in the city that the Lord has
not done? For the Lord God will not do his word unless he has
revealed his secret to his servants the prophets.' 71 Since the

217
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

present Church has reached the dregs and God plans to renew
it through many tribulations, it must be that he will foretell the
scourges to his elect in these days through his servants. Thus
they can be prepared and not be taken unawares by the coming
evils."
The Tempter: "How can you know the time of the renova-
tion of the Church when it is written: 'It is not yours to know
the times nor the dates which the Father has placed in his own
power'?" 72 I responded: "Pay more careful attention to the
words, Father. It says, 'It is not yours to know the times nor
the dates,' not all times and dates but only 'those which the
Father has placed in his own power,' such as the day of judg-
ment when Christ will restore the kingdom of Israel and about
which the apostles were speaking though they did not yet
understand what kind of a restoration it would be. 73 Certainly
Noah had been told the time of the flood, 74 Jeremiah the
seventy years of the captivity of the people of Israel, 75 and
Daniel the seventy-two weeks of the coming Christ. 76 Thus
many prophets had the times told them and predicted to them
clearly."
The Tempter: "Why did God
choose you for this task
rather than another, since there are many better than you are
in the Church?" I answered: "And I would like to know this
from you, Father: Why did God choose Peter who had denied
Christ three times and Paul who had persecuted him as the
princes of the apostles rather than those of their era who were
better than they? Why did he make Luke and Mark evangelists,
preferring them for this ministry over many others who were
more holy or at least equal? Why did he choose the idolatrous
and wicked Balaam to whom to reveal great mysteries of the
Church and Christ and to show angelic visions and speechs
rather than the many others more just or less evil than he? No
explanation can be given of these cases, but only the divine
will, as Paul says to the Corinthians in speaking of the graces of
the Holy Spirit: 'The one and the same Spirit works all these
things, dividing to everyone as he wills.' 77 Writing to the
Romans about predestination he says: 'He has mercy on whom
he will, and he hardens whom he will.' You will then say to

218
 SAVONAROLA

me, 'Why does he still find fault for who can resist his will?' O
man, who are you to reply to God? Shall what is created say to
him who formed it, 'Why did you make me thus? Does not the
potter have the power from the same mass of clay to make one
" 78
vessel for honor, another for dishonor?'
The Tempter: "Then you are holier than others?" I an-
swered: "The grace of prophecy does not sanctify a man,
indeed it is often given to sinners, as in the Book of Numbers
we read of Balaam who even though he prophesied was a
wicked man. 79 As Our Lord says in the Gospel: 'Many will say
to me on that day: Lord, Lord, have we not prophesied in your
name, and in your name cast out demons, and in your name
done a great many works of power?' Then he will say to them:
'Because I have never known you, depart from me, all you
workers of iniquity.' 80 These charismatic gifts 81 are bestowed
for the advantage of others rather than for one's own. It is
better to have the lowest measure of charity than to possess
every charismatic gift, as Paul says, 'If I speak with the tongues
of men and of angels and have not charity, I have become like
"
sounding brass and tinkling cymbal.' 82
The Tempter: "I have heard that you depend on the vi-
sions of some women and preach what they dictate to you." I
responded that that was neither true nor likely. "As is publicly
known in the city, I very rarely speak to women, and even then
do so briefly. My fellow Dominicans know how unwillingly I
go to visit them, and I have never heard a woman's confession.
Further, since women are fickle and not able to keep a secret,
you can believe that a thing like this could not have been
hidden for so many years. I know that their testimony is rarely
included in the scriptures, although some prophetesses are
read. 83 I think that God has done this so that we will not
depend on their testimony very much, though it is not to be
completely rejected, as it is written, 'Spurn not the prophets.' 84
The reason is that women lack experience, are poor in judg-
ment, fickle, and very weak, susceptible to vanity, and thus
easily fooled by diabolical cunning. Since I am sure of this, you
should not believe that I would have trusted in their proph-
ecies, nor would I have affirmed them constantly before so

219
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

many people. If what was foretold did not take place, the result
would have been great danger to the faith, contempt of God,
and shame and grave danger to me."
The Tempter: "Some say that you have used your friend-
ship with rulers and knowledge of their secrets to preach what
they have decided to do." I answered: "I know how great the
instability of man is, especially the hearts of rulers, which often
change as the seasons do. It would be foolish for me or for
anyone else, even if we knew their secrets, to base our words
on their plans, especially since they are mortal and can die at
any hour. There are also the various hindrances to their
schemes, either from opposition of other rulers, or weakness,
or human fickleness. These can happen at any day or hour.
Therefore, what will happen to them or through them is so
uncertain that neither the angelic nor the human intellect is

able to know and foretell it infallibly, because it would have to

know all the circumstances and the impediments that could
happen and to be sure how they turned out. God alone knows
this, he who calls the things that are and the things that are not,
to whose eyes all things are present. 85 It would be complete
insanity to base the future on so weak a foundation."
The Tempter: "Others say that many citizens have told
you the secrets of the government of Florence, and thus you
know many hidden matters and the intentions of other rulers.
You then put these together to guess the future by insight and
clever reasoning." I answered: "This is not worthy of a re-

sponse, Father, because it comes from simple men of small

judgment who do not understand that such things cannot be
affirmed with certainty through an inquiry like this. The re-
sponse made before should be sufficient for them."
The Tempter: "Others think that you invented those pre-
dictions with the deepest connivance and cunning of public
officials and magistrates. You then announced them with such
craftiness that when they did not happen you would still have
an excuse." I answered: "It is now five years since I began to
predict the war and those many individual matters that are
now partly fulfilled. Those who speak thus sang another tune
then. They claimed I was a simple man deceived by my own

220
 SAVONAROLA

simplicity. Now,
because a part of what has been foretold has
been fulfilled and manifest signs and clear indications show
that the part that remains to come will be fulfilled, they have
changed their tune to cover their confusion and announce that
I am a crafty man who puts his words so cautiously that he can

never be caught. They know that I foretold that someone

would come who would cross the mountains and the plains,
and who would overcome defenses, fortresses, and cities 'with
rotten apples' as the saying goes. I prophesied that the Floren-
tineswould follow advice contrary to their best interests and
would lose all prudence and good sense like befuddled drunks.
They heard many things like this. Once again I hope to have
many particular events revealed to me from on high. I will
preach them just as openly and directly to the whole people.
They will not be given varying explanations. If the preceding
predictions had failed, would not have been able to defend
I

them by any interpretation. So now, if these things do not take

place, I will be unable to escape confusion."
The Tempter: "I understand that you have the revelations
of Saint Bridget, Abbot Joachim, and many others from which
you foretell coming events by divination." I responded: "Fa-
ther, I have never delighted in this sort of reading,
testify that I

and that I have never read the revelations of Saint Bridget and
rarely, or almost never, those of Abbot Joachim. The reading of
other prophecies of this sort has never been my pleasure. I own
none of them, as my fellow Dominicans and friends know.
They are witnesses to how much the reading of the Old and
New Testaments delights me, because for many years, I have
used almost no other book or form of reading. I shrink from
other reading, so to speak, not because I condemn other writ-
ings or because the books of the doctors displease me, but
because in comparison with scripture anything sweet seems
bitter. If you do not believe this, at least do not think that I am
so light-headed that I would have asserted the things I so firmly
predicted as certain and so often repeated as confirmed if I had
no other foundation than the one you mentioned. Because
these prophecies are not numbered among the canonical books,
I could not find internal conviction to believe and to foretell

221
 —
APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

them. Furthermore, as already appears above and will be clear

below too, in my preaching I descended to details I think are
not present in these prophetic writings. Even stronger, were I
to grant that I took them for a foundation, this ought to be
enough to induce faith in me so that men might do penance for
their sins. The objection comes to nothing more than this
'You are not a prophet, but preach the prophecies of others.'
To which I answer, if I announce the truth, whatever the way,
that is enough for me, as long as men are converted to the good.
I do not wish to be held for a prophet, for the name is a grave

and dangerous one. It renders a man quite disturbed, and

arouses many persecutions against him, although for Christ's
sake they are freely borne. For this reason I do not agree that I
have ever depended on the prophecies of others, except for the
canonical ones. As I said, I have not read them. If at the
instigation of a friend I looked at some, I gave them back after
having scarcely read them once. I neither condemn them nor
approve them, but leave them to God's judgment 'to whose
eyes all things are naked and open.'" 86
The Tempter: "Son, the things that you say you received
from God should be kept in secret. This is what the writings of
the holy fathers advise." I answered: "If this were the truth, it
would follow that Moses, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and the other
prophets of the Old and New Testaments did not act correctly
by preaching their revelations to the people and by putting
them in writing. Many hermits have likewise not acted cor-
rectly. So too Saint Benedict, Saint Vincent Ferrer, Saint Cath-
erine of Siena, Saint Bridget, and countless other saints whose
prophecies and divine revelations we read in various books
have all erred in publicizing them. I acknowledge that such
matters ought not to be divulged unless God commands it or
love of neighbor and God's warning urge it. For this reason the
whole populace of Florence knows that I have spoken only in
public about these sorts of things. I have not gone beyond what
I was conceded or commanded. In private I never or rarely

talked about them, except for what was said under seal of faith
to some of my close friends. Believe me that I have many things

222
 SAVONAROLA

hidden in my have never manifested and will never

heart that I

manifest unless God me to do otherwise."

inspires
The Tempter: "Whoever prophesies future things ought to
confirm them with miracles in order to be believed. Otherwise,
heretics could do the same. So the Canon 'Cum ex iniuncto
extra de haereticis' can be invoked against you, the one that
seems to indicate that those who preach such things confirm
them by some sign or miracle. 87 Some say that in not doing this
you have acted in a heretical manner and are to be judged as a
heretic." I answered: "These men are either ignorant or evil.
They either do not understand the sacred canons from lack of
careful examination, or else they have spitefully twisted them.
You will not find what they say written down anywhere! On
the contrary, few of the prophets are known to have been
famous for miracles. When Ananias opposed Jeremiah, as
found in the twenty-eighth chapter of his book, the prophet did
not prove his word by miracles, but said: 'Hear this word that I
speak in your ears and the ears of the whole people. The
prophets who existed before me and you from the beginning
have prophesied battle, affliction, and famine upon many
lands and many great kingdoms. As for the prophet who
prophesied peace, you will know him as a prophet whom the
Lord has truly sent when his word comes true.' 88 When Jonah
the prophet preached the overthrow of Nineveh, he showed no
miracles to the people. Of those who prophesied in the times of
the kings of Israel, very few proved their prophecies with
miracles. Why ask about others when the prophet of prophets,
Saint John the Baptist, completely lacked miracles? It is writ-
ten in the tenth chapter of John, 'Many came to Jesus and said
that John had worked no sign. All the things that John had said
about this man were true, and many believed him.' 89
"The text of the decretal brought against me above is not
to the point, because it speaks against those who usurp the
office of preaching without the permission or command of
prelates, claiming that they have been invisibly commissioned
by God. The canon says that they ought to prove this by signs,
as did Moses, or by the testimony of the sacred scripture, as did

223
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

John the Baptist, who said, 'I am the voice of one crying in the
desert, as Isaiah the prophet says.' 90
As I have demonstrated,
according to their interpretation this canon would be contrary
to sacred scripture. Therefore I have rightly called them either
ignorant or else wicked perverters of the canons. There is no
need for me to prove my mission by signs or scriptures, since
all know that my superiors commissioned me to the office of
preaching. I do not say that I have been sent by God alone and
not by them. They are not in justice able to call me a heretic. A
heretic is one who has obstinately chosen to follow some teach-
ing contrary to the holy scripture or to the teaching of the
Holy Roman Church. do not recall having said or written
I

anything that did not agree with the teaching of Christ and the
Church. I desire that everything I have said or written up to
now, and will say or write in the future, be ever subject to the
correction of the Holy Roman Church. I am prepared to re-
ceive reproof gladly from it or from any man wherever I have
been in error."
The Tempter: "In a nutshell, I do not wish to believe too
hastily, for it is written, 'He who believes hastily is light-
" 91
headed.' responded, "It is also written, 'Charity believes all
I

things.' 92Since the Holy Spirit, the author of these two sen-
tences, cannot contradict himself, it should be noted that there
are some things that should be believed with difficulty, such as
detractions, murmurings, and abuse of one's neighbor; others
that should be believed with ease, especially those whose belief
helps men to live well. Even if what our faith preaches were
not true — which is impossible — I would try to believe it, be-
cause these beliefs lead to a life so excellent that a better cannot
be imagined or found. Some other matters can be believed or
not indiscriminately and without sin, such as the histories of
the pagan races and the like. Since the things that I predicted
are not opposed to faith, or morals, or natural reason, and since
they are plausible, as I have shown by many arguments at
various times, and since they also persuade men to live piously
as experience has shown, it follows that the charge of levity
cannot be leveled against anyone who believes them with ease.
Our ancient Fathers, such as Saints Jerome, Ambrose, Augus-

224
 SAVONAROLA

tine, and Gregory, and many others who were very skillful in
every science and very prudent in human affairs, believed such
things with ease, even when they came from the uneducated, as
long as they were men or women of approved life and reputa-
tion. They not only received them with pure trust, but they
also immortalized them by setting them down for the others'
profit, as appears in Jerome's Lives of the Holy Fathers, Gregory's
Dialogues, some of Augustine's short works, and in many writ-
ings of different saints. 93 We are certainly not holier or wiser
than the ancient Fathers who wrote down countless things of
this kind for our benefit in the Old and New Testaments and
in other books that have been approved and received by Holy
Church."
The Tempter: "If we were to believe all the visions told us,
we would certainly find ourselves often deceived. Hence it is
" 94
written, 'Test the spirits to see whether they are from God.'
I answered: "In this area something is hidden that not everyone

can grasp, but I will try to make it clear to all by means of a

comparison with natural things. In nature we see that what-
ever has the same form also has a tendency and way of acting
that corresponds to that form. Thus heavy things move to the
earth's center, light things move upward. A similar explanation
holds in supernatural things, so that beings that have one kind
of supernatural form possess the tendency and way of acting
that comes from the form. Since the light of faith is the same
supernatural form in all who believe, though some possess it
more intensely than others, 95 and since this light has a native
tendency toward the truth as its proper object, it is not possible
for anyone who is informed by this light to adhere firmly to a
falsity contrary to the faith without the corruption or loss of
the light of faith. Whenever a faithful and sincere person hears
something that is above the capacity of his intellect, if he is
acting according to the light of faith, he will never firmly
adhere to the false side, but will always surrender everything to
God and to the teaching of the Church. Note that anyone who
lives correctly and walks in the way of God is illuminated by a
special light above the common light of faith. It exists for the
sake of joining charity to faith and for uprightness and simplic-

225
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

ity of mind, as it is written, 'A light for the pure of heart has
arisen in the darkness. ,96 By means of this light they can
discern revelations and divine operations without any error.
Just as God directs nature so that
it does not err, for the

Philosopher says that the work of nature is the work of an

intelligence that does not err, 97 so too he directs the faithful
and simple to know his works and revelations without error.
He who does not want to be deceived in these questions should
live piously in simplicity of heart and should be directed by
God into the truth itself without any error. Thus the Fathers
we mentioned above were not mistaken in believing and writ-
ing down such things. Only some proud men were fooled,
especially those who thought that they were wise when they
opposed and scoffed at such things. They not only never
prayed (except perhaps with their lips), but they did not even
know what the word 'prayer' meant."
The Tempter: "Nevertheless I see that many very wise
men of great and keen genius and impressive prudence, most
skillful in all human affairs, scoffed at those visions. I am
moved by their authority." answered: "Did I not say that in
I

order to understand these things pious living and walking in

God's sight alone were required? Human wisdom is totally
unequal to these matters. Rather, because of its pride, God
leaves it in darkness as unworthy of so precious a light. It is
written: 'You have hidden these things from the wise and the
prudent and revealed them to the little ones.' 98 The apostle
says: 'Where is the wise man? Where the scribe? Where the
investigator of this world? Has not God made foolish the
wisdom of this world? Because in God's wisdom the world did
not have knowledge through God's wisdom, it has pleased him
to save believers through the foolishness of preaching.' 99 Isaiah
says, 'Where is the learned man, where the doctor of the law
who ponders its words, where the teacher of the little ones?
You will not behold the shameless people, the people of pro-
found speech, so that you will not be able to understand the
eloquence of his tongue, in whom there is no wisdom.' 100 Let
those wise men answer whether what I foretold was possible or
impossible for God's power and wisdom. If they are wise, they

226
 SAVONAROLA

will confess that such things are not only possible for God, but
also quite easy to do. Since the wise man's role is not to speak
foolishly and without reason, want to know why they were
I

moved to mock you look at it carefully, they

these matters. If
are not able to put up any argument against our predictions,
certainly not a demonstrative one. The material does not allow
it,because we foretold contingent things to come, and demon-
stration concerns necessary things, not dialectical and probable
ones. The latter arguments lead to opinions that, even though
they do not make the intellect absolutely sure as demonstrative
arguments do, still incline the mind more to one side than to
the other. From the viewpoint of natural causes the things I

foretold are indifferent. They could either happen or not.

From the viewpoint of the divine will God is freely able to do
them or not. If he does not reveal them, no one can know
where his inclination and decision rest. Therefore, these pre-
dictions can neither be proved nor disproved by means of
natural arguments because a foundation in nature is lacking.
"Furthermore these predictions cannot be rejected on the
basis of signs, because of the two kinds of signs that have the
greatest power of disproof, neither works in this case. The first
iswhen a prior condition contrary to the things predicted is
manifest in the world. This does not interfere at all in this case,
but rather proves the opposite, because when God intends to
show his gloryhe does great things at unexpected times. He
causes them to be foretold long ahead when no prior condition
is apparent, as can be seen from the prophets of the New and

Old Laws. So too in my case when everything seemed peaceful

I foretold that war would soon come; and now when the world

is in turmoil I predict the greatest tranquillity and peace will

immediately follow. When the Florentines thought they were

very fortunate, I prophesied evils to them; now, when they are
in great difficulties, I announce that supreme happiness will
soon be theirs. Therefore, the first sign has no power of dis-
proof.
"The second sign, that is, the reprehensible life of the
prophet, might seem to be valid, but this too holds no water. As
I have mentioned, evil men have prophesied things to come

227
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

from the power of the prophetic light, for this is a charismatic

gift that can be possessed even by someone in mortal sin. And,
so, I do not see the basis for this mockery of the wise, except in
their own pride. They ought to note that they could be justly
put to shame by this pride. We have shown that none of these
things is impossible, but they are likely and fitting. Therefore,
whenever anything we predicted takes place, the wise will be
subject to no small danger of ridicule and loss of the glorious
distinction for which alone they labor in everything they do. I
am not at all surprised at their ridicule, since Christ has said: 'I

have come into the world to do judgment, so that those who do

not seemay see, and those who see may become blind.' " 101
The Tempter: "Those who believe in you are quite rare in
comparison with those who ridicule these predictions. It seems
hard to follow the judgment of so few." I responded: "This is a
very frivolous argument. We see that very few men have cor-
rect judgment and that very few are wise in comparison with
the multitude of fools, as is written, 'The number of fools is
infinite.' 102 So, too, few live justly in comparison with those
who live unjust lives, because many are called but few are
chosen. 103 In both Testaments we read that they were few in
number who followed the prophets, Christ, and the apostles, in
comparison with those who persecuted them. There is also a
great difference between those who hear these things from the
author's mouth and those who receive information from the
account of the hearers or from others. If you speak about my
audience, the number of those who believe cannot be compared
with the number who do not; rather, almost none of my
hearers is a nonbeliever. But if you are talking about the others
who have not heard me, I grant that the number of nonbeliev-
ers is much larger than that of believers. It is one thing to listen
to a man who has an interior perception of all these things in
the fullness of his spirit, and to hear the sound of his living
voice, his arguments and their order, the force of his words and
their agreement with scripture. It is quite another to hear
someone who does not personally feel them or who lacks their
spirit repeating them. He will have a weak voice, halting
disordered arguments, and dry ill-chosen words, without spirit

228
 SAVONAROLA

and almost dead, with all the life breathed out. So Saint Jerome
rightly says: 'The living voice has I know not what hidden
energy; it resounds more strongly as it passes from the speak-
er's mouth to the ears of the listeners.' 104 It is written: 'I will
give you a mouth and wisdom so thatyour adversaries will
all

not be able to resist or contradict you.' 105 We read concerning

the holy Protomartyr Stephen that when so many wise men
gathered together and argued with him, 'they were not able to
resist the wisdom and the spirit which spoke in him.' 106 It is no
wonder that many who do not hear the original speaker never
believe, especially since the teaching of Christ has always un-
dergone contradiction from the beginning of the world to the
present. Therefore, detractors in various places have easily
corrupted the minds of the simple. Without hearing the source,
the simple are easily led astray."
The Tempter: "Many claim that a number of the things
you foretold have not happened, and for this reason they do not
believe the other things you predicted." I answered: "Whatever
I have publicly preached about things to come has either al-
ready taken place or certainly will take place. Not one iota will
fail. But note that when I spoke apart and privately, because I

am a man and then spoke as a man, perhaps I let slip something

that was less true, though I have no consciousness or memory
of such a thing. I always try to speak the truth. If it ever
happens otherwise, it will come either from a slip of the tongue
or from speaking about the future not in the spirit but in a
human way, as is usually the case. I have often warned in the
pulpit that I should receive no more faith than other men in
any private conversation, except in the case of those coming
particular events known through heavenly illumination of
which I have spoken to some of my close friends. Part of them
are already fulfilled; the rest will doubtless also be completed. I
know that the divinatory spirit is not always at the service of
the prophets themselves, but comes and goes at the will of the
Holy Spirit. When it is present it does not reveal everything, but
disclosesmore or less according to its wishes. Thus Nathan the
prophet speaking from his own spirit persuaded David to build
the Temple when he said: 'Go and do everything that is in your

229
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

Lord is with you.' 107 But afterwards,

heart, because the at the
command of the Holy Spirit, he revoked his word.
"Some stupid people who have spoken to me have boasted
that while we talked I did not know the secrets of their hearts,
any prophet should be equal to God and know
as if to infer that
everything. 'They are in error, knowing neither the scriptures
nor the power of God.' 108 The great prophet Elisha when the
Sunamite woman whose son had died came to him said, 'Her
soul is in bitterness and the Lord has hidden it from me and
not revealed it to me.' 109 Many came to tempt me, because in
my preaching they heard me say that their cunning could not
deceive me. They did not understand that I meant to signify
that they would not be able to make me preach things that
were unsuitable by their frauds. Whatever I said in the pulpit I
was first accustomed to weigh in the balance of prayer and
scripture, as well as by natural reason, experience and trust-
worthy witnesses. I did not say this because the secrets of their
hearts could not be hidden from me. Only God can read them.
Even though many thought that they had deceived me in
matters of some import and weight, their frauds were not
hidden from me. I often heard of them before they spoke.
Other times I heard of them afterwards, as some of my ac-
quaintances to whom I told this in secret can testify, and even
some of the liars themselves who recognized that their licen-
tious schemes and frauds were found out.
"I know that this objection came partly from some reli-
gious (though few) whom I warned and reproved in charity
about hidden faults. Some of them were unrepentant and al-
ways denied things that became evident from clear signs and
indications in the passage of time, even though they still per-
sisted tenaciously in their wickedness. Some confessed to their
friends that had spoken the truth about them, although before
I

others they were still ashamed and denied it. This error also

came from falsifiers who made up many lies by additions or

subtractions to my words according to their wishes, thus mak-
ing me the author of their errors. It also could have come from
those who heard me preaching, but who did not receive my
words in the sense in which they were spoken. For this reason

230
 SAVONAROLA

it for me to repeat the same things. There-

was often necessary
fore, decided to write down whatever I had publicly preached
I

about the future so that they could understand everything that

I had predicted and would no longer ascribe things to me that I

had not even thought of. And, so, Christ's teaching might be
defended from so many calumnies."
The Tempter: "I think that the fact that you have become
a conversation piece for the Florentines and for the whole of
Italy should be enough keep you quiet." I answered: "My
to
concern is to please God and not men, because as the apostle
says, 'If I would please men any longer, I would not be a
servant of Christ.' 110 I am not so stupid that I do not know that
anyone who preaches such things is held for a fool by the wise
men of this world. Along with Paul I say to them, 'We are fools
for the sake of Christ, you are wise men.' 111 But in the time
when the just will stand in great constancy against those who
persecuted them, 112 I hope to hear the voices of these wise men
as they say: 'These are they whom we at one time held in
derision and as an image of reproach. We fools judged their life
to be madness and their end without honor. Behold how they
have been numbered among God's sons and their lot is with the
saints.'" 113
The Tempter: "If you were only made a fool of, it would
not count for much. But you are also hated and your life is in
serious danger. It would be better if you considered stopping
right now." I answered: "As I said, I am not so insane that I do
not know that everyone rebukes me and that every human state
of life has grave hatreds raised against it. But the more I see my
teaching, undertakings, and works to be like the teaching and
works of Christ, the apostles, and the holy prophets who were
mocked, hated, and persecuted because of the truth, the stron-
ger I become. This is a sign of divine predestination, as Christ
says: 'Blessed are you when men hate you, persecute you, and
speak every lying evil against you for my sake. Rejoice and
exult because your reward is great in heaven. Thus did they
persecute the prophets who lived before you.' " 114
The Tempter: "I now know quite well that you do
not sin
from ignorance or from foolish simplicity, because you have

231
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

answered my objections in a way that shows that you are

seriously moved to make these predictions. Although a host of
other objections could be advanced, you would easily be able to
refute them since you have answered many more difficult ones.
Therefore, if you do not preach those things from ignorance, it
follows that you make them up with deceit in order to gain
glory, dignity, and wealth, as many hold. That, my son, is
detestable." I answered and said: "Although it is not right for
me to justify myself, nevertheless, I will respond with what
modesty I can manage so that Christ's teaching does not suffer
blame. I said before that the light of prophecy does not justify a
man in any way, and I acknowledge that I am a sinner in need
of divine mercy. But mark God's word to Samuel the prophet:
'Men see what appears on the outside; God beholds the heart.' 115
And whatever my life may be, good or evil, only God, no one
else, can judge me. Everyone must be presented before the
judgment seat of Our Lord Jesus Christ so that each can report
what he did while in the body. 116 Those who think that way
about me in my judgment have no basis, because they cannot
investigate my heart's secret and the final intent of my preach-
ing except from external signs. Those who think ill of me have
no foundation in such things, at least insofar as human judg-
ment can grasp. If, as they say, my aim is not a good one, then
because every agent acts for the sake of an end, 117 the end of
my preaching must be some temporal good and God is rejected.
"Temporal goods are of three kinds. Some are external to
man, such as riches, honors, glory, power, and dignity. Some
are in man's bodily part, like strength, health, beauty, and
pleasure; some in the intellectual part, like knowledge, elo-
quence, and other special gifts. Since these men cannot see
what is hidden in my heart, in order to make such a judgment
about me they have to base their argument on an evident
external sign from which they can prove that I have desired
one or all of these things. I do not think they can report any
such sign. They cannot say that I am after money. It is well
known that my brothers and I are reduced to the moderation
and scarcity of a simple way of life according to the rule of our
order so that the citizens of Florence can testify that we have

232
 SAVONAROLA

never bothered them about anything beyond the bare necessi-

ties of life. I have not been friendly and familiar with the
powerful and the rich, but in my preaching I have always
resisted their unbridled desires. Following the judgment of
flesh and blood, they would have much to complain about in
me, although according to the Spirit they ought to thank God
for the works that he has done for them through me.
"It cannot be said against me that I am hungry for honor
and glory, because as I said above and have learned by experi-
ence, proclaiming things to come gains one derision rather
than honor, especially in the case of the important people with
whom unspiritual men and the worldly-wise seek to gain repu-
tation and glory. Anyone who would put his goal in glory and
honor and seek them from the weak and lowborn from whom
no profit can be expected, and who is hated and ridiculed by
the powerful, would be completely insane.
"You cannot reasonably say that I aspire to ecclesiastical
our times we know how they are acquired. I
dignities, for in
have always taken the opposite course in my sermons, forever
speaking in a general way about public matters. I have never
marked out anyone in particular by name or in such a way that
one person could be censured. Nonetheless I have aroused
against myself the hatred rather than the good will of those
who have the power to grant these dignities. I have not for that
reason been led to try to reconcile them or flatter them, as do
those who are interested in dignities.
"My attackers cannot have a foundation for their view
with regard to bodily goods, for I could not give myself up to
pleasures without its being openly known, especially by my
brethren who as eyewitnesses of my daily life know my labors
of mind and body very well. If you knew how much work it is
(leaving other things aside) to preach continuously so many
years in the same city, especially with the intention of bearing
fruit and the desire of saving souls, you would think quite
differently. Even though it may seem unfitting for someone to
speak about himself and his own style of life, I have been given
—
permission for now. Let this suffice for an answer nothing
can be discovered about me that would allow the judgment that

233
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

I organized my sermons to gain bodily goods. Therefore, they

speak like fools.
"Further, my enemies cannot base my sermons on the
goods of the intellectual part of man by claiming that their goal
is the parading of wisdom and eloquence. Everybody knows

how simply I preach and how completely I avoid any pretense

of wisdom and eloquence. I have not said all this to praise
myself, because in God's sight I am not justified in this, 118 but
in order to show those who falsely accuse our teaching, rather
Christ's teaching, that they are without foundation and that
without evident signs they usurp the judgment of the heart
that belongs to God alone. If I seem to have fallen to praising
4
myself, I answer with Paul, I have spoken in foolishness,' and
'I have become foolish; you have forced me.' "
119

The Tempter: "I am surprised that you would deny that

there are clear external signs of your wickedness when all
know that you left the Congregation of the Lombard Obser-
vance, and also withdrew from San Marco in Florence, San
Domenico in Fiesole, and other places joined to them so that
you would not have to remain obedient. Like a Lord you
arrogated the priorate for life and thus obtained a fine state for
rejoicing." 120 I
answered: "I could not have made this with-
drawal alone, without the consent of the brothers of those
houses. More than a hundred of them agreed (though not all at
one time, since San Marco went first), as is evident from the
published document. They cannot all be thought so foolish or
evil that they were unable to judge whether this withdrawal
would be good or bad, particularly since for more than six
months they gathered and prayed to God about the matter four
or five times a day. As the result has shown, the separation was
clearly done not for the sake of relaxation but for that of
strictness. This is not a falling away from our professed obedi-
ence. Its form is a promise of obedience to God, the Virgin
Mary, Saint Dominic, and the master general of the whole
order, or prior, or whoever presides in the place of the general.
Our profession binds us to obey the general, not the Lombard
Congregation. When we withdrew we were still obedient to
the general. According to our constitutions the Province of

234
 SAVONAROLA

Tuscany was divided from the Province of Lombardy, and

neither naturally rules over the other. One time when the
Convent of San Marco was deprived of the correct number of
brothers due to a terrible plague it could not stand on its own
and freely committed itself to the control of the Lombard
Congregation. Now with the aid of divine grace the number of
brothers is such that it is well able to govern itself and so it is
suitable that it legitimately return to its proper state, because
when the cause ceases so should the effect, especially when the
customs of the Lombards and Tuscans differ so much.
"It is not true that I made myself prior for life. Even the
Pontifical Brief of Separation was so procured by my efforts
that it laid down that the prior a year from the day of his
election would be free and void of all responsibility and that it
would be in the power of the brothers to choose whom they
preferred. This is annually observed. This year a biennial
vicar, the head of our whole congregation, has been established.
When two years are over he will yield to another and like the
rest of the brothers be a subject once again, at least through the
whole following two years. Things will follow this order and
there will be no opportunity for domination. Anyone who
abandons obedience out of desire for domination does not bind
himself with stricter rules, but seeks a freer life. He devotes
himself to excess in eating, drinking, and dressing, and has a
good time. None of this is seen in our congregation, but rather
the greatest harmony and charity, which do not agree with
ambition, as is written: 'Quarrels always are found among the
proud/ 121
"Since it would be far too drawn out to bring up all the
reasons that led me to the separation, let this alone suffice for
the present, that is, as long as it is believed. Whether it is

believed or not, I will by no means leave it out since I know

that before God I am not lying. No
speak the truth and
ambition or desire for the pleasure of bodily comfort pushed
me to this separation; the brothers of Lombardy know that I

had no lack of honor and comfort there. But it was God's will
that I should do this. I was moved to the separation by the same
light by which I predicted the future. God willed it, inspired it,

235
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

and urged it because he had decided to do many things through

us in Tuscany, and especially in Florence. Some of these we
have already seen accomplished; the others we will soon see
done. None could have come about had not that separation
come first."
The Tempter: "If you knew
was God's will, what need
it

was there to get the aid of worldly human power to obtain a

papal brief for the separation?" I answered, "When God wants
something done, he still wishes fit means for the conditions of
the times to be used. The present situation required that it be
so. God also wanted us to face very great opposition from those
against us in order toshow that he was the author of this affair,
not men. My brethren will testify that at the height of the
dispute I used to exhort them and often assure them that if the
whole world were against us we should still be sure of victory,
because it was God's will. As indeed it happened."
The Tempter: "One thing mars your responses that you —
are grasping at the state and government of Florence and
looking to seize the highest position so that you can drag the
people where you want." I answered: "Those who knew me
recognize that up to now I have never been involved in public
affairs with the exception of this one time. In the new situation
and great danger of Florence it seemed to be my duty to advise
how the city ought to be governed. With divine inspiration I
recommended things that were necessary and useful for public
safety to the citizens, but I did not compel them. After a good
form of government had been adopted, everyone knows that
my last message was to fear God always and above all, to pray
before taking up any serious matters, and not to come to me for
advice any longer. My desire is to pursue peace and quiet, but
God in the meantime inspired me to do otherwise and charity
urged it. When asked, I did not cease giving advice.

"No one can justly complain about what I have done up to

now by saying, 'Nobody fighting for God gets involved in
worldly concerns so that he may please him to whom he has
committed himself.' 122 In things of such importance, and even
those of lesser weight, many holy men have dutifully taken up
the charge of political power over both lords and commons as

236
 SAVONAROLA

the readers of the sacred histories know. Saint Catherine of

Siena, despite her female sex, often intervened in public affairs
for the common good. She undertook an embassy for the Flor-
entines to Pope Gregory XI at Avignon and not long after one
for the same pontiff to the Florentines. Therefore to treat of
public affairs for the sake of universal peace and in order to
lead men to justice and to good actions and for the common
salvation of souls not to be involved in secular affairs, nor are
is

Paul's words to be understood in this way. Rather it is to gain

the people things spiritual and divine. According to Aristotle,
123
it is just to designate each thing from its end."

The Tempter: "This excuse could be admitted if you had

exhorted the people of Florence to some good form of govern-
ment, but you advised a form of government that seems dan-
gerous to prudent and practical men. To put something of such
importance at the discretion of the people and to snatch it from
the hands of the powerful cannot be done without grave dan-
ger." I answered: "If you look at this government correctly, it
is right and natural for the people of Florence. All good gov-

ernment is divided by philosophers into three types. The first,

when one person with full power rules the multitude, is the
best, if the ruler is just. The second is the administration of a
few powerful and wise men, which is called aristocracy, that is,
the rule of the best. The third is when a city or province is
governed by the whole people; this is called a polity. This
belonged to the Florentines from of old, and they call it a
'popular regime.' Ancient custom shows that one quarter of
their magistrates, especially those who really govern the state,
should come from the artisans. This government is not merely
of the crowd, but of the whole people, that is, of all those who
can hold office because they have been citizens for a fixed
time. 124 Because it is easy for the powerful to push the crowd
where they want, we gave the city a style of government like a
polity, or a popular one. If it is kept, after this no one powerful
man will be able to gain a tyranny by reason of riches or
connections. Only the virtuous will be exalted. The citizens
will dwell in their city free of trouble, and no one will be
permitted to oppress another unjustly. This type of govern-

237
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

ment will give the greatest unity and peace. As have often
I

explained and as experience has taught, only three kinds of

—
people will complain about it the ambitious, the wicked, and
the foolish. This is because, unless they improve, they will no
longer be able easily to obtain the positions they unworthily
desire.
"It is not true that this government is dangerous, for it is
not entrusted to the crowd at all, nor absolutely to the people
or the magnates, but to whoever obtains his power and author-
ity from the Great Council where what is to be considered will
be pondered maturely. The nobles and the prudent men used
to governing will attend the council. In such a large gathering
there can be only rare error, especially when this form of
government will have grown stronger and more elaborate
through use (nothing is immediately perfect), and when all the
fit citizens meet in Council, not just a third as now. The

citizens intend to set it up this way, but it has not yet been
decreed because there is no public place large enough for such
a big crowd. The fullness of power will always remain in this
council, and such a large group will not be easily corrupted or
perverted by those hungry for tyranny. To corrupt so many
would be difficult and in a way impossible, especially because
the judgment and examination of other prudent and proven
citizens will have been invoked before the council takes up
anything. This will take place first through a consideration
made by their colleagues summoned by the Signoria, and then
by the 'Consiglio de'Richiesti' composed of eighty men, almost
always from the first rank, who will be charged with the
examination of whatever is coming up. This will be set out in
the new reform of the government. 125
"The more this new government advances, the more it

will cleanse the city from the infection of the evil and the
foolish and force all citizens to pursue honest life and virtue.
Through the Great Council administrative offices suitable to
its character will be set up, and when only worthy men of

sense have been admitted to these offices the city will be ruled
well and happily in things spiritual and temporal. Florence
will not labor constantly under the different quarrels of the

238
 SAVONAROLA

citizens,which everyone knows are so harmful to the Republic.

The citizens can remain quiet and safe at home and make the
city flower with virtues and riches. No one will be compelled
to foster injustice, but all will be able to embrace a life that
126
befits good and perfect Christians."
The Tempter: "In summary, your excuses do not square
with many people because hypocrisy has learned how-tQ—Con-,
cealJ^sadeasjwjitJij^e." I answered: "I know that it is impossi-

ble to satisfy everyone because a servant is not greater than his

127
master. Even though Christ could not be in error, neverthe-
less, the Scribes and the Pharisees could not believe that he was

not a seducer. It is enough for me to show that the verdict and

complaint of those who presume to judge my inner intention
completely lacks any foundation in exterior indication and that
their words do not come from a good intention. Although I
acknowledge that I am a sinner, I can show from valid reasons
and arguments that my deeds have not come from ill will, as
they lyingly claim. I have already shown that they do not
proceed from ignorance.
"First of all, God cannot consent to evil and give it assis-
tance. He always condemns it and diminishes it. Two things
stand out from my predictions that can only be done by God.
They prove that my teaching is from him and not from human
malice. One is that the greater part of what I foretold has
already been fulfilled and verified exactly, down to the last jot;
the other is the change in the people of Florence. Anyone
would openly confess memory of man
that never in the recent
has there been such a change in men and women and a holiness
of like proportions as when Florence passed from vice to virtue
and to a decent way life. The reformation of the city (some-
of
thing everybody thought was impossible) was brought off by
the admonitions in my sermons. I could here introduce many
almost miraculous events that happened in the city through my
activity by the grace of God. For the sake of brevity I will leave
them out. It is fitting and true that God, the just and best

Parent of all, should enlighten the good rather than the evil
with his light and should permit the evil rather than the good
to fall into error. Since all the good people of Florence follow

239
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

this teaching, and all who lead lives that are blameworthy and
unchristian attack it, it is consistent that it has its origin in God
and not in error and cunning.
"It is unlikely that such deceitful malice would not have
been detected during the many years I lived at Florence, espe-
cially because the Florentines are the shrewdest of men and the
most inquisitive spies of others' lives. Even more, in my case
evil men, priests and religious as well as laity and men of every
station, drew up many attacks and false accusations against me,
to the point of making up letters of excommunication and
criminal accusation. If there were error or deceit in my preach-
ing, I say that it absolutely could not have been concealed until
today. Truth always grows in the midst of difficulties and gets
stronger in conflict because it then shines forth more bril-
liantly. It has conquered everything. Becoming successively
greater, it now has more strength than ever before."
The Tempter: "Finally, to speak the truth, it seems to me
that you talk about vice and virtue the way other preachers do.
You follow their usual style and do not come off as original.
This prediction of the future bears no fruit for souls and looks
like ostentation rather than true modesty." I responded: "Caus-
es are known by their efforts. Since all know that very great
service for the salvation of souls has come from this message
and this kind of preaching, it can scarcely be, as you claim, that
my preaching and predictions are useless. Rather, they are
especially useful and fruitful. They bring men to penance and
prepare God's elect to bear coming tribulations with calm,
because 'Darts foreseen make lighter wounds.' 128 Even though
not everyone turns to God, the elect for whom these things
were foretold have profited greatly from them, as it is written:
'You have shown your people hard things; you have given us
the wine of compunction to drink. You have given yourself as a
sign for those who fear you so that they might flee from the
bow, so that your beloved ones may be delivered.' 129 Even if
others did not believe, the elect surely did. These things were
given to me for their profit, as is written: 'All who were
" 13 °
destined to eternal life believed.'
When I had already taken up a good deal of time in

240
 SAVONAROLA

arguing like this with the Tempter, I back at my

finally looked
companions and saw them talking together and laughing at
me. I turned to them and said, "What are you saying to each
other and why are you smiling?" 131 They answered: "You do
not seem to know who you are talking to." I then drew near
Lady Prayer and asked her to tell me who he might be. She
said: "You have become involved in an argument based on
human wisdom, the kind that is foolishness to God. So you
have not recognized who he was who was disputing with you
till now. Go join Lady Simplicity, since she well knows every

cunning of the Enemy. She will teach you what you want to
know." When I joined the Lady my eyes were immediately
opened and I knew that he was not a hermit, but mankind's
Tempter. Then I collected my four companions and said:
"Foul Satan, the craftiness and arts by which you try to pervert
the hearts of the simple and to lead them away from the faith
have gained you nothing. God's strong hand is with us; it
makes his work grow. You and your angels have been put to
confusion." When I said this he disappeared at once, filling the
air with great cries.
From that point on we peacefully pursued the journey we
had undertaken and came to the gates of heaven, which were
surrounded by a very high wall of precious stones and seemed
to encircle the whole universe. On the top of it angel guardians
sat round about, sweetly singing what is written in Isaiah:
"Sion is the city of our strength; the Savior will place a wall
and a bulwark in it." We knocked on the gates without delay.
They then responded, "Open the gates and let in the just
nation that upholds the truth." My companions lifted up their
eyes to heaven and responded: "Let the old error depart. Keep
the peace, because we have hoped in you." The angels replied
with melodious voice, "You have hoped in the Lord for endless
ages, in the Lord God who is strong forever. Let fear be far
from you. Your desires will be fulfilled and human pride will
be confounded, because God has cast down those who dwelt on
high and humbled the lofty city. He will humble her to the
very earth, drag her down as far as the dust. The foot of the
poor man, the step of the needy will tread her under." In the

241
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

midst of these words we saw the gates opening and heard them
sing from within: "The just man's path is correct; his way is

right to walk upon." We turned toward God and

responded:
"We have waited for you, Lord, in the way of your judgments;
your name and your memory are the desire of our soul." When
I heard this I became much more fervent and lifted up my

voice and said, "My soul has desired You at night, and in the
depths of my heart my spirit has kept watch for You in the
morning. When You judge the earth all those who dwell on the
globe will learn your justice." 132
The gates were opened right after these words and under a
light ofimmense brightness we saw indescribable things. I will
speak of part of them as the sermon goes on.
Before we went in, Saint Joseph met us, he who is the
spouse and guardian of that Immaculate Virgin to whom we
were going for a response to our embassy. Before he introduced
us he said, "The Lord be with you." We responded, "May the
Lord bless you." We then added: "Holy Father, because your
Spouse, the Virgin Mother of God, on the Feast of her
Annunciation took up the task of pleading on behalf of the
Florentines for the restoration of the promises lost by their
sins, and because we were told within the octave that a good
answer would be given us on the day of the octave itself, we
have returned tonight, all ignorant of the details of the re-
sponse, so that we can learn what good news we can announce
to the Florentines tomorrow morning. We therefore brought
along this beautiful present."
At that moment we uncovered the very luxurious crown
that Lady Simplicity was carrying. It looked like this. Three
circlets or crowns of unequal size were joined together and
arranged so that the higher were smaller than the lower. The
first or lowest crown was the largest and was linked together
with twelve precious gems green like jasper and cut in the form
of human hearts. The hearts were upside down with the nar-
row ends like the points of a crown. Along the lower edge of
the hearts the Canticle of Zachary, "Blessed be the Lord, the
God of Israel," 133 divided into twelve verses, one for each of
the hearts, enclosed the whole like a small band or fillet. On the

242
 SAVONAROLA

running from the base up around the top and

side of each heart
down to the other base the Hail Mary was inscribed. In the
middle of each heart the name of Jesus shone forth most
splendidly. Above the point of each heart a single pearl
gleamed; over the pearls were twelve little green banners on
which were inscribed the twelve privileges of the Virgin with
their intercessions. Two related to the Eternal Father: the first,
"True Spouse of God the Father," because she and God the
Father have the same Son; the second, "Admirable Spouse of
God the Father," because as the Father begot the Son from all
eternity in heaven without a mother, so she begot the same Son
on earth without a father. Two others concern the Son: first,
"Mother of God," and second, "Mother of her Father," for the
Lord Jesus Christ is her Son, and as God and Creator of all he
created her. Two relate to the Holy Spirit, that is "Special
Sanctuary of the Holy Spirit," since she was filled with all
graces by him in a singular way, and "Ineffable Sanctuary of
the Holy Spirit," because he made her worthy to be the Mother
of the Creator of the universe. Two concern her virginity: first,
"Virgin of Virgins," because no other virgin can be compared
to her who had no strain of mortal or venial sin; and second,
"Fruitful Virgin," for she alone is virgin and mother. Two
relate to the Church Triumphant and the whole universe. The
first is "Sole Queen of the World," since she is the true spouse,
mother, and sanctuary of the King of the whole creation, who
is God three and one. The second is "Queen to be honored

above all creatures." To God alone is due the honor of adora-

tion since he is the First Principle and Ruler of all things. To
the saints only the cult of honor is given, fitting for those who
share in God's beatitude or who because of some other dignity
act in God's stead. Because beyond all this the Glorious Virgin
is the Mother of God and far surpasses all the other saints in

honor, she is venerated with "hyperdulia," that is, superior

honor. 134 The two final privileges refer to the Church Militant.
The first is "Sweetness of the Hearts of the Just," because

through her they beg abundant graces from God, and also
because her love is sweeter than honey and the honeycomb and
miraculously makes souls and bodies chaste. The second is

243
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

"Hope of Sinners and Those in Misery," for because of her

prayers and merits they can hope for God's mercy. These
twelve privileges were inscribed on each of the little banners in
this way: "True Spouse of God the Father, pray for us,"
"Admirable Spouse of God the Father, intercede for us," and
so forth.
Above this first crown there
second smaller one com-
is a
posed of ten hearts of gleaming pearls arranged like the lower
ones. The Canticle of the Virgin, that is, the Magnificat, was
inscribed at the bottom, divided into ten verses to match the
number of hearts. Around each of them one of the ten com-
mandments was written. In the midst of each was a ruby; at the
top there was a chalcedony on which sat a small white banner
for each heart. These ten banners contained inscriptions of the
ten petitions made by us and by the city of Florence. The first
was: "In all things may God's will be done." The second, "We
desire the honor and glory of God before all things." The third,
"We seek the renovations of the Church." The fourth, "We
hope for the salvation of all the faithful." The fifth,"We pray
especially for the salvation of our souls." The sixth, "We beg
for the forgiveness of the sins of the people of Florence, which
have interrupted the promise God once made them." The
seventh, "We pray that the scourges the people have deserved
may be averted." The eighth, "May abundance of graces and
full gifts of the Holy Spirit be given to this city." The ninth,
"We beg for an abundance of riches and an enlargement of our
power so that these graces may be spread to other peoples too."
The tenth and last, "May whatever God promised up to now
be fully restored to the Florentines."
A smaller third crown placed atop the second shone with
four hearts of flaming carbuncles. At the bottom of the hearts
was written the Canticle of Simeon, "Now do you dismiss your
servant, O Lord," 135 similarly divided into four verses. Around
each was written the name of one of the four evangelists; in the
midst of each was a glowing cross, and on top a topaz with a
flaming little banner superimposed. On the first of these it
said: "We ask for angelic protection for the city of Florence."
On the second, "We earnestly entreat a rule of perfect bishops

244
 SAVONAROLA

and prelates." On the third, "We request the teaching of holy

preachers;" and on the fourth, "We beg for a multitude of
fervent clergy, priests, and religious." Finally, above this small
crown shone one heart composed of many small hearts of
different colors wonderfully joined together. Around it was
that saying of the Lord: "This is my command, that you love
one another as I have loved you. In this all men will know that
you are my disciples, if you have love for one another." 136 At
the heart's peak glowed a very beautiful emerald inscribed with
the words: "They have one heart and one soul in the Lord." 137
A small crucifix was fastened to the emerald with a little
banner thus inscribed: "May there be peace in your strength
and abundance in your towers. For the sake of my brothers and
my neighbors I will speak peace concerning you. I have sought
good things for you for the sake of the house of the Lord our
God." 138 Rods of the purest gold wound about the three
crowns and bound everything together in a beautiful way. This
is the gift that we
decided to offer to the Majesty of the Eternal
King through the hands of the Glorious Virgin Mother in
order to obtain divine mercy and to complete the restitution of
the graces promised us.
Joseph asked us what the mystery of the crown signified. I
answered: "I realize, my father, that you know it, but that for
our greater consolation you want me to describe it briefly. The
people of Florence consecrate this crown to the Virgin Mother
of God, your Spouse, in order to regain the graces once prom-
ised them. Every day they have devoutly prayed first the
Canticle of Zachary, or, if they did not know it, the Apostles'
Creed in its place, then twelve Hail Marys, then the Magnifi-
cat, the Canticle of your beloved Spouse, and finally the Canti-
cle of Simeon. They have completed this crown not only with
tongue but also with heart and deed. The first circle of green
hearts signifies the beginnners who have recently started to do
penance in the verdure of faith. The joining at the top denotes
the purging of their conscience. 139 Desiring to advance in
spiritual things, they offer their hearts to God and beg for
themselves and for the whole city what appears on the titles of
the little banners.

245
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

"The second circle of the pure white pearls designates the

advanced who are not only cleansed of consciousness of guilt
but are also free of earthly desires. They keep the divine
commandments most diligently. The ruby fixed in the midst of
the hearts shows their charity. The chalcedony placed at the
top points to works burning with love and the good example
they give their neighbors through which many remorseful
sinners are thus led to penance, just as straw is attracted by
chalcedony when it is heated by the sun or by rubbing. And so
the petitions on their little banners are worthy to be heard.
The third crown of hearts made of carbuncles that light up the
night like a flame is Although they are very
that of the perfect.
few, they are all lit with divine love and burn most ardently,
keeping both the commandments and the counsels of the Gos-
pel. In the middle of the hearts they bear a cross red with
longing for the martyrdom they greatly desire for the name of
Christ. The topaz placed above the hearts has the color of the
purest gold and a heavenly brightness. It surpasses the splen-
dor of all other gems as long as it is lit by the sun's rays. It
signifies the deeds and teaching of the perfect who are lit by
Jesus Christ, the Sun of Justice. They ask only for things
splendid and spiritual. The heart made out of many hearts at
the very top of the crown represents the concord and charity of
all the just, and at the same time the public peace recently

established among the citizens. When they neglected this ear-

lier, God grew angry and withdrew the graces destined for

them. Now that they have agreed upon the peace pleasing to
God, they are asking him to restore these benefits completely.
The emerald located above the highest heart points to the hope
of gaining from God the flowering of life everlasting and in
this world the promised graces. The golden rods that connect
and organize everything witness to the agreement and order in
work and prayer of the beginners, the advanced, and the per-
fect;'
Then most holy old man Joseph joyfully grasped my
that
right hand and brought us in when the gates had been shut. He
said, "May your journey be a fortunate one. Rejoice, for you
will receive pleasing new gifts, as you were told." We lifted up

246
 SAVONAROLA

our eyes and saw very broad field, covered with delicious
a
flowers of Paradise. Live crystal streams flowed everywhere
with a quiet murmur. A vast multitude of mild animals, like
white sheep, ermines, rabbits, and harmless creatures of that
sort, all whiter than snow, played pleasantly among the differ-
ent flowers and green grass alongside the flowing waters.
There were leafy trees of various kinds decorated with flowers
and fruits, in whose branches a crowd of varicolored birds
flying here and there in a wonderful way sang a sweet melody.
In the middle I saw a high throne like the throne of Solomon
described in the Third Book of Kings:

King Solomon made throne of ivory and covered it

a great
with much yellow gold. It had six steps and the top was
round in the back. Two hands on either side held the chair,
two lions stood beside the hands, and twelve small lions
stood on the six steps. No such work had been made in any
other kingdom. 140

On throne there sat a most beautiful and gracious

this
Lady holding in her lap an infant brighter than the sun. Above
them, almost in the middle between heaven and earth, shone a
wonderful light with three faces that lighted up the whole
world. The triple face seemed to take the greatest delight in the
sight of that wonderful Lady, and to fill her with light more
than any other thing that could be seen. It smiled joyfully upon
her and her son with such high delight and gaity that mortal
tongue could not express it. The whole joy of the three faces
seemed to be turned toward the mother and the son. A count-
less array of ministers stood in ranks about the throne some- —
thing marvelous to see! Astonished at this wondrous sight, and
not able to bear the light because of human weakness, I imme-
diately fell on my face. 141 My guardian angel and Joseph our
leader revived me and lifted me up on my feet. I asked Joseph
to reveal to me the mystery of so great a sacrament. He gra-
ciously replied thus: "This is the mystery of the renewal of the
Church throughout the world that you have foretold to mortals
for these many years. The walls made of precious stones are the

247
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

doctors, preachers, and prelates filled with virtues who will

protect the Church in that time. The angels who are arranged
on the walls signify the coming communion between prelates
and angels. The prelates will be illuminated and guarded by
their protection. 142 The gate signifies the scriptures of the Old
and New Testaments. Every believing Christian enters the
Church through faith in the scriptures. The flowers on the
field are the different virtues that will fill the world. The
streams of water are the divine graces that will be plentiful at
that time, as is written: 'Come all you who thirst to the wa-
ters;' 143 and again, 'Let him who thirsts come to me and
drink;' 144 and, 'He who wishes, will freely receive the water of
145 and, 'He who drinks from the water I will give him,
life;'

will never thirst. But the water I will give him will become a
fountain welling up to eternal life.'
146

"The harmless animals are the Christians engaged in the

active life, who time will lead such simple lives that they
at that
will hold wealth and temporal goods for little and will exult in
Christ's virtues and in his special graces. The birds signify
Christians and religious who are devoted to contemplation and
sing God's praises on the branches of the trees, that is, at the
summit of the virtues. They will contemplate divine things
continuously on the wings of the intellect through the myster-
ies of the Church and of the scriptures. The marvelous throne
with the orders of ministers about it is the Church Trium-
phant, which will rejoice to such a degree in this renewal that
when she sees Christians living the angelic life she will deign to
bend down and join with them not only invisibly, but even
visibly, as we
read of the early church. 147 The light shining out
from the three faces is an image of the Holy Trinity, which
lights up the whole world but has especially filled Christ's
humanity and after it that of his Glorious Mother with greater
gifts and more singular prerogatives. You saw her seated on the
throne representing Christ's Incarnation. The Feast of the
Annunication is a sign of this. The throne itself shows the
special decoration of virtues given to his Mother by her be-
loved Only-Begotten Son. The ivory refers to the purest white-
ness of her virginity, because of the chastity of the elephant 148

248
 SAVONAROLA

and the whiteness of his bone. And so it is written, 'Solomon

made a great throne of ivory.' Solomon is interpreted as 'the
man of peace/ 149 and this agrees with Our Savior who brought
true peace on earth. The great charity of the Virgin is shown
from the mass of gold about the throne, and so the text says,
'And he covered it with much yellow gold.' The round top of
the throne points to the contemplation the Virgin has of the
Godhead that is without beginning and end. 'In the back' is
added, because while this Mother was in the flesh she did not
see God face to face, but contemplated him through creatures,
as God said to Moses, 'You will see my back parts, but you
cannot see my face.' 150 (This is so even though we are entitled
to believe that at one time he did see the divine essence while
still alive, but we are now speaking according to the common
condition of human life.) 151 The seat of the throne signifies
humility, which is the foundation of all the virtues. The two
hands holding the chair are the twin forms of knowledge, that
is, of God and of self. By means of these hands we hold fast to

humility. The two lions alongside the hands betoken fortitude

in good and bad times, something that humility gives to men.
The steps that lead to the throne are the merits of the saints, far
above which is the Glorious Virgin. The twelve little lions on
the six steps are the saints of the Old and New Testaments,
which praise and magnify her together. I will describe them to
you in their orders as we proceed. You will see that 'nothing
"
like this has been made in any other kingdom.'
As we were speaking, I drew nearer the throne and saw
coming a countless multitude of infants in white with fragrant
little pale flowers in their hands. Around their temples the

flowers were so small and bright that they seemed to be pearls

and gems. With great happiness they were singing, "Praise the
Lord, children! Praise the name of the Lord! May the name of
the Lord be blessed!" 152 I asked Joseph who they were and he

answered, "Have you not read in Zachariah, 'The squares of

the city of Jerusalem will be filled with children and infants
playing in her squares?' 153 These are the infants who have been
saved either through their parents' faith and sacrifices in the
time of the natural law, or else through circumcision in the

249
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

time of the written law beginning with Abraham, or finally

through the power of baptism in the time of the law of grace.
The special ones that are adorned with glowing wounds and
red flowers are the Innocents who were slaughtered by Herod
for the sake of Christ." I saluted them as they drew near and
said: "May the Lord look upon you, O holy children, that is,
upon the glory of your bodies and those of your brethren." 154
They answered: "You are blessed by the Lord who made
heaven and earth." 155 Then they said, "Why have you mortals
come to visit us who are immortals?" I responded that I was the
spokesman of the Florentines and exposed the whole business
and my part in it. They said: "Unless you shall be converted
and become like little children, you will not enter the kingdom
of heaven." 156 I answered "Every good and perfect gift comes
from above. 157 Pray for us then that it may be so." Then with
full hands they scattered white flowers over our crown saying:
"These are our prayers that will help you to obtain the graces
you desire. We also pray that in the city of Florence under
God's leadership children may be well instructed in the Chris-
tian religion and in the love of Jesus Christ who for our sake
has deigned to be an infant himself because of his ineffable
goodness." Having left some of their number with us, the rest
departed, turned their faces to the Holy Trinity, and made
supplication on bended knee.
We advanced and came to the steps of the throne. Before
the first step we saw a large group of men and women, encir-
cled with tiny violets like gems, sitting in a circle around the
throne among the fresh grass and pleasant flowers. I asked
Joseph, "Who are they, my Lord?" and he answered, "They are
married men and women who lived piously and chastely and so
are adorned with violets. Though they were involved in earthly
cares and hence could not fly as high as those who lead the
celibate life, their sympathies were still far removed from
earthly things. They gave the world a heady fragrance of
virtues like the sweet-smelling violet, which even though it
does not grow tall is still pleasing and fragrant.
"Those you see sitting on the right and left sides next to
the first step are very powerful advocates for your cause. They

250
 SAVONAROLA

will speak toyou in the name of the others." On the right were
Saint Joachim and Saint Ann, the parents of the Glorious
Virgin Mary; on the left, Saint Zachary and Saint Elisabeth,
the parents of John the Baptist. When I saw them I saluted
them with great reverence and said, "May the Lord look upon
you, upon you and upon your children." They answered, "May
you be blessed by the Lord who made heaven and earth." I told
them the reason for my journey and explained the mystery of
the crown. After a pleasant conversation, I asked the aid of
their prayers. They immediately fastened two beautiful little
garlands made of violets to the bottoms of the first two hearts
of our crown and said: "These are the tokens of our prayers
that will help you. We will also ask that God
grant abundant
graces so that marriages in Florence will always be chaste and
pure in reverence for the great sacrament that signifies the
union of Christ and the Church." From that band these four
followed us to help us with their favor. Their companions gave
themselves up to very devout prayer.
Having ascended the first step, we saw a group of men and
women more exalted then the first group. They were adorned
with small white violets shining like gems, which because of
their fragrance many call carnations. To my request, "Who are
these, my Lord?" the holy companion and father Joseph said:
"These are men and women who lost the flower of virginity
but preserved without stain the holy duties of widowhood or
chastity, and hence they are adorned with white violets but not
lilies. The first on each side are the widow Saint Anna, the

daughter of Phanuel, and Mary Magdalene, your special advo-

cates, selectedfrom this band for your special assistance." I
saluted them, begged their prayers, and gave the same explana-
tion I had before. They offered us two garlands of white
violets, which were fixed to the next two hearts. They said:
"These are the prayers by which we beg God that in Florence
the gift of chastity may be given to widows of both sexes and to
all who in any way have lost the lily of virginity." Saint Anna

and Saint Mary Magdalene left their companions in prayer

and followed us.
On the second step a higher order of men and women

251
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

smelling of white lilies were seen about the throne. I turned to

Joseph and said, "Who are they, my lord?" He answered,
"These are the virgins of both sexes. On the right sits the
martyr Saint Catherine, on the left, Saint Catherine of Siena,
your special advocates. " I saluted them and asked their help in
the usual way. They tied on two garlands of very small lilies of
marvelous odor, promising that they would beseech Almighty
God that the virgins of Florence preserve their chastity com-
pletely unharmed and dedicate it to Christ. Both Catherines
accompanied us while the others prayed.
Saint Zenobius and Saint Antoninus, bishops and pastors
of Florence, held the first places on the third step. This step
was dedicated to the holy doctors of the Church. They were all
crowned with hyacinths (called "alisii" in the vernacular),
which signify heavenly contemplation by their color. We
begged their prayers, and after a pleasant talk they likewise
added two garlands of the same flowers to two hearts of the
crown, praying that holy pastors, doctors enlightened from
above, and fervent preachers might be given to Florence. On
the fourth step we saw a vast number who looked like they
were slain but nonetheless were alive. They were marked with
brilliant wounds glowing like stars and were garlanded with
very beautiful red roses. In awe at this victorious army of saints
I asked Saint Joseph, "Who are these?" He said, "These are the

ones who have come through great tribulations and have

washed their garments in the blood of the Lamb." 158 The first
one sitting on the right was Saint Stephen the Protomartyr; on
the left was Saint Sebastian. We saluted them and made our
request in the usual way. They joined two garlands of red roses
to the next hearts of the crown. They said: "These signify the
prayers of our chorus. We also all beg that the promised graces
be restored to you and that divine love may so enflame the
hearts of the Florentines that they will not refuse to undergo
martyrdom for Christ's name."
On the fifth step there were rather few people, but they
were of such glory and dignity that they seemed to surpass the
others in power. To my "Who are they, my Lord?" Joseph
answered: "These are the holy men whom God chose in un-

252
 SAVONAROLA

feigned charity 159 and to whom he gave eternal glory. The

Church shines by their teaching, as the moon does by the sun.
They are whiter than snow, more gleaming than milk, more
ruddy than old ivory, more beautiful than sapphires. 160 They
are the holy apostles and evangelists. The particular supporters
of your cause are Saint John, the beloved disciple of the Lord
Jesus, on the right, and on the left Saint Mark, the patron of
your friars' house. " They were all decorated with very delicate
roses of a flesh color betokening the whiteness of innocence,
the redness of divine love, and the sweet odor of all virtues.
When they heard our salutation and request, like the others
they added two garlands of these roses to the crown and prayed
that God would give so much grace to the Florentines that they
might renew the apostolic life and perfection of the primitive
Church. In this way the twelve green hearts were all decorated
with garlands of different colors. Do not think that the flowers
of these garlands are comparable in size or thickness with those
here below. Because they signify deeply spiritual prayers they
are so light and graceful and the garlands made from them are
composed with such artifice that they would not cover the
forehead if placed on a head like a diadem. Indeed, like a
delicately woven cloth perfectly joined to the edge of the
crown, they increased its decoration.
Climbing the sixth stair we saw a venerable group adorned
with palms. Asking who they were in our usual way, we were
told they were the patriarchs and prophets of the Old Testa-
ment. On the right side, John the Baptist, the Lord's precursor
and chief patron of Florence, presided; on the left, David the
Prophet with his harp singing, "Let us sing to the Lord for he
is good, for his mercy is forever. Let Israel now say that He is

good." 161 After our salutation, on either side of the crown they
fixed two excellent little branches of palm bright as emerald
and adorned with tiny dates like precious gems. They said, "We
will beseech God for you that just as the palm fixes a short root
in the earth but lifts a full thick crown to heaven, so too God
will inspire the Florentines to strive after heavenly things in
such a way that they will pay no attention to earthly things
without necessity."

253
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

We had now climbed all the steps when a most beautiful

chorus of youths met us. In their hands they carried small
crowns surrounded by short written documents bound with
golden strings. From these crowns flames seemed to shoot out
on all sides. When I saw them I turned to Joseph and said:
"Who are they, my lord?" He responded: "These are the guard-
ian angels of the men and women of Florence whose legate you
are. In the prayers they said for this cause they have completed
a crown of twelve Hail Marys, and for this reason each angel is
coming to offer the crown of the soul entrusted to it to God.
The written documents are the words and promises of each
soul; the golden strings are their charity, and the sparks of
flame and their fervent prayers." Among them, one angel that
seemed friendlier to me than the others drew near and smil-
ingly said to saintly old Joseph: "What fellowship can we have
with this man, a mortal and a sinner?" When Joseph gazed at
me happily, I took courage and said, "Who is this, my Lord?"
"Don't you know who it is?" he answered. "I do not know, my
lord." Then he smiled and said "You are confused because of
his words, and that is why you do not recognize him." Then I
recovered my spirits and looking upon him knew him to be my
faithful guardian angel and director. He said to me, "How do
you a sinner dare to walk among heaven's citizens and the
spotless choruses?" I said, "I would not have dared had not
your Lord and mine been crucified for us. You angels are not
able to glory that God became an angel the way we can glory
that he became man, as it is written, 'He never saved the
"
angels, but he has saved the seed of Abraham.' 162
During these happy conversations I had a constant desire
to draw near to the throne to salute the Glorious Virgin
Mother. Since I knew that I was a sinner, I first knelt down
upon the earth with bended knee and with my companions
made this prayer to God to beg for mercy and the forgiveness
of my sins. "May God have mercy on us and bless us; may his
face shine upon us and may he have mercy on us. Let us know
your way upon the earth, and your salvation among all na-
tions." 163 Then all the angels and the saints who accompanied
us, along with the others who assisted at the throne, even the

254
 SAVONAROLA

blessed infants, bent their knees and sang in sweet harmony

and devout love:"Let the peoples give praise to you, God; let
all the peoples praise you. Let the nations rejoice and exult,

because you judge the peoples in justice and guide the nations
upon the earth. Let the peoples praise you, God; let all the
peoples praise you; the earth has yielded her fruit." 164 Then I
and my companions added, "Let God, our God, bless us, and
165 They concluded with
let all the ends of the earth fear him."

joy, "Glory be to the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit." We
joined in, "As it was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be.
Amen."
When prayer was finished, I saw the Virgin's throne
this
lifted up and raised so high that it soon vanished from my eyes,
while I (I know not how) remained in the midst of the field
completely stunned and half-dead along with that numberless
company of saints. I thought that this happened because of
some error or sin of mine. Joseph saw this, took my right hand
and bade me be of good cheer. "Do not fear. You must ascend
higher where your guardian angel will lead you." He then left
me to the angel's care, saying that answers would be forthcom-
ing from a higher source. Continuing to pray and gazing at
heaven, I burned with desire to see that Blessed Lady on whose
intercession all our hope is placed. Suddenly heaven opened
and wonders appeared to my eyes that would be utterly impos-
sible to explain.
Men believe that there is a great difference between know-
ing something by seeing it and knowing it from the account or
writings of someone else. For example, if someone had seen
Florence with his eyes and someone else had only an idea of it
from the account and description of another, would you not
judge that there would be considerable difference in their
knowledge? This is especially true in the case of heavenly
visions,where countless particular circumstances appear to the
eye that are above man's power to write down or speak about.
Although they are spiritual, they are presented to us through
bodily appearances that are full of mysteries. Because it would
be impossible to describe all of them, I will recount a part, as
much as seems sufficient for the task I have undertaken.

255
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

Looking up to heaven, saw nine choirs of angels arranged

I

in individual circles that gradually increased in beauty and

size.
166 Even though the lowest choir encompassed the world

in which we live, the one above was larger and more beautiful,
and so on until the highest, just as in the case of natural bodies,
like the elements and the celestial spheres, where the higher
surpass the lower in size and perfection. The first choir, that
closest to us, was clothed with thick and dark green garments,
adorned with emeralds. The second had a red color and a
decoration of carbuncles, the third was blue with sapphires, the
fourth was a clear white like water lit by the sun, along with a
decoration of beryls. The fifth was like the whitest linen and
adorned with onyx, the sixth like woven gold with chrysolites,
the seventh was clear green with jaspers, the eighth was sprin-
kled with heavenly light and decorated with the purest gold
and topazes. The ninth and highest choir was red in color with
a gorgeous flame and a decoration of carnelian. Although all
these gems imitated the color of the garments, they could be
very clearly distinguished from them and from each other,
both by their live shining brightness and by the different ways
they were attached through excellent and admirable art and
arrangement. The elegance of the art increased as the orders
grew higher.
This mystery is described in the twenty-eighth chapter of
the prophet Ezekiel, where beginning with the highest choirs
he says, "Every precious stone is your garment, carnelian,
topaz and jasper, chrysolite, onyx, and beryl, sapphire, carbun-
cle and emerald." 167 Above all these choirs I saw the Virgin
Mother seated on a throne, clothed with the sun and covered
from head to foot with precious stones of the same kinds. She
bore the Infant Jesus on her lap in memory of the Incarnation.
He was brighter than the sun and was adorned with countless
gems of all kinds unknown to mortals. Above all this the
wondrous light of the three faces poured down so much light
on the throne of the Virgin that had one not seen that supreme
brightness he would doubtless have thought that the Virgin
was God. Rays proceeded from there like streams of water
brighter than any crystal in the midday sun. They spread down

256
 SAVONAROLA

through the choirs of the blessed angels. (Because words fail, I

am comparing the rays to streams of water.) Illuminated by
these rays, and, so to speak, recreated in wondrous fashion and
heated in the sweetness of love, the nine choirs gazed upon the
threefold face with such great rejoicing and gladness and with
so ardent an attachment that no human tongue could tell it.
They could not stop praising God as they sang together in an
indescribable harmony of sweet voices, "Holy, holy, holy, Lord
God of Hosts. Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord.
Hosanna in the highest." 168 Then they turned to the Virgin
and said: "You are the glory of Jerusalem, the joy of Israel, the
honor of your people. Because you have acted manfully, your
heart has been strengthened; so the hand of the Lord has
strengthened you, and you will be blessed forever." 169
I grew weak at such an abundance of the sweetest har-

mony and awesome light. Again I fell on my face, but my angel

strengthened me and lifted me up. I asked him what these
wonders were and he answered: "These are the orders of the
celestial hierarchies to whom God has given the government of
the world. The first hierarchy is God and beholds
closest to the
order of government in God himself. The second knows
the
same order in the causes and universal ideas; the third in
particular things. And so the first order meditates the goal of
the whole arrangement, the second sets out what is to be done,
and the third carries it out.
"In the meditation of the goal three things are necessary.
The first is to examine the goal and above all else to keep it
before you. This belongs to the Thrones who have the name
Thrones or Seats because in their purity and sublimity they are
open to the Eternal King and his illuminations. Hence they are
clothed with clear green as if filled with the fruitful verdure of
eternal fields. They are adorned with precious jaspers which
are colored like flowers to signify their purity. Second, it is
necessary to have perfect knowledge of the goal. This belongs
to theCherubim, who are named from the fullness of wisdom.
They glow of the Godhead with
are full of light and pierce the
a penetrating and lively eye. They are clothed with heavenly
brightness sprinkled with gold because of contemplation and of

257
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

wisdom. They bear topazes of the same color because of their

knowledge of many things. Third, it is necessary to love the
goal to perfection, and this is ascribed to the Seraphim who are
interpreted as 'fire/ They burn with the fire of love. They are
dressed with flames of fire and adorned with glowing
carnelians. This is the mystery of the first hierarchy.
"The second hierarchy arranges what is to be done in the
entire world. In this arrangement the first task is to order
things, and this is the job of the Dominations. They are called
Dominations because they are free from all servitude. They do
not depart from justice either from love or hatred, the way that
temporal lords do who are slaves to their passions. Hence
they gleam with woven gold and chrysolites, which have a
golden glow and seem to send out burning sparks. Just as gold
is the most precious metal, so the justice of rulers is the most

excellent of virtues. It sends out sparks of good works to its

subjects, which make them glow with love. Second, when things
have been put in order, it is necessary to banish any evils that
might get in the way. The Virtues do this. They are so named
because they fearlessly dare to do anything. They are clothed
with very fine white linen, because their power comes from
their great purity and their lofty distance from bodily things.
(So too in natural bodies we see that the purer and more subtle
they are, the greater power they gain.) They bear gems of onyx
imitating the color of a human nail because they are the first
order who are sent as ministers to those who wish to receive
the inheritance of salvation. Because of their dignity, the four
higher orders do not descend to lower things, but only act as we
have described. They are called assistants, as is written in the
book of Daniel the Prophet: 'Thousands of thousands minis-
tered to him, and ten thousand times hundreds of thousands
assisted him.' 170 Third, after everything has been set in order
and all impediments removed, it is necessary to commit it all to
the inferior hierarchy and to order things in detail. This be-
longs to the Powers, because every power is from the Lord God
and whatever is from God is ordered. 171 Their garments have
the color of crystal or of water gleaming in the sun, and they
are adorned with beryls of the same color. They must have

258
 SAVONAROLA

clear knowledge of what is to be set in order, something they

receive from the light of the Eternal Son. This is the end of the
second hierarchy.
"The third hierarchy executes what the second hierarchy
ordains. In carrying this out some spirits are captains and
princes of provinces and cities, and so are called Principalities.
They are adorned with garments of heavenly color and with
sapphires, for just as the starry heaven is the universal cause of
everything below, these angels are the captains, that is, the
heads of all that is to be governed and accomplished. Some
angels take care of individuals. Those to whom the special care
of men's souls have been given are the lowest order. (Every
soul has a special guardian angel and director.) They glitter
with green garments and emeralds that freshen the surround-
ing air, because they are sent to illuminate those who dwell in
the air with strength from on high. They are so filled with
strength and vigor that they are able to illuminate human
intellects. Between the Principalities and the angels there are
some to whomare committed those charged with the common
good, such as prelates, preachers, doctors of the Church, and
the like. These are called archangels. They reveal greater se-
crets than do the angels. They shine with a red color and by the
splendor of their transparent carbuncles light up the darkness,
because they are lit up by charity to disperse the darkness of
mortals and reveal secret mysteries. Now you know the orders
of all the hierarchies, their ministries and duties.
"Note that their ministries and duties are signified by
their various garments. The differences in their works, their
wisdom, and their contemplation are shown by the precious
stones. You should also know that in this vast multitude each
one has his own duty and his own individual characteristics.
Because the human mind cannot grasp this, I will leave it out.
You should be aware that whatever gifts and powers the lower
angels have, the higher have in a more excellent way. Due to
the superlative charity that reigns in heaven the higher angels
share whatever they have received from God with the lower,
according to the latter's capacity. The Glorious Virgin and her
Only-Begotten Son, full of all these virtues and precious stones,

259
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

shine out above the orders in so splendid a fashion no

all

human ingenuity can grasp it. The light of the three faces that
shines down on everything from above represents the majesty
of the Most Holy Trinity, which infinitely exceeds all things.
With its rays and sweetness it makes heaven supremely bright
and happy so that without satiety or stop God is praised,
magnified, and glorified forever and ever. Amen."
Having finished his speech, the angel was silent. Do not be
surprised that the angel may seem to have departed from
current usage in describing the properties and colors of the
precious stones. The names of some of the stones may have
changed, and angels suit their message to the listener. My angel
knew that I had devoted myself to studying the sacred scrip-
tures according to the expositions of the ancient doctors who
wrote about these stones in that way and so he explained their
qualities thus. 172
I was upon hearing and seeing such
utterly astonished
indescribable things, not just from amazement at their great-
ness, beauty, and order, but even more from the blessed angels*
immense love for us, especially when you think of their excel-
lence and our indigence. They do not disdain us; rather they
seem to be interested in nothing else besides our salvation, as if
they thought it all their concern and their delight to be with
the sons of men. Mindful of the scriptures, I was less surprised
later on, since it is written of their Lord, "My delight is to be
with the sons of men." 173 In my contemplation I saw that all
the saints who had appeared in the field around the throne
were taken up with great reverence and swiftness into the
heavenly orders according to their individual dignity. Only the
saintswho first accompanied us and the angels who carried the
crowns remained. I saw the Virgin's throne so high above that
I turned to the holy group and said, "You can ascend to the

throne without help, but what can a wretch like me do? The
corruptible body weighs down the soul." 174 Amidst these
words a ladder from the throne to earth appeared, miraculously
prepared by angels' hands. My angel said: "This is the ladder
on which you are to ascend, not just in body, but also mentally

260
 SAVONAROLA

through the steps of virtue, as is written, 'They go from virtue

" 175
to virtue; the God of gods will be seen in Sion.'
I began to go up the ladder by myself. The surrounding

holy company also ascended with me, but without the ladder's
help. We came to the first choir of angels and hailed them thus:
"Praise the Lord, children, praise the name of the Lord." They
answered, "May the name of the Lord be blessed, now and
forever." We said, "The name of the Lord is to be praised from
the rising of the sun to its setting." They responded, "The
Lord is high above all the nations, his glory is above the
heavens." We said; "Who is there like the Lord Our God, who
dwells on high and looks down on the lowly things in heaven
and on earth, lifting up the needy man from the earth and
raising the poor man from the dungheap to place him among
the princes, the princes of his people?" They said, "He makes
the barren woman of the house a joyful mother of sons."
Finally our "Glory be to the Father and to the Son and to the
Holy Spirit" was answered with, "As it was in the beginning,
is now, and ever shall be forever and ever. Amen."
176

The psalm being sung, they asked me what led me here. I

answered that I came as the legate of the Florentines to the
throne of the Queen of Heaven in order to find out what good
news could bring to this people whose special advocate she
I

was. showed them the crown, saying that it contained the

I

prayers of the whole people and had also been adorned and
confirmed by all the saints of Paradise. I asked if they would
deign to add the approval of their prayers to it. Then they
asked what we particularly desired from them. I answered:
"Will you and the saints who are with us ask God that the
Florentines entrusted to you may imitate a holy and angelic life
with your aid while still in the body?" Then twelve angels
departed from twelve parts of their choir facing the twelve
hearts of the first circle of our crown and drew near us. Each
carried an emerald in his hand, which he fixed to the bottom of
one of the twelve hearts of the first circle so perfectly that it
spoiled nothing of the former decoration, but rather increased
the beauty and brightness of the arrangement. They said this

261
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

was the pledge of the prayers we had requested. They sweetly

sang the first verse of the nineteenth psalm: "May the Lord
hear you on the day of tribulation; may the name of the God of
Jacob protect you." 177
From there we passed to the second choir, whom we
saluted like the former, repeating the psalm "Praise the Lord,
children," and to whom we also revealed the reasons for the
journey. We asked them to intercede with God so that the
heads of households, pastors, prelates, and other rulers of Flor-
ence to whose care the city is entrusted might be good and holy
men and might rule those subject to them with justice. As in
the former case, twelve angels from twelve parts of their choir
took flight and each fixed a precious carbuncle in the midst of a
heart. The name of Jesus wonderfully carved in the middle of
each heart shone through the transparency of the carbuncles.
They said, "These are the signs of our prayers," and they took
up the second verse of the psalm, "May He send you aid from
his sanctuary, and may He defend you out of Sion." 178
We came next to the third choir, that of the Principalities.
We acted the same way and asked them to beg with their
prayers that God's Spirit so fill the vicars, leaders, prefects, and
other public officials of Florence that they might rule the
people entrusted to them justly, religiously, and irreproach-
ably. Heeding our request, twelve of them fitted twelve beauti-
ful sapphires to the tops of the hearts in the same way as the
others. They sang the third verse of the psalm: "May he be
mindful of your every sacrifice, and may your holocaust be a
fat one." 179
We venerated the fourth order in a like way, asking that
they obtain for us from God a magistracy like themselves, who
would organize everything for the sake of the virtues and for
good morals. They graciously promised this, and they ap-
pointed ten of their number with ten beryls (the number of
hearts in the second crown) to insert one beautiful gem at the
bottom of each crown adding the fourth verse, "May he give to
you according to your heart, and confirm all your counsel." 180
Then we went to the fifth choir, reverently saluted the
Virtues in the same way, and begged them that those elected

262
 SAVONAROLA

magistrates in Florence might be filled with the Holy Spirit to

execute justice by zealously and fearlessly correcting and pun-
ishing the guilty. Thus the innocent will be able to live in
safety. They received the petition with pleasure, and ten of
them added ten chosen onyxes middle of the crowns
to the
while singing the fifth verse: "We your salvation,
will rejoice in
and we will be magnified in the name of our God." 181
Going farther, we drew near the sixth choir, the Domina-
tions, and reverently repeated the same message. We asked
them to pray that the citizens of Florence become a people
from whom wise and just men might be chosen for the
Signoria, men who would be first concerned for God's honor
and the salvation of souls, and second for the public good of the
whole city and its temporal sovereignty. Ten of them con-
firmed our petition by adding ten chrysolites to the top of each
of the hearts of the second crown while saying the sixth verse,
"May the Lord fulfill all your petitions; now I have known that
the Lord has saved his anointed one." 182 We also saluted the
seventh choir and asked them to intercede with God to renew
the purity and simplicity of the religious men and women of
Florence. Four of them came to us with joyful faces and each
fittingly placed a very precious jasper at the bottom of the four
hearts of the topmost circle. They sang the seventh verse: "He
will hear him from his holy heaven; among the powerful is the
salvation of his right hand." 183 Lifted up to the eighth choir,
we gave them the customary greeting and veneration and asked
that many saints filled with the light of the holy scriptures and
true wisdom might be given to Florence so that the Florentine
people could have good advice in difficult questions. They
approved this and sent four of their number to place four
transparent topazes in the middle of the four hearts. They sang
the eighth verse, "Some trust in chariots and some in horses,
but you will on the name of the Lord our God." 184
call
Finally, we came to the ninth and highest choir, that of the
Seraphim completely on fire with divine love. After the accus-
tomed salute and psalm, we begged them to grant to Florence
and to the Church Universal perfect prelates, pastors, and
preachers filled with the love and fire of the Holy Spirit to

263
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

enkindle the people with Christ's love. They received our

prayers, and four of them joined very red carnelians to the tops
of the hearts of the highest crown while singing the ninth
verse, "They were bound and have fallen; you have arisen and
are raised up." 185
Although we were still a long way from the throne of the
Virgin, who was exalted above all the choirs of angels, we were
strengthened by the aid of so many prayers and merits and we
sped toward her with great confidence. She saw us coming and
called one of the Seraphim to her. She gave him a very splendid
small crown artfully constructed of different precious gems
and said: "Go and place this on the heart made of many small
hearts that sits atop the crown. Say that this is the sign and gift
of the prayers I have poured out for the city of Florence." Then
she turned to God and said the final verse of the psalm: "Lord,
save the king, and hear us on the day in which we call upon
you." 186 Our Savior Jesus, who had once been a tiny infant,
called out from his mother's lap and summoned the first of the
Seraphs. He gave him a single totally red gem brighter than the
sun and the most precious of all. He said: "This is the gift of
my Passion, which I offered to my coeternal Father so that
mercy and grace might be given to the people of Florence.
Take it and place it on the crucifix you see standing on the
highest heart of the crown, saying 'Glory be to the Father, and
to the Son, and to the Holy Spirit. As it was in the beginning,
"
is now, and ever shall be, world without end. Amen.'

There never was a work so admirable or a gift so tasteful.

Strengthened with the aid of so many merits, I was not afraid
to ascend the whole ladder and come to the feet of the Queen of
the Universe, who was sitting on the highest throne. I was led
there and lay prostrate on the ground with the deepest humil-
ity and devotion. First of all, I adored the Most Holy Trinity
and our Redeemer, the Lord Jesus Christ, and then his Mother.
Looking upon her sweet, humble, happy, delightful presence, I
began to exult with great jubilation in my whole heart. I was
rapt in ecstacy 187 from amazement at such beauty, totally afire
with love. Swallowed up by that light, I no longer knew I was

264
 SAVONAROLA

mortal. Ardently gazing on that incalculable beautyand light, I

was beside myself and broke out with the following words. 188
"You, Mary, are and will ever be a seal of resemblance, full
of wisdom and perfect in beauty, amidst the delights of God's
paradise. Every precious stone is your garment — carnelian,
topaz and jasper, chrysolite, onyx and beryl, sapphire, carbun-
cle and emerald. The work of your beauty was gold, and your
tabernacles were prepared on the day when you were created.
You, Mother and Virgin, were stretched out and protecting
like the Cherub whom God placed on his holy mountain. You
have walked in the midst of the stones of fire, perfect in your
ways from the day of your creation. You are the glory of
Jerusalem, you are the joy of Israel, you are the honor of our
people. You have acted manfully and your heart is strength-
ened, therefore the Lord's hand has made you firm and you
will be blessed forever. Save us, Queen, Mother of mercy; save
us, Life, Sweetness, and Our Hope. Exiled children of Eve, we
call out to you; groaning and weeping in this valley of tears, we
sigh to you. Ah, our Advocate, turn your merciful eyes toward
us, avert the evils we have deserved for our sins, and restore the
good things promised us. O merciful, faithful, and sweet Vir-
gin Mary, after this our exile show us the blessed fruit of your
womb, Jesus."
When these words were finished, a wondrous harmony
came at once from all the hearts in the crown that Lady
Simplicity, our companion, carried as they sweetly sang: "Re-
member, Virgin Mother, when you stand in the sight of God to
speak well of us and to avert his wrath from us." 189 With the
prayer finished, we offered the crown to the Virgin with all the
reverence we could. She received it very graciously with com-
plete courtesy and kindness and placed it on her head. Then
she took up her Son in her arms, stood up, and humbly knelt
before the Most Holy Trinity. She offered her Son most de-
voutly and prayed in this way: "Look down, we beseech you, O
Lord, upon this family of yours for which my Son, the Lord
Jesus Christ, has not hesitated to be delivered into the hands of
enemies and to undergo the torment of the cross." 190 Then a

265
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

devout voice came sweetly from the hearts of the crown, "Have
mercy on us, O Lord, have mercy on us, for we are greatly
filled with contempt. Because our soul is greatly filled, we are a
reproach to the rich and contempt to the proud." 191 All the
angels and saints also humbly prayed along with her that the
appeals of so many prayers might be heard. A voice spoke to
the Virgin from the three faces that represented the Holy
Trinity, "Be it done as you wish." The Virgin most mild
accepted this response and then sat again on her throne. We all
looked at her with complete attention. Filled with immense
joy, we said, "Now it is in your power, Mary; our whole
salvation is in you alone."
With she prepared to reply. Silence was ordered
a smile
and we hung upon her words. She gave an official pro-
all

nouncement in a high clear voice to the ears of the whole

heavenly court. "Florence, dear to Our God and the Lord Jesus
Christ, mySon, and also to me, hold fast to the faith, be
constant in prayer, and firm in patience. Through these means
you will gain glory with men and eternal salvation with God."
She did not say any more, but fixed her eyes on me. I confi-
dently said to her: "Virgin Mother, these are general words.
We need you to pour out your kindness with a more generous
hand." Then she spoke to me in the vernacular so agreeably
and gracefully that I was struck with amazement. I do not
think it possible to give you exactly what she said, but I will
give the full sense.
She said: "Go and take this response to my beloved people.
They certainly are sinners who merit every ill because of their
iniquities, especially because of the infidelity of the many who
refused to believe what you had foretold for years when my
Only-Begotten Son had shown them so many signs that they
could have no further excuse for unbelief. Even though faith is
God's gift, had they not been of such evil and perverse mind,
but rather walked rightly before God, my Son would have
enlightened them with so much light that they would easily
have believed it all. Reprove them so that they will now put
away their hardness of heart lest God be further angered.
Despite their sins, he has granted me all power because of the

266
 SAVONAROLA

constant prayers of the saints in heaven and the just on earth.

And so they are now restored the graces originally promised
them by God. May the city of Florence become more glorious,
more powerful, and richer than it has ever been before. May it
stretch its wings farther than it ever has done before, and much
farther than many might think. May it fully recover whatever
it had, if this was partly lost. May it acquire things that till now

have never come within its power. Woe to subjects who rebel
against it; they will be gravely punished. It is now four years
since you under the inspiration of the same
told the Pisans
divine light through which you prophesy everything that they
would seek their freedom in the tribulation that is now upon
us, and that this would be the cause of their ruin. And so it will
be." 192
Then spoke again. "I beg you not to put it down to
I

rashness, My
Lady, if I ask you for some clarifications so that I
can more fully satisfy those who delegated me. I would like to
know if our city will suffer tribulations before these conso-
lations." She answered, "Son, you have preached the renewal
of the Church for many years. It is indeed to come, and soon.
By the illumination of the Holy Spirit you have also foretold
that the conversion of the infidels, that is, the Turks, Moors,
and others, will follow soon after so that many who are now
alive will witness it. This renovation and enlargement of the
Church cannot take place, as you have predicted, without many
afflictions and the sword, particularly in Italy because of the
haughtiness, pride, and countless hateful sins of her princes
and captains, the cause of all these evils. So it ought not seem
hard to you if your city of Florence and your children suffer
some troubles. You will be less harmed than other cities."
In the midst of these words she reached out her right hand
and presented to my angel a large sphere containing the whole
of Italy. The angel took it and opened it. Suddenly I saw Italy
in disturbance and many of her major cities torn by great
tribulations I was forbidden to mention. Some that did not
have outside agitations and wars were shaken by internal cri-
ses. I saw Florence disturbed, but much less than the others.

Then the Blessed Virgin handed me a smaller sphere on which

267
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

her first was written in Latin. When that sphere

brief response
was unlocked saw Ithe whole of Florence blossoming with
lilies that spread far and wide through the battlements and

turrets outside the walls. The guardian angels on the walls

protected her on all sides. I was glad and said, "My Lady, quite
rightly have the small lilies come together with the larger ones
that are now
beginning to stretch out their branches." 193 She
did not respond to this, but added, "My son, if the neighbors of
the Florentines who now rejoice in Florence's evils and tribula-
tionswere to understand that evils will come upon them they
would not be happy at another's misfortune but would weep
over their own peril. They will be afflicted with much greater
trials than Florence."
I said, "O Glorious Lady, though I am dust and ashes I will

still speak a few words. If my people ask whether these prom-

ises are absolute (that is, will happen no matter what) or

conditional (that is, will or will not happen according to their
good or bad works), what am I to say?" She answered, "You
know, my son, that they are granted in an absolute and certain
manner. They will surely happen. Without doubt God will
procure and produce all the means by which these promised
graces will gain their goal. Say to the incredulous, those who
wish to believe only what they can see and touch, that not a jot
or iota will perish, but that it all will take place. Let Florence's
wicked citizens and unjust men do whatever evil they can
dream up; it cannot prevent so great a good. They will not

share in it, but will suffer grave punishment unless they are
converted. Say to the good and the just 'that it is well, for they
will eat the fruits of their endeavors.' 194 They will be afflicted
more or depending on how they enforce the holy laws and
less,

punish the wicked, the impious, blasphemers, gamblers, game-

sters, and especially those who commit the licentious and un-
speakable crime against nature. It will also depend on how well
they remove the bilge of so many crimes that are the cause of
their troubles, and how much they live as Christians by exalt-
ing virtue and supressing vice." 195
I said, "O Humble and Merciful Queen, do not think me

268
 SAVONAROLA

rude if I still ask one more thing. If I am queried, 'When will

these things happen?' what am I to say?" She answered: "Quick
and soon." 196 But say that just as from the beginning, when
you started to foretell Italy's scourges five years ago (though
you had begun preaching more than ten years ago in other
places), whenever you threatened 'quick and soon' you used to
add, I do not say this year, nor in two years, nor four, nor
4

eight,' and so never exceeded ten years even though the

scourges came more quickly than they had believed, so too you
are now to say, 'I tell you quick and soon, but I do not fix the
present month of April, nor July, August, or September; nor
one year, nor two, nor six, nor any determined time, but only
quick and soon.' They will happen more quickly than you may
think." After she said this, I was dismissed.
I was so aflame with love and so beside myself from the

incomparably beautiful vision of heaven that I had completely

forgotten I was mortal and did not wish to leave. When I heard
that I was dismissed, I said: "So many ministers wait on you, O
Glorious Virgin, that I beg you to delegate one of them to
report these responses to the people of Florence. I want to rest
a bit since I am worn out now by the many labors
quite
undertaken in their behalf over several years." My words pro-
voked laughter in the whole heavenly court at my simplicity.
The Queen herself smiled, and then to console me she said:
"You still have a long way to go, but trust in the Lord and be
strong, because the Lord is with you. If you persevere to the
end, you will be saved. We all will help you, so do not fear your
enemies, but rather rejoice in adversity. You will soon be lifted
up into our company where, after many labors, you will re-
ceive the crown of life that God has promised to those who love
him." 197
Then I arose and, with all the humility and devotion I had,
gave thanks to the indivisible Trinity and to Our Savior Jesus
Christ, commending myself, the city, and my fellow Domini-
cans to his mercy. I also thanked the Most Glorious Virgin
Mother and left my heart in her hands, asking that she be our
perpetual advocate and sweet refuge in calamities. I thanked

269
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

the whole court of heaven, who had

supported us in gaining so
many benefits. Then, after a due act of reverence, I began to
descend the ladder along with my companions. As I came first
to the choir of the Seraphim I began to sing in a high voice:
"Let us praise the Lord for he is good, for his mercy is forever."
The angels answered, "Now let Israel say that he is good, for
his mercy is forever." Throughout the descent we sang the one-
hundred-seventeenth psalm in alternating verses as far as the
verse "Open to me the gates of justice." The angels responded
after each of our verses, "For he is good, for his mercy is
forever." 198
When I approached the gates, I sang the verse "Open to
me the gates of justice." After embraces, thanksgiving, and acts
of homage, I again adored the Eternal Majesty and then left the
threshold behind, continuing the psalm along with my com-
panions, that is "I give you praise because you have heard
me." 199 When it was finished, everything vanished.

After this sermon, in my other talks I often publicly af-

firmed that the King of France had been chosen by God as a
minister of divine justice, and that if the whole world opposed
him he would still gain victory and success. It is true, as I said
and wrote to him privately, that he would fall into many
tribulations, both because he needed to learn humility and also
because he did not forbid the evil deeds of his servants, particu-
larly when they mistreated the city of Florence. God will make
his people revolt and rebel. He will bring many adversaries and
serious difficulties against him, because he wants him to be the
friend and supporter of Florence, the city he chose as the
beginning of the reformation of Italy and the Church. If he
does not freely want to be the friend of Florence, he will be
made so by force. But since he is destined to be the minister of
God's justice, if he humbles himself and acknowledges his
election, he will not be overwhelmed by tribulations. Rather,
he will rise up to greater victory after he has been made more
humble and pure. Although men will think him dead, he will
go forth as a victor and gain a vast empire by following God's

270
 SAVONAROLA

commands. If he acts differently and follows a path that does

not please God, he could go so far along it that like Saul, the
first King of Israel, he would be rejected and another would
replace him for this ministry, just as David was elected in
Saul's place.The promises and graces granted to the King of
France are conditional, not absolute like the prophecy of the
reformation of the Church and the graces promised the Floren-
tines.
So that everybody can understand what is a conditional
prophecy and what an absolute one, you should note that God
knows things to come in two ways. In the first, he knows them
as they are always present to his Eternity, in the other, as they
proceed from the order of their causes. Although God always
knows them at the same time by both ways, because an effect
does not receive the whole power of its cause, especially when
the cause is as completely superior as God, prophets do not
always receive knowledge of things to come under both forms
together, but sometimes in the first way (then prophetic knowl-
edge is called prescience or predestination), and sometimes in
the second (then such prophetic knowledge is called condi-
tional prophecy of warning or promise). 200 You should under-
stand that things foretold in this way will happen if the order
of causes on which they depend is not changed. In this way
Jonah said, "Forty days more and Nineveh will be de-
stroyed." 201 These words were not false. They were to be
—
understood in this way that the sins of Nineveh merited the
city's destruction after forty days. Likewise Isaiah said to
Ezekiel, the King of Jerusalem, "Set your house in order,
because you will die and not live." 202 These words were to be
understood as meaning that the disposition of his body was
such that his death was preordained and could not be avoided
by natural means. The prophet then learns from God. He
ought simply to obey God and to announce the future in the
way in which God commands him to. Otherwise, he will incur
a sin, as Jonah did who was punished for his disobedience, as is
written in his prophecy. 203 Hence under God's inspiration I
say that if the King of France does what we have said, he will

271
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

doubtless gain victory and acquire a vast empire. If he does not

do it, his cause will be in great danger, and unless he is aided by
the prayers of the just he will be rejected by God himself.
I have also often said in public that anyone who attacks

Florence will feel God's judgment. I have given another reason

for this, besides the authority of the divine light: that this new
city and people who have recently been freed after a change of
the old regime and form of government have not yet injured or
provoked anyone unjustly. So whoever injures or offends them
acts unjustly and is subject to God's wrath. I have also openly
preached and affirmed by divine inspiration that if any citizen
of Florence privately or publicly tries to usurp for himself the
commanding role in the city or to harm the new regime, God
will gravely punish him, his whole house, and all those who
conspired with him, and will finally send him to a miserable
end.
On the basis of the same light have openly revealed
I

before the whole people and have always repeated that the
good things divinely promised for Florence and foretold
through me would surely have their effect even if the whole
world were opposed. If the people pursued and deepened the
good way of life they had begun, they would first of all remove
a large part of the tribulations to come before the time of
prosperity. They would also speed up the gift of graces that
had been promised; and, finally, both they and their children
would joyfully receive these graces, though the children would
have more than the parents. Although all these things were
promised to the city absolutely and irrevocably, they were not
promised to each person individually. If wicked citizens do not
repent, they will not share in these goods. I told the people
they should note down the unbelievers and scoffers on one
page of a book and the believers on another. I said that of the
eight parts of the coming tribulations seven would soon be seen
to strike those unbelievers and scoffers. I am exhorting all to
believe and to manifest their faith in good works. This can
harm nobody, but can be of great profit to all, as well as giving
praise and glory to Our Savior Jesus Christ, who with the
Father and Holy Spirit is blessed God forever and ever. Amen.

272
 SAVONAROLA

I know that many men who do not have the

unspiritual
experience of this kind of knowledge will mock me and say that
these are contrivances of human devising and poetic fictions
rather than visions and prophecies. Let them read the prophets,
especially Ezekiel, Daniel, and Zechariah, and they will find
that the Holy Spirit formed similar things in them. They too
described these things with veils of mystery, and the proph-
ecies were later interpreted by the efforts of the holy doctors.
These scoffers should note that much more was revealed to the
prophets (and with infinite detail) than what they wrote down.
In order to console the elect and to destroy the lies of adversar-
ies I decided to write down only this vision and its explanation,
even though I originally thought I would suppress it. As I said,
I was compelled to write it down. Whatever I have written is

true; not one iota will pass away until it all is accomplished.
Though I have tried to describe everything clearly, I believe
that many will have various doubts, just as there are doubts
concerning the Gospels, which seem so clear, and many more
about the prophets, in whom there are many contradictions
that the holy doctors harmonize only with the greatest diffi-
culty. Heretics and malefactors were trapped and blinded by
them, as the apostle says to the Corinthians: "If our Gospel is
hidden, it is hidden for those who are perishing, those whose
faithless minds the god of this world has blinded so that the
illumination of the Gospel of the glory of Christ, who is God's
image, does not blaze forth." 204 If this little work of ours raises
doubts in some, it is no surprise. I hope, though, that whoever
reads it with the right heart will easily find the solution to
every doubt. If someone cannot find it by himself, since the
author is still alive, let him go to him, or, when he dies, to his
friends and disciples in order to be fully satisfied. If he does
otherwise, he will show that he does not love the truth, but is
his brother's false accuser. He will provoke the Eternal Judge
against him, who will say:

Your mouth has abounded in evil and your tongue has

produced frauds. You have sat down and spoken against

273
 APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY

your brother and placed a scandal against your mother's

son. You have done this and I have been silent. In your evil
you have thought that I was like you. I will reprove you and
stand before your face. 205

Men trust in merchants' account books, and in the public

tables and ancient documents of notaries. They even trust in
other men, of whom it is written, ''Every man is a liar," 206 and
in the tricks of astrologers and the lies of demons —those fa-

thers and masters of lies whom the powerful so frequently

consult. With how much more sincere faith ought they receive
our predictions! They have already seen no small part of them
fulfilled, and they have never caught me in a lie. With many
proofs and signs God has shown that they come from him and
not from human invention. I ask God's chosen ones not to be
disturbed at such a contradiction, but rather to be strengthened
in faith the more they see our predictions become like the
teaching of Christ, the prophets, the apostles, and other saints,
that is, both in proving to be true and in being persecuted. I
have often shown this through the holy scriptures. Thanks be
to God who has granted them enough light so that they can see
the truth that comes from him. Why wonder that many do not
believe and many persecute us? Christ preached to the Jewish
people with much greater power than we do and he confirmed
his teaching with great and wonderful miracles. Nevertheless,
few believed in him and many persecuted him. In his Passion
all abandoned him and perfect faith remained only in the

Virgin Mother. No one ought to think that God's elect will

perish, for as the apostle says:

God's firm foundation stands, having this seal, "The Lord

knows his own," and, "Let everyone who invokes the name
of the Lord depart from iniquity." In a great house there
are not only vessels of gold and silver, but also of wood and
clay. Some are made for honor,some for dishonor. If any-
one shall cleanse himself from those things, he will be a

274
 SAVONAROLA

vesselmade for honor, sanctified and useful to the Lord,

prepared for every good work. 207

To the immortal King of the ages, invisible and only God, be

honor and glory forever and ever. Amen.

275
Notes

Introduction
1. A Chinese proverb cited by Alvin Toffler, Future Shock (New York,
1970), p. 7.

2. E.g.,Hal Lindsey, The Late Great Planet Earth (Grand Rapids, 1970)
and idem, New World Coming (Irvine, 1973).
There's a
3. See Frank Kermode, The Sense of an Ending. Studies in the Theory of
Fiction (Oxford, 1966), chap. 1, especially p. 28.
4. J. V. Schall, "Apocalypse as a Secular Enterprise," Scottish Journal of
Theology 29(1976): 357.
5. New York, 1974. See Schall, pp. 357-73, for numerous examples.
6. See, for example, E. Kasemann, "The Beginnings of Christian The-
ology," Journal for Tehology and the Church, vol. 6. Apocalypticism (New York,
1969), pp. 17^6; W. Pannenberg et al., Revelation as History (London, 1969); K.
Rahner, "The Hermeneutics of Eschatological Assertions," Theological Investi-
gations 4 (London, 1966): 323-46; and J. Moltmann, The Theology of Hope (New
York, 1967).
7. H. Mottu, La manifestation de TEsprit selon Joachim de Fiore (Neucha-
tel-Paris, 1977).
8. For the medieval period see my Visions of the End: Apocalyptic Tradi-
tions in the Middle Ages (New York, 1979).
9. The Oxford English Dictionary of 1933 does not note the word
"apocalypticism," but the Supplement to the Oxford English Dictionary (1972)
cites both "apocalyptic" and "apocalypticism," the latter defined as: "An
apocalyptic doctrine of belief, esp. one based on an expectation of the immi-
nent end of the present world order."
10. G. Ahlstrom, "Prophecy," The Encyclopaedia Britannica. Macropaedia

15 (Chicago, 1976), p. 62.

Prophetism, both in the Old Testament and in its various Christian
11.

be an affair of preaching the prophet speaks his

revivals, at least, tends to —
message to an audience, though it may be written down at a later date.

277
 NOTES

Apocalypticism, on the other hand, is essentially a scribal phenomenon in the

sense that the seer writes his message down in a book or finds it already writ-
ten down.
12. There is no real agreement on a single essential chracteristic,

though it is interesting to note that some German investigators, such as G.

von Rad and W. Schmithals, stress the distinction between the two ages or
aeons, the present evil one and the perfect one to come, while some Anglo-
American authors cited below have emphasized the triumph over death, fre-
quently in the form of a bodily resurrection.
13. A number of the early Jewish apocalypses contain no explicit re-

view of world history, and the later Christian writings that are formally simi-
lar to Jewish apocalypses show little interest in history, but concentrate on
the mysteries of the afterlife. I would understand the latter as belonging to vi-
sion literature rather than the apocalyptic tradition.
14. This is one weakness of the stimulating work of W. Schmithals, The
Apocalyptic Movement (Nashville, 1975).
15. Interpretation 25 (1971): 436-53.
16. Ibid., p. 447.
17. Ibid., pp. 440-44.
18. Schmithals, The Apocalyptic Movement, p. 148.
19.G. A. Pocock, Politics, Language and Time (New York, 1971), p. 25.
J.

20. Adela Collins has pointed out that there are three models or types
of resistance found in Jewish and Early Christian apocalyptic texts, a revolu-
tionary model, a purely passive model, and a passive synergistic model. See
"The Political Perspective of the Revelation of John," Journal of Biblical Lit-
erature 96 (1977): 241-56.
21. For a more detailed treatment along with accompanying texts, see
Visions of the End.
22. R. Bultmann, History and Eschatology: The Presence of Eternity (New
York, 1962), p. 31; and Schmithals, The Apocalyptic Movement, pp. 37-39, both
note the individual moralism present in Jewish apocalypticism.
23. Kermode, The Sense of an Ending, p. 22.
24. Cosmos and History: The Myth of the Eternal Return (New York, 1959),
chap. 4.

25. Kermode, The Sense of an Ending, p. 8.

26. Schmithals, The Apocalyptic Movement, p. 35.
See George Caird, "Eschatology and Politics," Biblical Studies in
27.
Honour of William Barclay (London, 1976), p. 84; and the remarks in D. S. Rus-
sell, Apocalyptic Ancient and Modern (Philadelphia, 1978), p. 24. Caird invokes
the distinction only in terms of the future hopes of the Jewish apocalypticists,
while I am using it to include a sense of the relation of the present and the fu-
ture.
28. See Part Three, Selection D.
29. John J. Collins, "The Symbolism of Transcendence in Jewish
Apocalyptic," Biblical Research 19 (1974): 7. See also his "Apocalyptic Eschatol-

278
 NOTES

ogy as the Transcendence of Death," Catholic Biblical Quarterly 36 (1974), esp.

pp. 41-43.
30. D. S. Russell, The Method and Message ofJewish Apocalyptic (Philadel-
phia, 1964), chap. 14; and Russell, Apocalyptic Ancient and Modern, pp. 38-40.
31. Kermode, The
Sense of an Ending, pp. 24-31.
Paul Ricoeur, The Symbolism of Evil (New York, 1967),
32. p. 352. See the
whole "Conclusion: The Symbol Gives Rise to Thought."

Part I: Lactantius
1. Lactance. Etude sur le mouvement philosophique et religieux sous le regne de
Constantin (Paris: Hachette, 1901), p. vii. This work is still indispensable for
the study of Lactantius's Classical sources.
2. Lattanzio nelle Storia del Linguaggio e del Pensiero teologico Pre-Niceno
(Zurich: Pas-Verlag, 1970), p. xiii. An important study of Lactantius's
thought.
3. The best survey is J. Stevenson, "The Life and Literary Activity of
Lactantius," Studia Patristica I, 1 (Texte und Untersuchunge 63. Berlin, 1957), pp.
661-77.
4. Lattanzio, pp. 198, 274-78.
5. Ernst Kasemann, "The Beginnings of Christian Theology," in ed.
R. W. Funk, Journal for Theology and the Church. 6. Apocalypticism, (N.Y.:
Herder and Herder, 1969), p. 40.
6. Martin Werner, The Formation of Christian Dogma (Boston: Beacon,

1957), pp. 21-6, 115-16.

7. John Gager, Kingdom and Community. The Social World of Early Chris-
tianity (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1975), chap. 3.
8. As Gager does, e.g., p. 45.

9. Irenaeus, Against Heresies 5:25-35.

10. Hippolytus, Comm. on Dan. 4.23-24.
11. P. Vielhauer in ed. E. Hennecke and W. Schneemelcher, New Testa-

ment Apocrypha II, (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1965), p. 600.

12. B. Thompson, "Patristic Use of the Sibylline Oracles," Review of Re-

ligion 16 (1952): 115-16. Pichon (212) says: ". .les idees et les images des
.

Sibyllins hantent perpetuellement la pensee de Lactance."

13. E.g., Hippolytus, Comm. on Dan. 4.18-19, speaks of such movements
at the beginning of the century, and works probably dating from the middle
of the century, such as The Testament of the Lord and the poems of Commodian,
also suggest the same.
14. For the history of these speculations, see A. Luneau, L'histoire du
salut chez les Peres de VEglise. La doctrine des ages du monde (Paris: Beauchesne,
1964).
15. The best account in English remains W. Bousset, The Antichrist Leg-
end (London: Hutchinson, 1896).
16. Edited by J. Haussleiter in CSEL 49 (1916).

279
 NOTES

17. See L. Atzberger, Geschichte der christlichen Eschatologie innerhalb der

vornicdnischen Zeit (Freiberg: Herder, 1896), pp. 583-611; Luneau, 220-21, 229-
34; and Loi, 247-52. I have not seen H.W.A. Van Rooijen-Dijkman, De vita
beata. Het zevende Boek van de Div. Instit. van Lactantius. Analyse en
Bronnenonderzoek (Assen, 1967).
18. For these traditions and their history in the fourth and early fifth
centuries, see B. Rotting, "Endzeitprognosen zwischen Lactantius und
Augustinus," Historisches Jahrbuch 11 (1957): 125-39.
19. See Bousset, The Antichrist Legend, pp. 184-88.
20. The best study of early Christian chiliastic traditions is J.

Danielou's The Theology ofJewish Christianity (Chicago: Regnery, 1964), chap.

14. See pp. 393-95, 400, for Lactantius.

21. The Asclepius is one of the Greek treatises written in Egypt in the
third century and ascribed to Hermes Trismegistus, "Thrice-Great Hermes."
Aside from the fragments cited by Lactantius and others, it survives only in a
fourth-century Latin translation. The text contains an apocalyptic section in
chapters 24-26 that has affinities with earlier Egyptian apocalypses, such as
the "Prophecies of a Potter."
22. See J. Hinnells, "The Zoroastrian Doctrine of Salvation in the Ro-
man World. A study of the Oracle of Hystaspes," Man and His Salvation: Stud-
ies in Memory of S.G.F. Brandon (Manchester: Manchester University Press,
1973), pp. 125-48.
23. The translation that follows has been made from the edition of S.

Brandt in CSEL 19.1 (Vienna, 1890), pp. 580-672.

Lactantius: The Blessed Life

1. Cicero, Pro Murena 6.14.

2. These goals summarize the contents of the first six books of the In-
stitutes.

3. Timaeus 37 cd, as known through the discussion in Cicero,

Academica 2.37.118. Concerning the doctrines of creation discussed in these
early chapters, see Book 2.9-12, and the treatment of C. Loi, chap. 3.

4. Aristotle as discussed in Academica 2.38.119.

5. Phaedo 80c.
6. Many of the writings of Epicurus of Samos (341-270 B.C.) have per-
ished. This is fragment 304 in the standard edition of H. Usener, Epicurea
(Stuttgart, 1956).
7. Vergil, Georgics 3.244.
8. Apparently a classical proverb.
9. The Brandt edition (585, 1.20) reads "ad eos consolandos." I follow
"ad eos confundendos" with PL which the sense demands.
6.738B,
10. The Golden Age, a commonplace of classical theories of history,
will be discussed in chap. 24 below.

280
 NOTES

11. Terence, Phormio 5.11, 780.

12. depending on Plato, Apology 42a.
Disputationes Tusculanae 1.41.99,
13. For basic Stoic cosmology, see S. Sambursky, Physics of the Stoics
(London, 1959).
14. Aeneid 6.726-27. On the Christian use of these verses from the
speech of Anchises, see P. Courcelle, "Les peres de l'eglise devant les enfers
virgiliens," Archives d'histoire doctrinale et litteraire du moyen age 22 (1955): 37-44.
15. See Sallust, Bellum Catilinum 20.11, and Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.138-
40.
16. Fragment 371.
17. De rerum natura 5.156-57, 165-67. Lucretius (94-55 B.C.) was greatly
influenced by Epicurus. He was one of Lactantius's most important sources.
18. See Cicero, Academica 2.37.118.
19. Epicurus, fragment 382.
20. Hermes Trismegistus, Asclepius.
21. A foreshadowing of Augustine's teaching on use and enjoyment,
see De doctrina Christiana 1.3-5, 22.
22. Cicero, Academica 2.38.120.
23. In dependence on Classical sources, other Christian authors have
developed similar arguments; see Origen, Against Celsus, 4.75 sqq., and Greg-
ory of Nyssa, The Creation of Man, 7.
24. Asclepiades was a contemporary Christian author whom Jerome
mentions as the recipient of two lost works of Lactantius.
25. Fragment 371.
26. Ibid.
27. Lactantius apparently held that God could have created men's souls
through the angels as intermediaries, but chose to create them directly in-
There was considerable debate among the Fathers over the question of
stead.
whether or not the angels could share in the work of creation.
28. 2.9 sqq.
29. The erect stature of man as a sign of his heavenly origin and destiny
is a commonplace that goes back to Plato, Timaeus 90a.
30. These words about baptism recall 1 Cor. 13.11, and Eph. 4.13.

31. A number of mss. contain a lengthy addition here, clearly not from

the pen of Lactantius.

32. In chaps. 6 and 7 summa is used both for a summary statement re-

garding the nature of the universe and for the "sum of all things," the uni-
verse itself.

33. Timaeus 28c-30b.

34. The coherence of the prophetic and Sibylline traditions is a key
theme of the Institutes. In 1.6 Lactantius gives a summary of traditional lore
about these female seers.
35. Probably Ariston of Ceos, Peripatetic philosopher of the third cen-

tury B.C.

281
 NOTES

36. Aristippus, the grandson of a companion of Socrates, taught that

pleasure was the only goal of action.
37. Pherecydes of Syros (fl. c. 550 B.C.), an early cosmologist, was men-
tioned by Aristotle.
38. Democritus (c. 460-c. 370 B.C.), the well-known Atomist philos-
opher, denied immortality, as did Dicaearchus (fl. c. 326-296 B.C.).

Zeno (335-263 B.C.) was the founder of Stoicism.

39.

40. Fragment 341. This teaching is presented at greater length in Lu-

cretius, De rerum natura 3.978-1023.
41. This implies that, strictly speaking, there are no mysteries peculiar
to the Christian religion, though one wonders if Lactanius, who does not
show much interest in theoretical questions, would have been willing to go
that far in explicit statements.
42. Phaedrus 245c, as translated by Cicero in Tusc. 1.23.53.
43. A free rendition of the translation in Tusc. 1.27.66, taking up argu-
ments from Cicero's lost work De consolatione as well. Lactantius does not dis-
tinguish between what belongs to Plato and what to Cicero in his rendering.
44. Tusc. 1.16.38.
45. Tusc. 1.11.23.
46. Cicero, fragment 11, from an unknown work.
47. Delegibus 1.8.24—25.
48. The exact source of this Hermetic reference is doubtful; some mss.
read theorian rather than theoptian.
49. The role of fire as a source of all life is a Stoic doctrine; see
Sambursky, 1-7.
50. Tusc. 1.46.110.
51. Probably referring to Tusc. 1.30.72. For the scriptural basis, see
Matt. 10:28.
52. Pro Marcello 4. 11.

53. Lucretius's long discussion of the mortality of the soul begins at

3.417. See especially 445^6 for this notion.
54. Phaedo 80d.
55. 2.999-1001.
56. 3.447-58.
57. On
the theme of the body as the prison of the soul, see P. Courcelle,
"Le corps-tombeau," Revue des etudes anciennes 68 (1966): 101-22.
58. Cicero, De senectute 8.26.

59. De sen. 7.21.

60. 3.459-86.
61. See Books 3.12 and 7.9.

62. Books 3.19 and 7.11.

63. 3.487-525.
64. 3.548-79.
65. 3.526-47.
66. On the relation between blood and the soul, see R. B. Onians, The

282
 NOTES

Origins of European Thought about the Body, the Mind, the Soul, the World, Time and
Fate (Cambridge, 1951) pp. 44-65.
67. 3.612-14.
68. a fragment of the Greek original of the Asclepius, cor-
This passage,
responds to parts of chaps. 31 and 8 in the surviving Latin translation. The
notion of man as a being of mixed mortal and immortal natures placed in the
middle of the universe goes back to Plato, e.g., Timaeus, 41 B.C.
69. Verses also quoted by the Neoplatonic philosopher Porphyry in his
De philosophia ex oraculis 3.310-15 (ed. G. Wolff, pp. 177-78).
70. Cicero, Tusc. 1.22.4.1 and 51.
71. This marks the transition to the properly apocalyptic part of Book

7.

72. De divinatione 1.19.36.

73. "Calculation" translates ratio. It is possible that Lactantius is using
the word in the more general sense of "account" or "matter," but the stress
on the number of years suggests a more mathematical emphasis. On contem-
porary attempts to determine the length of the final age, see B. Kotting,
"Endzeitprognosen zwischen Lactantius and Augustinus," Historisches Jahr-
buch 11 (1957): 125-39.
74. The appearance of the equation of the seven days
earliest Christian
of creation with seven millennia of world history is found in the Epistle of

Barnabas, ch. 15 (c. A.D. 140). This topos was repeated by many Christian au-
thors, notably Irenaeus, Against Heresies 5.28, and Hippolytus, Comm. on Dan.
4.

75. Lactantius's desire to show the concord between scriptural and

nonscriptural prophecies of the last events is one of the distinctive marks of
his apocalypticism, as discussed in the Introduction.
76. Gen. 42 sqq.
77. Probably based on Oracula Sibyllina 5.54 sqq.
78. Orac. Sib. 3.316-17.
79. The scriptural warrant for this theme of the destruction of Roman
power is found especially in Apoc. 17. It was developed by Irenaeus, Against
Heresies 5.26, and Hippolytus, On the Antichrist IS and 54.
80. Orac. Sib. 3.159-61, and 8.6-10.
81. There is some question whether this enumeration of ages comes
from Seneca the philosopher or from a Christian author of the same name.
82. E.g., Orac. Sib. 8. 139-73.
83. On Hystaspes, see the Introduction.
84. The ten kings are found in Dan. 7.2-8 and 23-25, and in Apoc. 13
and 17. They were discussed by Irenaeus, Adv. and Hippolytus,
haer., 5.26,
Comm. on Dan. 2 and On the Antichrist 27.
85. The first Antichrist of the Patristic double-Antichrist tradition. See
Introduction. Compare Irenaeus, Against Heresies 5.26, Hippolytus, On the
Antichrist, 51-52, and Commodian, Song of the Two Peoples, 933-35. The de-
struction of the kings appears to be a rabbinical tradition based on Dan. 7.8

283
 NOTES

and 11.43. Some Christian authors identified this first Antichrist with the re-
turning Nero. Lactantius criticizes this view in his work On the Deaths of the
Persecutors, 2.

86. Manyof the woes set forth in this paragraph are based, directly or
indirectly, on the Sibylline Oracles. Elements also reflect the Synoptic "Lit-
tle Apocalypse" of Mark 13.
87. Orac. Sib. 8.239.
88. Orac. Sib. 7.123.
89. Orac. Sib. 3.544.
90. The great prophet is Elias, more usually seen as coming in the com-
pany of Enoch, thus being identified with the two witnesses of Apoc. 11.
Lactantius's adherence to the older Jewish tradition of a single witness is

probably influenced by Mai. 4:1 and Orac. Sib. 2.187.

91. The final, or Eastern, Antichrist, usually held to be of Jewish ori-
gin.There was considerable debate over whether he would have a human fa-
ther or would be born of the devil himself, as claimed here. On these ques-
tions, see W. Bousset, The Antichrist Legend, pp. 138-43.
Apoc. 11:7-12.
92.
93. 2 Thess. 2.4. Discussed in Irenaeus, Against Heresies, 5.30, and Hip-
polytus, On the Antichrist, 53 and 63.
94. On the Antichrist's miraculous powers, see Bousset, The Antichrist
Legend, pp. 175-82.
95. Matt. 24:21.
96. The
standard biblical length for the Antichrist's reign, see Dan.
7:25, 8:14;Apoc. 13:5.
97. For the tradition of the flight of the just and the destruction of
Antichrist's army, Bousset, The Antichrist Legend, pp. 212-21.
98. This important fragment of the Oracle of Hystaspes has been studied
by J. W. Hinnels, pp. 142-45, who emphasizes that Lactantius's remarks are
to be taken not as indication of the lack of a Savior figure in the Oracle, but as
a criticism of the omission of his role in judgment.
99. Asclepius 26.
100. Orac. Sib. 5.107-10.
101. Orac. Sib. 3.652-53.
102. Orac. Sib. 8.326-28.
103. Orac. Sib. fragment 6.

104. An allusion to the Easter Vigil. Loi, p. 248, holds that Lactantius
was here inspired by a Western liturgical tradition with a strong apocalyptic
emphasis.
105. Orac. Sib. 8.224.
106. Orac. Sib. 3.618.
107. Orac. Sib. 3.741^3.
108. Orac. Sib. 8.241-42.
109. Orac. Sib. 8.413-16.
110. Ps. 1:5.

284
 NOTES

111. Aen. 6.735^0.

112. Ibid., 6.702.
113. According to legend, Tityus was punished in Hades by a vulture
that gnawed on his liver that was each day restored. Aen. 6.595-600.
114. Ste Orac. Sib. 2.253-55.

115. Aen. 6.266.

116. Aen. 6.748-51.
117. Lactantius's explanation of metempsychosis as a confused reminis-
ence of Christian chiliasm is a good example of his syncretizing apologetic
technique.
118. Aen. 6.719-21.
119. Phaedo 73a, as known through Cicero, Tusc. 1.24.57-58.
120. Academica 2.24.75.
121. Fragment 14 (ed. A. Gercke, Chrysippea, p. 20).
122. Orac. Sib. 4.40-43, 187, 46.
123. Orac. Sib. 8.81-83.
124. The millennium of Apoc. 20:1-6 is the basis for this key chapter.
125. Orac. Sib. fragment 4.

126. The idea that the just in the millennial kingdom would bear prodi-
gious numbers of children was a part of the "Asiatic" tradition most
objectionable to anti-apocalyptic Christians. It appears in such earlier writers
as Commodian. On this question, see J. Danielou, The Theology ofJewish Chris-
tianity (Chicago: Regnery, 1964), chap. 14, especially pp. 384, 394-96.
127. Orac. Sib. 5.420-21.
This description of the millennial kingdom incorporates many ele-
128.
ments from Isa. 30:26, 11:6-8, 65:25. It also uses Orac. Sib. 3.619-23.
129. Vergil, Eclogue 4, in rearranged order (lines 38-41, 28-30, 42^5,
21-23).
130. Orac. Sib. 3.788-91, 794.
131. Ibid, 3.619-22.
132. Ibid., 5.281-83.
133. Lactantius does not adhere to any specific determination and ap-
pears not to look forward to the end as happening in his own lifetime. This
would with the chronological scheme of such Christian authors
fit as Hippol-
ytus and others. See Kotting, "Endzeitprognosen ," 128 sqq. . . .

134. There is on words in the original between Roma and the

a play
Greek rume (street) dependent on Orac. Sib. 3.364 and 8.165.
135. The identification of Rome with the force restraining the Anti-
christ of 2 Thess. 2:6-7 was common among the Fathers. See Tertullian,
Apologetic Work, 32.
136. Ezech. 38:20-22.
137. Cf. Apoc. 6:15.
138. Ezech. 39:9-10.
139. A final period of peace on earth — here seven years, but more fre-
—
quently only four days is found among a number of Patristic authors. See.

285
 NOTES

R. E. Lerner, "The Refreshment of the Saints: The Time after Antichrist as a

Station for Earthly Progress in Medieval Thought," Traditio 23 (1976): 97-
144; he begins his study with Jerome.
140. Apoc. 20:12-15.
141. Some mss. add an address to the Emperor at this point, but Brandt
does not print this as part of the original text. Stevenson, pp. 671-72, thinks
that it is probably authentic and uses it as a key to date Book VII to the year
313.
142. Phormio 2, line 249.
143. De rerum natura 6.24-28.
144. Cf. John 6:35; Matt. 11:5.
145. Aen. 4.336.

Part II: Adso of Montier-en-Der

1. For a brief survey of the role of Antichrist in patristic thought, see
B. McGinn, Visionsof the End, pp. 16-17, 22-24.
2. Especially 1 Jphn 2:18-19, as well as the reference to false Christs
and false prophets in the Little Apocalypse of the Synoptic Gospels (e.g.,

Matt. 24:24).
3. Sulpicius Severus, Dialogues 1:41.
4. Secret History, 8 and 12.

The illustrated versions of the Beatus commentary make it one of

5.

the key monuments of apocalyptic iconography. The most extensive study re-
mains that of W. Neuss, Die Apokalypse des hi. Johannes in der Altspanischen und
Altchristlichen Bibel-Illustrationen, 2 vols. (Munster: Spanishe Forschungen der
Gorresgesellschaft, 1931).
6. Letter on Jewish Superstitions 27 (PL 40:100).
7. See B. Rosenwein and L. K. Little, "Social Meaning in the Monas-
tic and Mendicant Spiritualities," Past and Present 63 (1974): 4-16, on the role
of patience in tenth-century monasticism.
8. Apology 32.
9. For a more extended treatment, see the discussions and texts in Vi-
sions of the End, Part One, sections one and seven.
10. On the history of this text, see P.J. Alexander, "Byzantium and the

Migration of Literary Works and Motifs: The Legend of the Last Roman Em-
peror," Mediaevalia et Humanistica, N.S. 2 (1971): 47-68.

11. The Last Emperor is not found in the sixth-century Greek version

of the text, the "Oracle of Baalbek," but is present in the later Latin versions
(eleventh and twelfth centuries), the so-called Tiburtine Sibyl. P. J. Alexan-
der argued that the Tiburtine Sibyl took it over from the Pseudo-Methodius
(art. cit., note 35); others have not been so sure. See, e.g., M. Rangheri, "La

'Epistola ad Gerbergam reginam de ortu et tempore Antichristi' di Adsone di

Montier-en-Der e le sue fonti," Studi Medievali, 3 ser. 14, 2 (1973): 708-10.
12. Mohammed is sometimes referred to as an Antichrist, but these ref-

286
 NOTES

erences are generally late. See P. Alphandery, "Mahomet-Antichrist dans le

Moyen Age Latin," Melanges Hartwig Derenbourg (Paris, 1909), pp. 261-77.
13. Trans, from the Latin translation ed. by E. Sackur, Sibyllinische Texte

und Forschungen (Halle, 1898), pp. 89-90.

14. The fullest treatment of the history of this legend is to be found in

A. R. Anderson, Alexander's Gate, Gog and Magog, and the Inclosed Nations (Cam-
bridge, Mass.: The Mediaeval Academy of America, 1932).
15. The best discussion of the political background and implications of

the text is that of R. Konrad, De ortu et tempore Antichristi: Antichristvorstellung

und Geschichtsbild des Abtes Adso von Montier-en-Der (Munich: Kallmunz, 1964).
16. Rangheri, "La 'Epistola ad Gerbergam"; and D. Verhelst, "La

prehistoire des conceptions d'Adson concernant L' Antichrist," Recherches de

theologie ancienne et medievale 40 (1973): 52-103.
17. Konrad, De ortu et tempore Antichristi, pp. 114-15.

18. The text was first edited in modern times by E. Sackur in

Sibyllinische Texte und Forschungen, pp. 104-13. Verhelst's edition is Adso

Dervensis: De Ortu et Tempore Antichristi (Corpus Christianorum. Continuatio
Mediaevalis XLV. Turnhout: Brepols, 1976), pp. 20-30.

Adso of Montier-en-Der: Letter on the Origin and Time of the

Antichrist
1. Probably an allusion to the political problems and weakness of
Louis IV.
2. The terms of this petition are based on the Prayer for the Sixteenth
Sunday after Pentecost.
3. Rorico, Bishop of Laon from 949 to 976, was a natural brother of

Louis and formerly imperial chancellor.

4. This etymology is found in a number of patristic and early medi-
(PL 82:3 16B); Bede, Com-
eval authors, e.g., Isidore of Seville, Etymologies 8:9
mentary on 1 (PL 93:94A); and Adso's most popular source, Haymo of
John 2

Auxerre, Exposition on 2 Thessalonians (PL 117;779d).

5. Another commonplace; see Jerome, Commentary on Daniel 4:11 (CC

75A, p. 920); and Paulus Alvarus, Luminous Letter 21 (PL 121:535B).

6. See Isidore, Sentences 25:1 (PL 83:592B); and Bede, Commentary on 1

John 2 (PL 93:95 A).

7. Gen. 49:17. The identification of the tribe of Dan with the source of

the Antichrist appears to go back to intertestamental Judaism (see W.

Bousset, The Antichrist Legend, pp. 170-74). The earliest surviving Christian
witness is Irenaeus, Against the Heresies 5, 30, 2. Adso's immediate sources in-
clude Jerome, Commentary on Daniel 4:11 (p. 920); Gregory the Great, Moral
Commentary on Job 31:24 (PL 76:596CD); Bede, Explanation of the Apocalypse 1:7
(PL 93:150C); and Alcuin, Questions and Responses on Genesis (PL 100:564D).
8. The tradition that the Antichrist would be born of a virgin in blas-
phemous parallel to Christ was apparently once widespread. It survives in a

287
 NOTES

few still-extant texts, such as the Pseudo-Hippolytan Homily discussed by

Bousset, The Antichrist Legend, pp. 140-41.
9. These last two sentences are based on Haymo, Commentary in 2
Thess. 2 (PL 11 7:78 ID, 779D).
10. Babylon as the place of the origin of the Antichrist is a very ancient

tradition. Adso's proximate source may well be Haymo (PL 11 7:780 A).
11. Based on Bede, The Reckoning of Times (PL 90:574C).

12. The rebuilding of the Temple by Antichrist is mentioned as early

as Hippolytus at the beginning of the third century, The Antichrist 6, 5, 11. It

is found in Haymo (780B). On this theme, see Bousset, The Antichrist Legend,

pp. 160-63.
13. Speculation about the miracles that the Antichrist would perform
formed a long tradition by Adso's time. For a summary, see Bousset, The Anti-
pp. 175-82, who notes the dispute about whether or not the
christ Legend,

Antichrist would actually have the power to raise the dead or would only
seem to.

14. See Alcuin, The Faith of the Holy Trinity 3:19 (PL 101:5lC); and
Haymo of Auxerre, Exposition on the Apocalypse (PL 1 17:1073 AB).

15. The list of ways in which the Antichrist would progressively gain
control over the world was later to play an important part in the dramatic or-
ganization of the Play of Antichrist.
16. The tradition that interprets the "falling-away" as the end of the

Roman Empire is an ancient one among the Christian Fathers. Adso found it

in Haymo, Commentary in 2 Thess. 2 (PL 117:779D, 780D).

17. There has been considerable speculation about who the "learned
men" Adso is referring to. Most authorities today hold
(doctores nostri) are that
that it refers to Carolingian authors among whom the legend of the Last Em-
peror was already found, rather than patristic writers.
18. Emperor culminate his career in Jerusalem,
All accounts of the Last
but there some difference of opinion about the locale of his act of deposi-
is

tion. For the Pseudo-Methodius, the deposition will take place on Golgotha,
the Tiburtine Sibyl does not mention a place, and the Play of Antichrist has it
happen in the Temple. This variety indicates the presence of diverse oral and
written traditions no longer fully extant.
19. In the Play of Antichrist the Emperor survives his act of deposition
to continue on as the King of the Germans.
20. Based on Haymo (779D).
21. A parallel to the fullness of virtue ascribed to Christ in Col. 2:3. The
corporeal dwelling of evil in the Antichrist is found in Bede, Explanation of the
Apocalypse 2:13 (PL 93:172), and Haymo (780B).
22. The exegesis of 2 Thess. 2:4 in this paragraph is heavily dependent
on that of Haymo
(779D-800B).
23. Adso's teaching on the two witnesses of Apoc. 1 1 depends on Bede,
The Reckoning of Times 69 (PL 90:574A).
24. From Bede, ibid.

288
 NOTES

25. From Bede, The Reckoning of Times (574B).

Both Bede, The Reckoning of Times (574C), and Haymo (781C) allow
26.

for either possibility. The notion that Michael was to slay the Antichrist was
considered by Bousset as a survival of an early Jewish tradition {The Antichrist
Legend, pp. 227-31).
27. Jerome, Commentary on Daniel (p. 933), and Haymo (78 ID) both men-
tion the Mount of Olives.
28. This period of penance after the destruction of the Antichrist origi-
nated with Jerome's attempt to try to harmonize two different reckonings of
the days of the Antichrist given in Dan. 12:11-12. Both Bede and Haymo wit-
ness to this tradition, which has been studied in detail by R. Lerner, "The Re-
freshment of the Saints: The Time after Antichrist as a Station for Earthly
Progress in Medieval Thought," Traditio 23 (1976): 97-144 (see 106-08 for
Haymo and Adso).

Part III: Joachim of Fiore

1. Joachim began work on the three in 1183. The Testamentary Letter
prefixed to the Exposition says that the only work he had finished revising and
sent to the Pope was the Book of Concordance.
2. The
fullest account of Joachim's life together with an edition of two
primary sources is to be found in H. Grundmann, "Zur Biographie Joachims
von Fiore und Rainers von Ponza," Deutsches Archiv fur Erforschung des
Mittelalters 16 (1960): 437-546.
3. For the context of this meeting between Joachim and the pope, see
B. McGinn, "Joachim and the Sibyl," Citeaux 34 (1973): 97-138.
4. On these interviews, see M. Reeves, Prophecy in the Later Middle Ages:
A Study in Joachimism (Oxford, 1969), pp. 3-15.
5. The third authentic surviving letter is the "Testament" mentioned
above.
6. On Joachim's visions, see Reeves, Prophecy, pp. 21-25.
7. Exposition on the Apocalypse (Venice, 1527), f. 39v.
8. Literal Commentary on Genesis 12:7 and following, especially 14 and
25 for its infallible character.
9. Commentary 12:26 speaks of the visions of Isaiah and of John
Literal
in the Apocalypse as belonging to the spiritual type.
10. Ten-Stringed Psaltery (Venice, 1527), Preface, f. 227r-v.
11. See M. Reeves and B. Hirsch-Reich, The Figurae of Joachim of Fiore
(Oxford, 1972), pp. 20-74.
12. Tradition ascribed to Joachim a revelation of the meaning of scrip-

ture given on Mt. Tabor when he was on pilgrimage. See Reeves, Prophecy,
pp. 21-22.
13. As recounted by Ralph of Coggeshall, English Chronicle (Rolls Series
66), p. 68.

289
 NOTES

14. On the history of the exegesis of the Apocalypse, see W. Kamlah,

Apokalypse und Geschichtstheologie (Berlin, 1935).
15. H. Grundmann, Studien liber Joachim von Fiore (Leipzig, 1927), chap.

1;H. De Lubac, Exegese medievale (Paris, 1959-1964), vol. I, part 2, pp. 437-558;
and H. Mottu, La manifestation de VEsprit selon Joachim de Fiore (Neuchatel-
Paris, 1977), chaps. 1-3.
16. Especially chap. 1, pp. 77-123.
17. The study is De Lubac, Exegese medievale.
fullest
18. See chaps. 2-4 of the translation.
19. Mottu, La manifestation, pp. 101-12. Mottu also mentions a fourth,
less crucial, component of the typicus intellectus, that of compensation (pp.
112-13).
20. Prophecy, pp. 19-27.

21. M. Reeves, "The Liber Figurarum of Joachim of Fiore," Mediaeval

and Renaissance Studies 2 (1950): 65.
22. See my forthcoming paper "Symbolism in the Thought of Joachim
of Fiore."
23. Reeves and Hirsch-Reich, The Figurae, p. x.
24. The facsimile edition of L. Tondelli, M. Reeves, and B. Hirsch-
Reich, // Libro delle Figure dell 'Abate Gioachino da Fiore (Turin, 1953), vol. II,

contains twenty-three figures, but some of these are doubles.

25. // Libro, Tavola XXII, reproduced here as Plate 3. For a discussion
see Reeves and Hirsch-Reich, The Figurae, pp. 170-73.
26. Joachim's notion of the Tetragrammation as IEUE with its various

combinations (clearly visible in the figura) is based upon the tract entitled
Clerical Instruction of the converted Jew Petrus Alphonsi; see Reeves and
Hirsch-Reich, The Figurae, 40-6.
27. For a more detailed analysis of the figure, see Reeves and Hirsch-
Reich, The Figurae, 192-8.
28.Tondelli was the first to prove the connection. For studies in En-
glish seeReeves and Hirsch-Reich, The Figurae, 324-5; and P. Dronke, "Tradi-
tion and Innovation in Medieval Western Colour-Imagery," Eranos Jahrbuch
41(1972), 98-106. The translation used here is that of Dorothy Sayers.
29. // Libro, Tavola XIV, reproduced here as Plate 6.
30. // Libro, Tavola XXIII, reproduced here as Plate 5.
31. See Reeves, Prophecy, pp. 505-08.
32. E.g., Exposition, ff. 175v-176r.
33. For a detailed study of these hopes, see Reeves, Prophecy, Part Two.
34. // Libro,Tavola XII, reproduced here as Plate 7.
35. H. Grundmann, Neue Forschungen iiber Joachim von Fiore (Marburg,

1950), pp. 85-121; Reeves and Hirsch-Reich, The Figurae, pp. 232^18.
36. E.g., Book of Concordance (Venice, 1519), f. 56r.

37. De articulis fidei di Gioacchino da Fiore, ed. E. Buonaiuti (Rome, 1936),

pp. 43^4.

290
 NOTES

Selection A: Letter to All the Faithful

1. This was one of Joachim's more popular works to judge by
letter
the number of ms. copies that survive. M. Reeves, The Influence of Prophecy, p.
516, lists a dozen. The translation is based on the edition of J. Bignami-Odier
in "Notes sur deux manuscrits de la Bibliotheque du Vatican," Melanges
d'archeologie et de la histoire 54 (1937): 220-23. Bignami-Odier made use of the
text as found in Vat. lat. 3822, f. lr-v, which contains two illegible places. I
have filled these in by a comparison with Milan, Bibl. Ambros. H. 15, inf., ff.
47-48. In addition, I have corrected one misreading in Bignami-Odier's tran-
scription.
2. 3:17. The role of the watchman {speculator) as the one who in-
Ezech.
terprets the coming fulfillment of prophecy to the faithful was also empha-
sized by Pope Gregory I, who ascribed it primarily to the bishops. See R.
Manselli, La "Lectura super Apocalypsim" di Pietro di Giovanni Olivi (Rome:
Instituto Storico Italiano per il Medio Evo, 1955), pp. 12-13.
This fundamental principle of Christian scriptural exegesis (e.g., 1
3.

Cor. 10:11) was the basis for Joachim's literal concordances of events in the
Old Testament with those in the time of the Church.
4. Among Joachim's other short works is a brief treatise on predesti-

nation, the Dialogue on Gods Foreknowledge and on the Predestination of the Elect.
5. In Gen. 19, Lot leaves for the mountains when he departs from

Sodom. To ascend a mountain is always a symbol of the contemplative life

for Joachim.
6. The city of Segor (Gen. 19:20-23), the first stage of Lot's journey to

the mountain, was spared by his intercession from the fate of Sodom and Go-
morrah.
7. The coming era of peace, the messianic third status, is briefly pro-
claimed.

Selection B: Letter to the Abbot of Valdona

1. This translation is made from the edition of
J. Bignami-Odier,
"Notes sur deux manuscrits de la Bibliotheque du Vatican," Melanges
d'archeologie et de histoire 54 (1937): 226-27, based on Vat. lat. ms. 3822, f. 4r,
though in five places I have preferred the alternate readings given from Paris,
Bibl. nat. ms. lat. 3595, f. 34.
2.Valdona is most likely the Cistercian house of Barona in the diocese
of Milan where interest in the persecuting German empire and its fate would
have been strong in the late twelfth century.
3. Joachim means that he finds it impossible to pen a joyful message.

4. An obscure sentence that may mean that the Calabrian's doleful

message came at a time when there was no overt persecution, and thus
seemed less convincing.

291
 NOTES

5. Joachim's practice is to identify Babylon with the persecuting Ger-

man empire.
6. The reference to the increasing opposition to his ideas and the dis-
semination of some of his works seem to argue to a date toward the end of the
Abbot's life.

7. Joachim's mixture of pessimism and optimism concerning the near

future is evident.

Selection C: The Book of Concordance

1. The final sentence of Chapter 1 of Part 1 serves as an introduction
to the terms used here: ''Because some people understand concordia as that
spiritual understanding which ought properly to be defined as allegoria, we
must first show how concordia and allegoria differ, so that when we come to
treat individual cases in their context,having cleared the streambeds so that
both rivers may flow freely, unobstructed by any hindrance, we may hasten
to finish this work." Neither typology nor allegory in its various meanings
translates Joachim's concordia and allegoria. Because, therefore, the English
terms would tend to mislead the reader, the Latin terms have been retained.
For the same reason, I have retained the Latin status and tempus (pi. tempora),
translation of which would in my opinion be misleading, because neither
necessarily means a historical age or period in our sense of those terms.
2. Latin: Concordiam proprie esse dicimus similitudinem eque
proportionis novi ac veteris testamenti.
3. Latin virtus. Virtus here has its classical meaning of strength.
4. Latin similitudo mysterii. Mysterium appears to be closely related to
concordia, allegoria and spiritualis intellectus or intelligentia. Both concordia and
allegoria are keys to the understanding of that mysterium or hidden signifi-
cance which God has implanted in scripture and in history while spiritualis
intellectus or spiritual understanding is the state of knowing this meaning.
5. Matt. 3:17 conflated with Luke 3:22.
6. By others Joachim means all of those people whom John baptized
except Christ.
7. Latin: velud quoddam itinerarium.
8. Ps. 80:11 (Vulgate 79:12).
9. Latin stationes suas.
See Marjorie Reeves, Joachim of Fiore and the Prophetic Future (New
10.

York, 1977), pp. 6-7: "History is, in one sense, completed in its two parts, but
hovering over each there is a third development, a new quality of life rather
than a third set of institutions, a quasimystical state rather than a new age. It
is notable that Joachim never uses the word etas when he is thinking
or tempus
in terms of the pattern of threes: for this he always uses status. Thus 'third
age' is really incorrect." Professor Reeves is correct in saying that Joachim

usually or almost invariably uses status for the pattern of threes and tempus or
etas for other schemes but this passage is crucial for the meaning of status.

292
 NOTES

When Joachim says that he ought better to say status than tempus, does he
mean simply that it will be less confusing if he uses status for this particular
pattern and tempus in other patterns or does he mean that status is a more ac-
curate description than tempus} In chapter 11, this threefold pattern will be
described as the prima diffinitio, symbolized by alpha. The other key pattern is

the twofold, symbolized by omega, which will be introduced in chapter 8 be-

low.
11. Joachim is referring to the forty-second generation after the birth
of Christ, which, using his approximation of thirty years to a generation,
means roughly the years 1230-1260, A.D.
12. Normally Joachim speaks of status or status mundi. Status seculi means

status of the age but it is possible that he means mundi here, i.e., status of the
world.
13. See below chapter nine.
14. See below chapter nine.
15. Joachim means that there ought to be parallels between persons, or-
ders, etc., in the third as well as in the first and second status.

16. John 5:17.

17. Rom. 8:29.
18. Acts 1:25.

19. Joel 2:28.

20. Augustine, The City of God 3:3-5. Joachim appears to believe that the
father of Romulus and Remus was named Moechus, i.e., Adulterer. Roman
tradition named Mars as their father.
21. 2 Cor. 12:4.

22. Eph. 4:13. The use of this text here may suggest that Joachim envi-
sioned the third status as the fulfillment of the Body of Christ.
23. Matt. 10:5; 1 Cor. 7:1-2.
24. A number of manuscripts but not all read "the third to the Holy
Spirit alone," which sharpens but does not change the meaning of the text.
25. Joachim means by this that the Trinity in itself is one and indivis-
ible so that all three persons always work simultaneously, but in the histori-
cal unfolding of the Trinity, there are real distinctions between the work of
the persons.
26. John 14:16-17.
27. John 1:33.
28. John 20:22.
29. Ibid.
30. Joachim wrote a commentary on the Life and Rule of Saint Bene-
dict, Tractatus de Vita S. Benedict i et de Officio divino secundum eius doctrinam, ed.
C. Baraut, Analecta sacra tarraconensia 24 (1951): 42-118.
31. Joachim took up the Trinity at much greater length in the Psalte-
rium decern chordarum (Venice, 1527).
32. Ps. 103:24; Ps. 110:2.
33. In the printed edition of the Liber de concordia (Venice, 1519), this is

293
 NOTES

part of chapter 10, but in the manuscripts it appears correctly as a separate

chapter. I have translated diffinitio as pattern.
34. Cf. John 2:6.

35. Augustine, The City of God 22:30.

36. Lev. 25:22.

Selection D: Book of Figures

1. The most complete study of this figure is to be found in M. Reeves
and B. Hirsch-Reich, The Figurae ofJoachim of Fiore, pp. 146-52. The authors
point out one important fact for understanding some of the complications of
the figure, i.e., dragon of Apocalypse 12 always implies
that the seven-headed
for Joachim both the four beasts from the seventh chapter of Daniel (the
fourth of whom has ten horns and then a smaller eleventh growing in their
midst) and the beast from the sea with seven heads and ten horns of Apoc. 13
and 17.
2. The essential message of the diagram is found in the identification

of the kings and their respective persecutions inscribed above the dragon's
heads and between the necks. Very similar lists are found in two other
sources: the Introductory Book to the Exposition on the Apocalypse, ff. lOr-llr,
where the kings are Herod, Nero, Constantius, Chosroes (whose kingdom
was conquered by the sect of Mohammed), one of the kings of Babylon, and
Saladin; and in the account of Joachim's interview with Richard the Lion-
hearted in Messina in 1190 where the heads are Herod, Nero, Constantius,
Mohammed, Melsemutus, and Saladin. For the background on Joachim's
views on the role of Islam in the apocalyptic crisis of his time, see E. R. Dan-
iel, "Apocalyptic Conversion: The Joachite Alternative to the Crusades,"
Traditio IS (1969): 127-39.
3. Reeves and Hirsch-Reich, The Figurae, pp. 149-50, note that pas-

sages in the Exposition on the Apocalypse also involve concordances of different

orders of the Church raised up to overcome various persecutions. Ideally, this
would be extended to include the order of the spiritual men for the time of
the double persecution of the sixth age, though Joachim nowhere makes this
explicit.
4. Constantius II (337-61), the persecuting Arian emperor.
5. The Exposition f. 1 34va, says that the Mauri are pop-
on the Apocalypse,
ularly called Meselmuti, so Joachim seems to have had some north African
Moorish ruler in mind here. See Reeves and Hirsch-Reich, The Figurae, pp.
87-88.
6. Other texts in the Exposition and in the early Commentary on an Un-

known Prophecy identify the fifth head with a persecution of the King of Bab-
ylon, that is, a German Emperor.
7. That is, clerics attached to collegiate churches.

8. This is inscribed at the dragon's tail.

9. The Commentary is in two parts: A, a reflection on Apoc. 12:3-4,

294
 NOTES

giving further details on the sixth and seventh heads of the dragon; and B, a
defense of Joachim's unusual doubling of the final Antichrist made necessary
by his belief in a coming third state of history after the defeat of the seventh
head of the dragon.
10. One of the most common patterns of history found in Joachim's
writings, both early and late, is the parallel between the seven persecutions of
the people of Israel in the time of the Old Testament and the seven persecu-
tions of the Church in the era of the New. This
is most frequently symbol-

ized by the seven seals of the Apocalypse and their respective openings. See
M. Reeves and B. Hirsh-Reich, "The Seven Seals in the Writings of Joachim
of Fiore," Recherches de theologie ancienne et medievale 21 (1954): 211-47.
11. Speculation over the identity of the ten kings portrayed in the ten
horns of the beast goes back to the patristic period when they were generally
seen as ten rulers who would destroy the Roman Empire. Joachim sees them
as kings who will be gathered by the sixth head (Saladin) and who will unwit-
tingly serve God's design by slaying Christians.
12. As E.R. Daniel points out in "Apocalyptic Conversion," pp. 132-34,

this passage is intelligible only if written before the death of Saladin in 1193.
It is possible that Joachim expected a temporary victory over Islam from the

Third Crusade (1189-1192), though it is clear that he later abandoned this

view.
13. The belief in two Antichrists, one from the East and one from the
West, common among patristic authors, may be echoed here, but a more
likely background is to be found in Joachim's fears of an alliance between
Western Patarene heretics and Moslems (see, e.g., Exposition on the Apocalypse,
f. 134). The Simon Magus of Acts 8:9-24 became the subject of later legends
in which he served as Nero's wonder-working adviser who was eventually
destroyed by Saint Peter.
14. Forty-two months, or three and a half years, the traditional extent
of the reign of the Antichrist.
15. Reeves and Hirsch-Reich, The Figurae, p. 150, show that the dou-
bling of the persecution in the sixth age is a necessity in Joachim's thought so
that the seventh age may be one of complete peace.
16. In a typical concordance, the abbot parallels the victory of Cyrus
over Babylon in the sixth age of the Old Testament with the coming defeat of
the German Empire at the hands of the revived sixth head allied with the sev-
enth. Compare with the "Letter to the Abbot Valdona" and the "Letter
this
to All the Faithful," which also expect the destruction of the empire.
17. The conversion of the Jews was always an important theme in Jo-

achim's apocalyptic. See B. Hirsch-Reich, "Joachim von Fiore und das

Judentum," Miscellanea Mediaevalia IV (Cologne, 1966), pp. 228-63.
18. Joachim is notably chary of speculating on the length of the coming

status of peace.
19. The term maximus or magnus Antichristus, later popularized by Peter
Olivi in his Postil on the Apocalypse, seems to have originated with Joachim.

295
 NOTES

20. In the words of Reeves and Hirsch-Reich: "This is the programme

of the Last Things which Joachim's unique contribution to this subject.
is

Unlike the traditional view he places his 'age of gold' after, not before, the
great manifestation of the Antichrist, but, contrary to what is often under-
stood as Joachimism, he sees this third status itself as ending on a note of final
tribulation" {The Figurae, p. 152).

Selection E: The Twelfth Table

1. The suggestion for translating novus ordo as the "New People of

God" was made by J. Ratzinger, The Theology of History of St. Bonaventure (Chi-
cago: Franciscan Herald Press, 1971), p. 39.
Two summaries of scriptural texts frame the top of the diagram to
2.

the and the right and highlight the organic and harmonious order of the
left

various divisions of Joachim's monastic Utopia that forms the Mystical Body
of the Contemplative Church.
3. M. Reeves and B. Hirsch-Reich point out that the five central orato-

ries to which two more are added produce a pattern of five and seven that is
characteristic of Joachim's number symbolism {The Figurae, pp. 234-36).
4. Each oratory is associated with a patron saint, an allegorical animal,

a gift of the Holy Spirit, and a part of the body suggesting the function of the
oratory. In this case the nose appears to suggest the discretion necessary for
the administration of the whole.
5. The Spiritual Father whose command and authority all obey is to
be almost certainly identified with the "new leader who will ascend from
Babylon, namely a universal Pontiff of the New Jerusalem, that is, of Holy
Mother the Church," of the Book of Concordance, f. 56r. Joachim never envis-
aged the end of the papacy in the third status, but its transformation to a more
spiritual and monastic way of life.
6. The four monastic oratories around the central one housing the

Spiritual Father have as their identifying animals the tetramorph, or four

beasts, of Apoc. 4:6-9, which Christian tradition interpreted as symbols of the
four evangelists. While the order of the beasts moves counterclockwise, the
order of importance of the oratories moves clockwise and hence we start at
the top with the virginal contemplatives symbolized by the eagle of John.
7. Scapulars were originally cords worn around the shoulders to hoist

up monastic tunics for manual labor. Both scapulars and hoods are men-
tioned in Regula 55 of Benedict's Rule.
8. This group sounds very much like Cistercian conversi or working

lay-brothers. Indeed the cape {cappa) was the distinctive garb of the conversi.
9. The specification of distances and the careful details of community

life indicate that Joachim had a concrete historical realization in mind.

10. The mention of the poor implies what will become clearer below,

that is, the existence of other persons outside the ideal community in the
coming status.

296
 NOTES

A stadium was an eighth of a Roman mile.

11.

This communistic sharing of goods has not gone unremarked.

12.

Marxist philosopher Ernst Bloch has claimed that "Joachim was cogently the
He was the first to set a
spirit of revolutionary Christian social utopianism. . . .

date for the kingdom of God, communistic kingdom, and to demand

for the
its observance." See Man on His Own (New York: Herder and Herder, 1971),
p. 137.

Part IV: The Franciscan Spirituals

1. The on the Franciscan Spirituals is large. Among the key

literature
"Die Spiritualen, ihr Verhaltnis zum Franciscanerorden
studies are F. Ehrle,
und zu den Fraticellen," Archiv fur Literatur-und Kirchengeschichte 1 (1885): 509-
69; 2 (1886): 106-64, 249-336; 3 (1887): 553-623; 4 (1888): 1-190; D. Douie, The
Nature and Effect of the Heresy of the Fraticelli (Manchester: Manchester Univ.
Press, 1932); L. Oliger, "Spirituels," Dictionnaire de theologie catholique 14.2
(Paris, 1941), cc. 2522^9; G. Leff, Heresy in the Later Middle Ages (New York:
Barnes and Noble, 1967), vol. I, part 1; and E. Privat, ed., Franciscains dVc. Les
1280-1324 (Toulouse: Cahiers de Fanjeaux 10, 1975).
Spirituels ca.
2. Among the fullest accounts of Angelo's life are Douie, chap. 3; and

L. von Auw, Angelo Clareno et les spirituels franciscains (Lausanne, 1952). For a
study of his spirituality, E.R. Daniel, "Spirituality and Poverty: Angelo da
Clareno and Ubertino da Casale," Medievalia et Humanistica N.S. 4 (Denton:
North Texas State Univ., 1973), pp. 89-98.
3. The Historia was by F. Ehrle in the Archiv 2 (1886):
partially edited
127-55, 256-327. A complete edition
was made by P. Alberto Ghinato, Angelus
a Clarino Chronicon seu Historia septem Tribulationum Ordinis Minorum (Rome:
y

Sussidi e Testi per la Gioventu Francescana 10, Rome, 1959).

4. This is not to deny the presence of other attitudes toward the end

present among the Franciscans, as pointed out by E.R. Daniel, The Franciscan
Concept of Mission in the High Middle Ages (Lexington: Univ. of Kentucky Press,
1975).
5. See J. Ratzinger, The Theology of History in St. Bonaventure (Chicago:

Franciscan Herald Press, 1975); and B. McGinn, "The Significance of

Bonaventure's Theology of History," Journal of Religion. Special Supplement.
The Medieval Religious Heritage, 1274-1974 (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago, 1978),
pp. S564-81.
6. The fullest account of the story of Angelo's group is to be found in

A. Frugoni, Celestiniana (Rome: Istituto Storico Italiano per il Medio Evo,

1954), pp. 123-67.
"Die Papstprophetien des Mittelalters," Archiv fur Kulturgeschichte
7.

19 (1929): 77-159.Grundmann's arguments have been considered probable, if

not quite certain, by the other major study of this literature, M. Reeves,
"Some Popular Prophecies from the Fourteenth to the Seventeenth Centur-

297
 NOTES

ies," in G.J. Cuming and D. Baker, Popular Belief and Practice, Studies in
Church History (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1972), pp. 107-34.
8
8. See B. McGinn, "Angel Pope and Papal Antichrist," Church History
47(1978): 155-65.
9. Ed. F. Ehrle in Archiv 1 (1885): 566-69.
10. For a summary of Angelo's views on the Church, see Frugoni, pp.
164-67.
11. Douie, Nature and Effect, p. 133.
12. For whole question the best account remains M. D. Lambert,
this
Franciscan Poverty (London: S.P.C.K., 1961). For Ubertino's writings on the
poverty questions, see C. T. Davis, "Le Pape Jean XXII et les spirituels.
Ubertino de Casale," Franciscains dVc, pp. 263-83.
13. The literature on Olivi is large. Besides the general works listed

above, I mention only R. Manselli, La "Lectura super Apocalypsim" di Pietro di

Giovanni Olivi (Rome: Instituto Storico Italiano per il Medio Evo, 1955); and
D. Burr, The Persecution of Peter Olivi, Transactions of the American Philo-
sophical Society, N.S. 66, 5 (Philadelphia, 1976).
14. Ecclesia Spiritualis (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1964) 2, p. 259.

ANGELO OF CLARENO: A LETTER OF DEFENSE TO THE POPE

1. Translated from the edition of F. Ehrle, "Die Spiritualen und ihr
Verhaltnis zum Franciscanerorden," Archiv fur Literatur-und Kirchengeschichte
1 (1886): 521-33. The title itself is indicative. Epistola excusatoria is a technical
term for a letter defending nonattendance at some hearing or function. In the
text Angelo usually refers to his enemies zsfratres, here translated as Francis-
cans or Friars. His own group are sometimes fratres, more frequently socii,
here translated as brethren or companions.
2. In late 1 3 16 or early 1317, Pope John XXII had summoned the lead-

ers of the Spiritual party to a Consistory in which among other actions he

confirmed the sentence of excommunication of Angelo and his group con-
tained in a Bull of Boniface VIII.
3. The observance of the Rule was one of the key issues in the struggle

between the Spirituals and the Conventuals.

4. Angelo and such Spiritual leaders as Peter Olivi upheld the legiti-

macy of Boniface's election; but others, such as Ubertino of Casale, believed

that Celestine's resignation had not been lawful and that Boniface's election
was invalid.
5. Angelo now begins his historical account with a reference to the

first imprisonment of the Spirituals of the Marches about 1278 as a result of

the troubles following rumors emanating from the Second Council of Lyons
(1274) that the pope was about to compel the Franciscans to accept property.
6. Minister General from 1289-1295, Raymond was favorable to re-

form and the Spiritual cause.

298
 NOTES

7. This commission appears to have been given in 1290. King Hayton

II of Armenia was so favorable to the Order that in 1294 he resigned his

throne and joined the Franciscans.
8. The Chapter of Paris was held in 1292.

9. Probably in The temporary resting place of the group

late 1293.
was the hermitage of Maria del Chiarino near Ascoli Piceno. Angelo took
S.

his subriquet "da Chiarino" from this spot.

10. Angelo and Liberato now went on ahead to see the pope.

11. Peter of Murrone, Benedictine hermit and monastic reformer, was

elected pope on July 5, 1294, and took the name of Celestine V. The interview
took place between August and October of the same year. It was the pope
who gave the emissaries their new names, Peter of Macerata becoming Fra
Liberato and Peter of Fossombrone Fra Angelo. An unfriendly chronicler
named Jordan tells us: "The two changed their names, the first called himself
Liberato, the second Angelo, because he pretended to have angelic revela-
tions."
12. The Testament of Francis (1226) was a central document for the dif-
ferences between the two parties. See Introduction.
13. Napoleon Orsini, a cardinal since 1288, became one of the chief pro-
tectors of the Spirituals.
Angelo has summarized the battery of arguments, some perhaps
14.

why the excommunication issued by Boniface VIII and Peter of

self-serving,
Constantinople in lost Letters probably of 1299 was not binding. The histori-
cal buttressing for his claim is given in the following paragraphs.
15. Matt. 10:23.
16. The finis preftxus or "end appointed" might be a reference to the
coming millennial period, the Franciscan version of Joachim's third status, or
it might be a reference to the certainty of death.
17. Celestine renounced the papacy on December 13, 1294. Boniface
soon showed himself hostile to the Spiritual cause. On April 8, 1295, in the
bull "Olim Coelestinus," he annulled all the actions of his predecessor,
among which was the approval of the Poor Hermits. In November of the
same year he deposed Raymond Gaufridi, the minister favorable to the
zelanti, and put in his place the anti-Spiritual John of Murrovalle.

18. Probably Trixonia in the mouth of the Gulf of Corinth. This area

of Greece was at that time under Frankish rule.

19. This would have been about 1297.

20. Boniface's bull against the Poor Hermits, entitled "Saepe sacram
ecclesiam," was written about 1299 to Peter, the Latin Patriarch of Constanti-
nople, and to the Bishops of Athens and Patras. It has not survived.
21. This would have been about 1300. Again, Angelo implicitly claims
that he was never officially served the bull of excommunication.
22. Angelo's group fled to Greek territory, the lands of the
Sevastocrator of Epirus in southern Thessaly, probably early in 1301.

299
 NOTES

23. Brother Jerome, later Bishop of Kaffa, is the arch-villain for An-
gelo. Torquatus, the surname of an important branch of the Roman Manlii, is
apparently being used in the root sense of "twisted," i.e., perverse.
24. On Peter Olivi, the great Provencal Spiritual, see Introduction.

25. The wordplay on depositio (deposition, testimony, and witness) is

bring out in English. Wadding's Annates under 1311 note the pro-
difficult to
motion of Brother Jerome to a suffragan bishopric of the Mongol mission.
26. Patriarch Peter died in the middle of 1301.

27.This mission took place in 1302.

28.These legations would have been sent before the death of Boniface
on October 11, 1303.
29. Benedict XI was chosen pope on October 22, 1303, at Perugia,
where he died on July 7, the following year.
30. I here follow an emendation of the text suggested by the editor.
31. Clement V was elected at Perugia on June 13, 1305, and soon re-
moved France where he was crowned at Lyons on November 14.
to
32. Liberato died in the latter half of 1307 at S. Angelo della Vena near

Viterbo. Angelo then became the leader of the Poor Hermits.

33. Angelo's return appears to have taken place in early 1305 during
the long interregnum between Benedict and Clement. See the Introduction
for speculations regarding the activity of his group during this period.
34. The length of the Franciscan habit had been one of the key ques-
tions in the debates between the two parties in the order, and papal condem-
nations of unapproved orders (IV Lateran in 1215, and II Lyons in 1274) al-
lowed immediate action against unusual religious garb.
35. This would have been before September of 1305 when Napoleon

departed for southern France with the new pope.

36. Isnard, Archbishop of Thebes, was sent to Rome in 1308 and be-

came Patriarch of Antioch in 1311. The investigation appears to have taken

place in 1310.
37. John dePapazuris (1302-1326).
38. Probably a Bishop of Viterbo of this name who died in 1311.
39. Penitentiaries were papal officials given powers to absolve from

grave sins. They first appear toward the middle of the thirteenth century.
40. Opened on October 6, 1311.
41. Angelo was to remain at Avignon in the household of Cardinal
Jacopo Colonna until the middle of 1318.
42. Cf. Rom. 8:16.
43. Literally, "iudicium subverterunt," "overturned the judgment or
trial,"thus containing the notions of both ruining the reputation and
perverting the judicial process.
44. This list of the earliest martyrs of the Spiritual party forms the sec-
ond tribulationof the History of the Seven Tribulations, that under the
Generalate of Elias (1232-1239). Angelo here is giving a precis of the stages of
his longer, more properly apocalyptic, work. See Introduction.

300
 NOTES

45. The third tribulation that under Crescentius of Jesi (1244-1248).

46. The fourth tribulation, that of John of Parma, the only Spiritual to
become General (1247-1257). He was compelled to step down because of his
friendship with the Joachite-sympathizing friars who had caused the 1254
"Crisis of the Eternal Gospel," but the stories regarding his punishment by
the Conventuals are largely fiction created by the Spirituals.
47. The fifth tribulation of the History.
48. Ps. 71:12.
49. Gen. 9:5.

Peter John Olivi: Letter to the Sons of Charles

1. Translated from the edition of F. Ehrle in Archiv fur Literatur-und
Kirchengeschichte 3 (1887): 534-40.
2. The three sons of Charles II (1285-1309) had been imprisioned in
Catalonia since 1288. Louis, the eldest, was later to give up the crown for the
Archbishopric of Toulouse and (what was dearer to his heart) the robes of a
Franciscan. He died in 1297 and was subsequently canonized. Robert ruled
Naples from 1309 to 1343 and was a protector of the Fraticelli descendants of
the Spirituals.
3. John 12:24.
4. Aristotle, On Generation and Corruption, 1.3.

5. Olivi uses a technical scholastic term here that might be literally

rendered as "be subject to his rule in obediential potency."
6. Phil. 4:7.
7. John 12:24.
8. Gal. 4:1.
9. John 16:21.
10. Luke 24:26.
11. Acts 14:21.
12. James 1:2-4.
13. James 5:10-11.
14. Heb. 12:1-3,6-7.
15. Heb. 12:8.
16. Heb. 12:11.
17. John 15:13.
18. 1 Tim. 6:12.

19. From the hymn "Sanctorum meritis inclyta gaudia," of First Ves-
pers of the Common for Many Martyrs.
20. Eccli. 34:11.
21. Heb. 5:8.
22. John 15:2.
23. Cant. 2:12.
24. Apoc. 6:12.
25. Apoc. 9:14-16.

301
 NOTES

26. Apoc. 16:12-14. As pointed out in the Introduction, Olivi believed

that he wasliving in the midst of the crisis of the overlapping of the Fifth and
the Sixth Age, foretold in the Apocalypse under the figures of the sixth seal,
the sixth trumpet, and the sixth vial.
27. Apoc. 17:3-17.

28. Apoc. 7:2-17, 10:8-11. R. Manselli in La "Lectura super Apocalysism"

di Pietro de Giovanni Olivi (Rome: Instituto Storico Italiano per il Medio Evo,
1955), pp. 170-71, rightly points out that many of the specific themes of
Olivi's Joachite apocalyptic are not highlighted here. Nevertheless, the con-
cordance between the story of the Deluge and the current crisis foretold in
the Apocalypse is typical of Joachite exegesis in general, and the reference to
the preaching of evangelical poverty to all indicates that Olivi meant the An-
gel of the Sixth Seal to be understood as Saint Francis.
29. Minoratus in the text.
30. Olivi's experience of persecution as a result of his trial in 1283
speaks here.
31. Imbeguinari. The terms begina and beginus as applied to heretics
(probably from Albigenses) appear in the late twelfth century. They were the
customary terms in the fourteenth century for Olivi's followers.
32. 1 Cor. 4:10.
33. 1 Cor. 3:8.

34. 1 Cor. 1:25.

35. Kings 2:6; Tob. 3:2.

1

36. Reminiscent of the words with which Angelo later concluded the

first part of the sixth tribulation in his History: "We pray to be liberated from

the six tribulations so that in the seventh he may free us from evil." Here,
contrary to Manselli, we find explicit reference to the future hopes of the
Spirituals.
37. Brother Peter Scarerii, a friend of Olivi and afterwards Bishop of
Rapolla.
38. Phil. 4:7.

Part V: Savonarola
1. "L' Apocalypse en 1500. La fresque de 1' Antichrist a la chapelle
Saint-Brice d'Orvieto," Bibliotheque d'humanisme et renaissance 14 (1952): 124-40.
See Plate 7.

2. For a more detailed treatment of this era, see my Visions of the End
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1979).
3. Among the most common of these was the widespread acceptance

of a double notion of the Antichrist. Many looked forward to both a "Mysti-

cal Antichrist," a false pope who would mislead the Church, and a "Great
Antichrist," or persecuting ruler.
4. Reeves, Prophecy, pp. 310-11 and passim.

302
 NOTES

5. See B. McGinn, "Angel Pope and Papal Antichrist," Church History

47(1978): 155-73.
6. See my forthcoming article, "Apocalyptic Consciousness and
Group Identification in Thirteenth-Century Religion."
7. See, e.g., E. Garin, "L'Attesa dell'Eta Nuova e la 'Renovatio,' " in
VAttessa delVEta Nuova nella Spiritualita della Fine del Medioevo (Convegni del
Centro di Studi sulla Spiritualita Medievale. III. Todi: L'Accademia
Tudertina, 1962), p. 11:35.
8. The best introduction to these prophets is the articles of G.
Tognetti, notably, "Le fortune della pretesa profezia di San Cataldo,"
Bollettino delllstituto Storico Italiano per il Medio Evo 80 (1968): 273-317; and
"Note sul Profetismo nel Rinascimento e la letteratura relativa," in Bolletino
... 82(1970): 129-57.
9. R. Ridolfi, The Life of Girolamo Savonarola (London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul, 1959), p. 22.
10. Translated from the most popular rendition of the earlier version of
the text as given in Reeves, Prophecy, p. 328.
11. The history of the text has been studied by M. Chaume, "Une
prophetie relative a Charles VI," Revue du moyen age latin 3 (1974): 27^42.
12. On thisimportant book to which my account owes much, see the
review of S. Camporeale, "Savonarola. Umanesimo e Profezia," Revista di
Storia della Chiesa in Italia 31 (1977): 508-13.
13. Quoted in Ridolfi, p. 171.
14. and Times of Girolamo Savonarola (New York:
E.g., P. Villari, Life
Scribner's, 1888), pp. 320-24; and Ridolfi, p. 114.
15. See M. Meiss, Painting in Florence and Siena after the Black Death (New

York: Harper and Row, 1973), chap. 5.

16. E.g., Prediche sopra Aggeo, ed. L. Firpo (Rome: A. Belardetti, 1965),

XIV, esp. pp. 234-40.

17. Prediche Italiane ai Fiorentini,ed. R. Palmarocchi (Florence: La
Nuova Italia, 1933), III 2 , p. 313. See also pp. 320 and 528. These texts are dis-
cussed in Weinstein, pp. 77, 173-75.

Girolamo Savonarola: The Compendium of Revelations

1. Translated from the edition of Angela Crucitti, Girolamo Savonarola.

Compendio di Rivelazioni e Dialogus de veritate prophetica, Edizione Nazionale

delleOpere di Girolamo Savonarola (Rome: A. Berlardetti, 1974). Although it
appears that, contrary to his usual practice, Savonarola did not in this case
write in Latin first, it does seem that he worked on both versions of the text
almost simultaneously (see Crucitti, pp. 379-386). I have translated from the
Latin text, but have compared with the Italian throughout. There are many
minor verbal differences, but no change of content.
2. Matt. 7:6.

303
 NOTES

3. The vision took place on the night of March 31, 1495.

4. The vernacular text was first published by Francesco Buonaccorsi

on August 18, 1495; four other editions followed in less than a year.

Buonaccorsi published the Latin text on October 3, and in 1496 Latin edi-
tions appeared at Paris and Ulm.
5. The lukewarm friends of whom the Dominican speaks here are

priests and monks who opposed him throughout his career. For their opposi-
tion at this juncture, see Ridolfi, pp. 114-115.
6. Dan. 12:4.

7. Prov. 3:32.
8. Matt. 11:25.
9. 1 Kings 9:9.

10. This definition is based on Aquinas, Summa of Theology (hereafter

cited as STh). The following discussion of the charism of prophecy is deeply

influenced throughout by St. Thomas's discussion in qq. 171-174 of the
Ilallae.
11. For Aquinas's condemnation of divination, see Ilallae, q. 95. "Judi-
cial" astronomy is what we would call astrology.
12. Heb. 4:13.

13. Osee 12:10.

14. Dan. 10:1.

15. Dan. 5:25.

16. Celestial Hierarchy 4.3.

17. Rom. 13:1.

18. Amos 3:7.

For an analysis of the relation between the Florentine situation and

19.

Savonarola's prophetic career, the fundamental book is that of D. Weinstein.

20. As Weinstein points out (p. 117), Savonarola's account is better
prophecy than history at this point. The Dominican had first been in the city
from 1482 to 1487, and was reassigned there in 1490 not 1489. He first began
his prophetic preaching in San Gimignano in 1486, not in Florence (Wein-
stein, pp. 74-76).
21. These three forms of proof are also found in the "Renovation Ser-
mon" preached on January 13, 1495, after the departure of Charles and his
army.
22. Gen. 6:16.
23. The invasion of Charles VIII began in late August of 1494.
24. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494), one of the most remark-
able Humanists of the day, had known Savanorola since at least 1482 and had
been instrumental in his return to Florence (Ridolfi, p. 29). The friar at-
tended the Count's deathbed on November 16, the day before the entrance of
Charles into Florence.
25. Weinstein (p. 76) doubts Savonarola's claims for a gradual disclo-
sure of the divine character of his revelations, showing that there is no evi-
dence in the surviving sermons before the critical events of late 1494.

304
 NOTES

Although none of the revealed messages are taken directly from

26.
scripture, all of them are constructed from scriptural reminiscences. The

sword of the Lord is a frequent prophetic image (e.g., Isa. 1:20, Jer. 46:10), and
the phrase "swiftly and soon" (cito et velociter) occurs in Joel 3:4.
27. Reminiscences of Matt. 5:12, Eccli. 2:11, Apoc. 22:11, and Wisd. 2:9

are found in this passage.

28. Apoc. 19:2. A picture of this vision is found on the obverse of the

famous Savonarola medallion, shown here in Plate 10.

29. Cf. Gen. 4:10.
30. Ps. 88:33.
31. Ps. 88:34.
32. Jer. 2:32.

33. Ezech. 5:11.

34. Cf. Ezech. 5:6.
35. Reminiscences of Dan. 4:32, Ezech. 5:13 and 19, Isa. 45:22, Lam.
4:11, and Ezech. 7:25 are found here.
36. Ps. 118:103.
37. Ps. 41:10.
Reminiscences of Is. 30:18, Joel 2:13, Ps. 102:6, Isa. 1:15, Job 14:13,
38.

and found in these addresses.

Ps. 74:11 are
39. Is. 45:1^.

40. Lorenzo died on April 8, 1492; Innocent on July 25 of the same year.
41. Late October, 1494.
42. The legates were named on Nov. 5. Their meeting with Charles
took place in Pisa on Nov. 8.
43. Ps. 24:10.
44. Thomas Aquinas notes that God always rewards more than he
should and punishes less than he should; see STh la, 21, 4, ad 1.

45. 1 Tim. 6:15-16.

46. Job. 12:17-18.
47. This was an important theme in the traditions about the Last
World Emperor.
48. On the change in Savonarola's prophecy from a basically pessimis-
tic message to one of millenarian optimism centered on the city of Florence,
see Weinstein, especially chapters four and five.
49. "The Appeal against the Six Beans" was an attempt by Savonarola
and others to mitigate the process by which six votes of the aristocratic Coun-
cil of Eight (cast by white beans) were sufficient to inflict severe criminal sen-

tences and even death. In the interest of reducing party strife, Savonarola ar-
gued for the possibility of appeal in such cases to the whole Signoria or the
Council of Eighty. A law allowing an appeal to the General Council was
passed in March 1495. Savonarola was later criticized for his role in this re-
form. See Villari, pp. 277-278.
50. 2 Cor. 3:5.

51. Rom. 8:26.

305
 NOTES

52. James 1:4.

53. Rom. 5:3-5.

54. The change
in government from the control of the Medici to the
dominance of the Signoria took place while Savonarola was on embassy to
Charles VIII. His first sermon on his return, probably preached on Novem-
ber 11, shows his immediate support for the new regime. See Prediche sopra
Aggeo IV, pp. 61-76.
This sermon was XIII of the Prediche sopra Aggeo (ed. cit., pp. 209-
55.

28), given on December 14. It does not appear that Savonarola originated

many of the particulars of the new Venetian-style constitution, as he claims

here, but he was an early and important supporter of the new forms of gov-
ernment.
56. The reforms were decreed on December 22-23. For a discussion of

the Friar's role, see Weinstein, pp. 247-266.

57. Job. 9:13.

58. This doctrine is basically Thomist, cf. STh Ilallae 2, 1; 4, 8; etc.

59. Prov. 10:9, 3:32.

60. Ps. 5:7.
61. a number of authors of the end of the fifteenth century
Although
mixed apocalypticism and astrology, such as Johannes Lichtenberger, the
court astrologer of Frederick III, and the Dominican Giovanni Nanni of
Viterbo, Savonarola, in line with traditional Thomistic teaching, makes his
opposition to astrology clear.
62.These two phrases summarizing Aristotle's position are from
Periherm. 9:19, and Met. 5:2.
63. The friar seems to refer to three works attributed to Albert, The Ex-
periments of Albert, The Wonders of the World, and The Secrets of Women.
64. Isa. 47:10.

65. Isa. 47:13-14.

66. Jer. 10:2-3.
67. Isa. 41:25.

68. See STh la, 84, 6; Iallae 9, 5; Ilallae 95, 5.

69. 1 Cor. 15:8.

70. The source of this saying is unknown.

71. Amos 3:6-7.
72. Acts 1:7. A favorite text for attacking apocalyptic expectations, at
least since the time of Saint Augustine; see City of God 18:53.
73. Acts 1:6.

74. Gen. 7:4.

75. Jer. 25:11.

76. Dan. 9:24-27.
77. 1 Cor. 12:11.
78. Rom. 9:18-21.
79. Num.24.
80. Matt. 7:22-23.

306
 NOTES

81. Gratiae gratis datae, a technical term in the Thomistic theology of

grace for special gifts of God given for distinct purposes as distinguished
from justifying grace, the gratia gratum faciens; see Iallae, 11, 4.

82. 1 Cor. 13:1.

83. The friar probably has the Sibylline Oracles in mind, as well as the
writings of Bridget of Sweden and Catherine of Siena.
84. 1 Thess. 5:20.

85. Rom. 4:17.

86. Heb. 4:13.
87. Innocent III, Register 2.141 (PL 214.695-98).
88. Jer. 28:7-9.
89. John 10:41-42.
90. John 1:23.
91. Eccli. 19:4.
92. 1 Cor. 13:7.

93.See Jerome's Life of Paul and Life of Hilarion (PL 23). Gregory the
Great's Dialogues contain numerous references to prophecy. It is difficult to
know exactly what work of Augustine Savonarola had in mind, but
Cathechizing the Young (e.g., 4.7 and 9, 24.44) and The Care for the Dead (e.g.,

12.15, 17.21) are possible candidates.

94. 1 John 4:1.

95. STh Ilallae, 5:4.

96. Ps. 111:4.
97. A frequent theme in Aristotle, if not precisely in these words. E.g.,
DeCaelo 1.4, and 2.11.
98. Matt. 11:25, Luke 10-21.
99. 1 Cor. 1:20-21.
100. Isa. 33:18-19.
101. John 9:39.
102. Eccles. 1:15.
103. Matt. 20:16, 22:14.
104. Epist. 53 (PL 22.272).
105. Luke 21:15.
106. Acts 6:10.
107. 1 Par. 17:2.
108. Matt. 22:29.
109. 4 Kings 4:27.
110. Gal. 1:10.
111. 1 Cor. 4:10.
112. Wisd. 5:1.

113. Wisd. 5:3-5.

114. Matt. 5:11-12.
115. 1 Kings 16:7.
116. 2 Cor. 5:10.
117. STh la, 5:5, etc.

307
 NOTES

118. 1 Cor. 4:4.

119. 2 Cor. 11:17, 12:11.

120. The break with the Lombard Congregation was effected by a papal
brief of May 22, 1493. The fullest study of the separation is ]. Schnitzer, Savo-
narola im Streite mit seinem Orden und seinem Kloster (Munich: J.F. Lehmann,
1914).
121. Prov. 13:10.
122. 2 Tim. 2:4. It was precisely this scriptural text that had been in-
voked against Savonarola at a meeting in early 1495 by his fellow Dominican
Tommaso da Rieti (Villari, p. 329).
123. Nic. Ethics 3:7.
124. While by no means a real democracy (the number of citizens eligi-
ble for the Great Council has been calculated as about 3,000), the new repub-
lican government represented a considerable expansion of the active political
base of the city. See the summary in Weinstein, pp. 255-256.
125. These obscure sentences are clearer in the Italian, whose sense has
guided the rendering given here.
126. On Savonarola's messianic concept of Florence, see Weinstein, espe-
cially chapters four and five.

127. Matt. 10:24.

128. Apparently a classical proverb.
129. Ps. 59:5-7.
130. Acts 13:48.
131. Cf. Luke 24:17.
132. The exchange is a choral rendition of Isa. 26:1-9. Other examples of
the same form will be seen below.
133. Luke 1:68 sq.
134. Latvia, dulia, and byperdulia, are traditional terms in Latin theology,
see STh Ilallae, 103, 3 and 4.
135. Luke 2:29 sq.
136. John 15:12, 13:35.
137. Acts 4:32.
138. Ps. 121:7-9.
139. The Italian text adds that the pearl signifies a good conscience.
140. 3 Kings 10:18-20.
141. Cf. Ezech. 2:1, 3, 23; 44:4.
142. As pointed out
in the Introduction, other passages make it clear that
Savonarola believed in a coming holy pope, the Pastor Angelicus, who would
renew the Church.
143. Isa. 55:1.
144. John 7:37.
145. Apoc. 22:17.
146. John 4:13-14.
147. This theme of a return to the perfection of the early Church com-
plements the future-oriented notion of a more perfect age of the Church on

308
 NOTES

earth, which Savonarola shared with many other late medieval apocalyptic
authors. Similar elements are found in the thought of Joachim.
148. The medieval Bestiary stressed the elephant's chastity due to his
habit of underwater copulation.
149. See Jerome, On Hebrew Names (PL 23,887).
150. Exod. 33:23.
151. There had been an extensive controversy in Latin theology over the
question of whether it was possible to have a direct vision of God in this life.

152. Ps. 112:1-2.

153. Zach. 8:5.

154. Ps. 113:14.

155. Ps. 113:15.
156. Matt. 18:3.

157. James 1:17.

158. Apoc. 7:14.

159. 2 Cor. 6:6.

160. Lam. 4:7.

161. Ps. 117:1-2.

162. Heb. 2:16.
163. Ps. 66:2-3.
164. Ps. 66:4-6.
165. Ps. 66:7.
166. The description of the nine choirs of angels that follows is based on
a long tradition whose fundamental source is to be found in the Pseudo-
Dionysius, Celestial Hierarchy, especially chapters 5-10.
167. Ezech. 28:13.
168. Isa. 6:3; Matt. 21:9.
169. Jth. 15:10-11.
170. Dan. 7:10.
171. Rom. 13:1.

172. The Friar here shows his reliance on the tradition of allegorical in-
terpretation of precious gems, especially those mentioned in the scriptures.
The most complete study of this tradition is now in process of publication, C.
Meier, Gemma Spiritalis. Methode und Gebrauch der Edelsteinallegorese vom fruhen
Cbristentum bis ins 18.Jahrhundert Teil I (Munich: W. Fink, 1977).
173. Prov. 8:31.
174. Wisd. 9:15.
175. Ps. 83:8.
176. The choral dialogue is taken from Ps. 112:1-9.
177. Ps. 19:1.
178. Ps. 19:2.
179. Ps. 19:3.
180. Ps. 19:4.
181. Ps. 19:5.
182. Ps. 19:6.

309
 NOTES

183. Ps. 19:7.

184. Ps. 19:8.
185. Ps. 19:9.
186. Ps. 19:10.
187. Excessus mentis, a technical term for mystical ecstasy; see the article
"Extase," in the Dictionnaire de spiritualite 4.2, cc. 2045-2189, passim.
188. The following speech to the Virgin is a pastiche based on Ezech.
28:12-15, Jth. 15:9-10, and the well-known Compline hymn Salve Regina.
189. The Offertory verse for the Feast of the Seven Sorrows of the
Blessed Virgin (Sept. 15).

190. A liturgical prayer in the form of a Collect.

191. Ps. 122:3-4.
192. On November 9, the same day that Florence expelled the Medici,
the Pisans cast off the Florentine rule under which they had lived since 1406.
Despite Savonarola's continued prophecies of the recovery of this city, it was
to remain free until 1509.
193. The lilies are the citizens of Florence. The friar is praising the new
form of government in which the lower and upper classes are united in har-
mony.
194. Isa. 3:10.

195. The celestial warrant for the regulations concerning public moral-
ity in the Florentine Republic under Savonarola.
196. Josue 23:16; Joel 3:4.

197. James 1:12.

198. Only verses 1, 2 and 19 are quoted in the Latin; the vernacular gives
the whole psalm written out as described.
199. Ps. 117:28.
200. Thomistic doctrine, STh Ilallae 174, 1.

201. Jon. 3:4.

202. Isa. 38:1.
203. Jon. 1:12-16.
204. 2 Cor. 4:3^.
205. Ps. 49:19-21.
206. Ps. 115:11; Rom. 3:4.

207. 2 Tim. 2:19-21.

310
Bibliography

The literature relating to apocalypticism is large and not easily accessible

through standard bibliographies. I have tried to give a critical overview of the
medieval materials in my article "Apocalypticism in the Middle Ages: An
Historiographical Sketch," Mediaeval Studies 37(1975): 252-86. The following
selective bibliography is divided into three sections for easier use:

A. The Origins of Apocalypticism and Apocalyptic Spirituality.

B. Apocalypticism (c. A.D. 100-400)
Patristic
C. Medieval Apocalypticism (c. A.D. 400-1500)

(1) General Works

(2) Early period (400-1200 A.D.)
(3) Late period (1200-1500 A.D.)

A. The Origins of Apocalypticism and Apocalyptic Spirituality in General.

Apocalypticism. Journal for Theology and Church, vol. 6. New York, 1969.
Bousset, Wilhelm. The Antichrist Legend. London, 1896.
. "Beitrage zur Geschichte der Eschatologie." Zeitschrift fur Kir-
chengeschichte 20(1899-1900): 103-31, 261-90.
Die Offenbarung Johannis. Gottingen, 1906.
Bultmann, Rudolf. History and Eschatology. The Presence of Eternity. New York,
1962.
Charles, R.H., et al. The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament in
English. 2 vols. Oxford, 1913.
. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Revelation of St. John. Edin-
burgh, 1920.
Collins, Adela. "The Political Perspective of the Revelation of John." The
Journal of Biblical Literature 96(1977): 241-56.

311
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Collins, John. "Apocalyptic Eschatology as the Transcendence of Death."

Catholic Biblical Quarterly 36(1974): 21-43.
. "The Symbolism of Transcendence in Jewish Apocalyptic." Biblical
Research 19(1974): 5-22.
Eliade, Mircea. Cosmos and History. The Myth of the Eternal Return. New York,
1959.
Hanson, Paul D. The Dawn of Apocalyptic. Philadelphia, 1975.
Hartman, Lars. Prophecy Interpreted. Lund, 1966.
Hennecke, Edgar, et al. New Testament Apocrypha. 2 vols. Philadelphia, 1963.
Kermode, Frank. The Sense of an Ending: Studies in the Theory of Fiction. Oxford,
1966.
Koch, Klaus. The Rediscovery of Apocalyptic. Studies in Biblical Theology. 2nd
ser., vol. 22. Napierville, 1970.
Lowith, Karl. Meaning in History. Chicago, 1949.
Malvenda, Tomas. De Antichristo libri undecim. Rome, 1604.
Moltmann, Jiirgen. The Theology of Hope. New York, 1967.
Pannenberg, Wolfhart, et al. Revelation as History. London, 1969.
Rahner, Karl. "The Hermeneutics of Eschatological Assertions." Theological
Investigations. London, 1966, Vol. 4:323-46.
Russell, D.S. Apocalyptic Ancient and Modern. Philadelphia, 1978.
. The Method and Message ofJewish Apocalyptic: 200 B.C-A.D. 100. Philadel-
phia, 1964.
Schall, J.V. "Apocalypse as a Secular Enterprise." Scottish Journal of Theology
29(1976): 357-73.
Schmithals, Walter. The Apocalyptic Movement: Introduction and Interpretation.
Nashville, 1975.
Smith, Jonathan Z. "Wisdom and Apocalyptic." In. B.A. Pearson, ed., Reli-
gious Syncretism in Antiquity. Missoula, Mont., 1975, pp. 131-56.
Talmon, Yonina. "Pursuit of the Millennium: The Relation between Reli-
gious and Social Change." Archives europeenes de sociologie 3(1962): 125-48.
Wilder, Amos N. "The Rhetoric of Ancient and Modern Apocalyptic." Inter-
pretation 25(1971): 436-53.

B. Patristic.

Atzberger, L. Geschichte der christlichen Eschatologie innerhalb der vornicanischen

Zeit. Freiberg, 1896.
Bietenhard, Hans. "The Millennial Hope in the Early Church." Scottish Jour-
nal of Theology 6(1953): 12-30.
Danielou, Jean. The Theology ofJewish Christianity. Chicago, 1964.
Hinnells, J.R. "The Zoroastrian Doctrine of Salvation in the Roman World:
A Study of the Oracle of Hystaspes." In E.J. Sharpe and J.R. Hinnels,
eds., Man and his Salvation: Studies in Memory ofS.G.F. Brandon. Manches-
ter, 1973, pp. 125-48.

312
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kotting, B. "Endzeitprognosen zwischen Lactantius und Augustinus."

Historisches Jahrbuch 77(1957): 125-39.
Loi, Vincenzo. Lattanzio nelle Storia del Linguaggio e del Pensiero teologico Pre-
Niceno. Zurich, 1970.
Luneau, Auguste. L'Histoire du salut chez les Peres de TEglise: La doctrine des ages
du monde. Paris, 1964.
Pelikan, Jaroslav. The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100-600). Chicago,
1973.
Pichon, Rene. Lactance. Etude sur le mouvement philosophique et religieux sous le

regne de Constantin. Paris, 1901.

Schmidt, Roderich. "Aetates mundi: Die Weltalter als Gliederungsprinzip der
Geschichte." Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte 67(1955-56): 287-317.
Thompson, B. "Patristic Use of the Sibylline Oracles." Review of Religion
16(1952): 115-36.
Weinel, Heinrich. "Die spatere christliche Apokalyptik." In Hans Schmidt,
ed., EUCHARISTERION: Studien zur Religion und Literatur des Alien und
Neuen Testaments. Hermann Gunkel. Gottingen, 1923, pp.
Festschrift 141-73.
Werner, Martin. The Formation of Christian Dogma. Boston, 1965.

C. Medieval.

(1) General works.

Alexander, Paul J. "Medieval Apocalypses as Historical Sources." American
Historical Review 73(1968): 1997-2018.
Anderson, Andrew R. Alexanders Gate: Gog and Magog and the Enclosed Nations.
Cambridge, Mass., 1932.
Cohn, Norman. The Pursuit of the Millennium. New York, 1970.
Kampers, Franz. Kaiserprophetieen und Kaisersagen im Mittelalter. Munich, 1895.
Lerner, Robert. "Refreshment of the Saints: The Time after Antichrist as a
Station for Earthly Progress in Medieval Thought." Traditio 32(1976): 97-
144.
McGinn, Bernard. Visions of the End: Apocalyptic Traditions in the Middle Ages.
New York, 1979.
li
Manselli, Raoul. La Lectura super Apocalypsim" di Pietro di Giovanni Olivi:
Richerche sulVescatologismo medioevale. Rome, 1955.
Topfer, Bernhard. Das kommende Reich des Friedens. Berlin, 1964.

(2) Early Medieval.

Alexander, Paul J. The Oracle of Baalbek: The Tiburtine Sibyl in Greek Dress.
Washington, D.C., 1967.
."Byzantium and the Migration of Literary Works and Motifs: The
Legends of the Last Roman Emperor." Mediaevalia et Humanistica
n.s.2(1971): 47-82.
Alphandery, Paul. "Mahomet-Antichrist dans le moyen age latin." In Me-
langes Hartwig Derenbourg. Paris, 1909, pp. 261-77.

313
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bloomfield, Morton W. "Joachim of Flora: A Critical Survey of his Canon,

Teachings, Sources, Biography, and Influence." Traditio 13(1957): 249-
311.
Erdmann, Carl. "Endkaiserglaube und Kreuzzugsgedanke im 11. Jahrhun-
dert." Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte 51(1932): 384-414.
Grundmann, Herbert, Neue Forschungen uber Joachim von Fiore. Marburg, 1950.
. Studien 'iiber Joachim von Fiore. Leipzig, 1927. Reprint: Darmstadt, 1966.
. "Kirchenfreiheit und Kaisermach um 1190 in der Sicht Joachims von
Fiore." Deutsches Archiv ur Erforschung des Mittelalters 19(1963): 353-96.
. "Zur Biographie Joachims von Fiore und Rainers von Ponza." Deut-
sches Archiv fur Erforschung des Mittelalters 16(1960): 437-546.
Kamlah, Wilhelm. Apokalypse und Geschichtstheologie: Die mittelalterliche
Auslegung der Apokalypse vor Joachim von Fiore. Berlin, 1935.
Kmosko, Michael. "Das Ratsel des Pseudomethodius." Byzantion 6(1931): 273-
96.
Konrad, Robert. De ortu et tempore Antichristi: Antichristvorstellung und
Geschichtsbild des Abtes Adso von Montier-en-Der. Munich, 1964.
McGinn, Bernard. "Joachim and the Sibyl." Citeaux 34(1973): 97-138.
"Symbolism in the Thought of Joachim of Fiore." In a forthcoming
.

Festschrift for Marjorie Reeves.

Mottu, Henri. La manifestation de Vesprit selon Joachim de Fiore. Neuchatel and
Paris, 1977.
Rangheri, Maurizio. "La Epistola ad Gerbergam reginam de ortu et tempore
Antichristi di Adsone di Montier-en-Der e le sue fonti." Studi Medievali
3rd ser. 14(1973): 677-732.
Rauh, Horst-Dieter. Das Bild des Antichrist im Mittelalter: Von Tyconius zum
Deutschen Symbolismus. Munster, 1973.
Reeves, Marjorie. "History and Prophecy in Medieval Thought." Mediaevalia
et Humanistica n.s.5(1974): 51-75.
. "The Abbot Joachim's Sense of History." In 1274: Annee charniere. Mu-
tations et continuites. Paris, 1977, pp. 781-96.
and B. Hirsch-Reich. The Figurae ofJoachim of Fiore. Oxford, 1972.
Sackur, Ernst. Sibyllinische Texte und Forschungen. Halle, 1898.
Verhelst, D. "La prehistoire des conceptions d'Adson concernant
1' Antichrist." Recherches de theologie ancienne et medievale 40(1973): 52-103.

(3) Late Medieval.

L'Attesa delVEta nuova nella Spiritualita delta Fine del Medioevo. Convegni del
Centro di Studi sulla Spiritualita Medievale III. Todi, 1962.
Benz, Ernst. Ecclesia Spiritualis. Stuttgart, 1934.
Bignami-Odier, Jeanne. Etudes sur Jean de Roquetaillade. Paris, 1952.
Bloomfield, M., and M. Reeves, "The Penetration of Joachimism into North-
ern Europe." Speculum 29(1954): 772-93.
Burr, David. The Persecution of Peter Olivi. Transactions of the American Philo-
sophical Society, vol. 66, part 5. Philadelphia, 1976.

314
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Daniel, E. Randolph. The Franciscan Concept of Mission in the High Middle Ages.
Lexington, 1975.
. "Apocalyptic Conversion: The Joachite Alternative to the Crusades."
Traditio 25(1969): 127-54.
"Spirituality and Poverty: Angelo da Clareno and Ubertino da
Casale." Mediaevalia et Humanistica n.s.4(1973): 89-98.
Douie, Decima L. The Nature and Effect of the Heresy of the Fraticelli. Manches-
ter, 1932.

Ehrle, Franz. "Petrus Johannis Olivi, sein Leben und seine Schriften." Archiv
fur Literatur-und Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters 3(1887): 409-552.
."Die Spiritualen, ihr Verhaltnis zum Franciscanerorden und zu den
Fraticellen." Archiv fur Literaturund Kirchengeschichte 1(1885): 509-69;
2(1886): 106-64, 249-336; 3(1887):553-623; 4(1888): 1-190.
y
Franciscains d Oc. Cahiers de Fanjeaux, vol. 10. Toulouse, 1975.
Frugoni, Arsenio. Celestiniana. Rome, 1953.
Grundmann, H. "Die Papstprophetien des Mittelalters." Archiv fur
Kulturgeschichte 19(1929): 77-138.
Holder-Egger, O. "Italienische Prophetieen des 13.Jahrhunderts." Neues
Archiv der Gesellschaft fur dltere Deutsche Geschichtskunde 15(1 890): 143-78;
30(1905):322-86; 33(1908):96-187.
Kaminsky, Howard. A History of the Hussite Revolution. Berkeley and Los An-
geles, 1967.
Kurze, Dietrich. "Nationale Regungen in der spatmittelalterliche
Prophetic" Historische Zeitschrift 202(1966): 1-23.
Lambert, Malcolm D. Franciscan Poverty. London, 1961.
Leff, Gordon. Heresy in the Later Middle Ages. 2 vols. New York, 1967.
Lerner, Robert. "Medieval Prophecy and Religious Dissent." Past and Present
72(1976): 3-24.
McGinn, B. "The Abbot and the Doctors: Scholastic Reactions to the Radical
Eschatology of Joachim of Fiore." Church History 40(1971): 30-47.
."Angel Pope and Papal Antichrist." Church History 47(1978): 155-73.
. "The Significance of Bonaventure's Theology of History." In David
Tracy, ed., Celebrating the Medieval Heritage. Journal of Religion. Supplement
58(1978): s64-s81.
Oliger, Livarius. "Spirituels." Dictionnaire de theologie catholique. Paris, 1923-50.
Vol.l4:2522-49.
Partee, Carter. "Peter John Olivi: Historical and Doctrinal Study." Franciscan
Studies 20(1960): 215-60.
Ratzinger, Joseph. The Theology of History in St. Bonaventure. Chicago, 1971.
Reeves, M. The Influence of Prophecy in the Later Middle Ages: A Study in

Joachimism. Oxford, 1969.

.Joachim of Fiore and the Prophetic Future. London and New York, 1976.
."Some Popular Prophecies from the Fourteenth to the Seventeenth
Centuries." In Studies in Church History. Vol. 8: Popular Belief and Practice.
Cambridge, 1972, pp. 107-34.

315
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ricerche suirInfluenza delta Prophezia nel Basso Medioevo. Bullettino delllstituto

Storico Italianoper il Medio Evo 82(1970): 1-128.

Rohr, J.
"Die Prophetie im letzten Jahrhundert vor der Reformation."
Historisches Jahrbuch 19(1898): 29-56, 447-466.
Weinstein, Donald. Savonarola and Florence. Princeton, 1970.
Werner, Ernst. "Popular Ideologies in Late Medieval Europe: Taborite
Chiliasm and its Antecedents." Comparative Studies in Society and History
2(1959-60): 344-63.
West, Delno C, ed. Joachim of Fiore in Christian Thought: Essays on the Influence

of the Calabrian Prophet. 2 vols. New York, 1975.

316
Index to Foreword,
Preface, Introductions and Notes
Abbasid Caliphate, 82. Antiochus VI Epiphanes, 7, 8.

Abraham, 107. Apocalypse, 1, 5, 84, 98, 99, 100,

Acts, 1:6, 306; 1:7, 306; 1:25, 293; 101, 102, 106, 155, 191, 290;
4:32, 308; 6:10, 307; 8:9-24, 4:6-9, 296; 6:12, 301; 6:15, 285;
295; 13:48, 308; 14:21, 301; 7:2, 151; 7:2-17, 302; 7:14, 309;

17:28, 112. 9:14-16, 301; 10:8-11, 302; 11,

Adam, 102. 284, 288; 11:7-12, 284; 12, 294;
Adam of Persigny, 100. 12:3-4, 294; 13, 283, 294; 13:5,
Adso, Abbot, xi, xiv, xv, 12, 81, 284; 16:12-14, 302; 17, 283,
98, 286-289; and Antichrist, 294; 17:3-17, 302; 19:2, 305;
82-88; influence of, 88; and 20:1-6, 23, 285; 20:12-15, 286;
LastWorld Emperor, 85-88. 22:11, 305; 22:17, 308; 22:20,
Agobard of Lyons, 83. xi.

Ahlstrom, G., 277. Apocalypticism, Christian, xi,

Alcuin, 88, 287, 288. xiii-xviii, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 17, 18,

Alexander VI, Pope, 188, 189, 19, 21, 22, 23, 98, 100, 191;
191. contemporary, 1-3, 13, 16; and
Alexander the Great, 86. crisis, 7, 8, 10, 13, 98, 106, 108,
Alexander, P.J., 286. 184, 294; functions of, 10, 11,
Alphandery, P., 287. 12; intertestimental, 3, 8, 21;
Amos, 3:6-7, 306; 3:7, 304. Jewish, xiii, xv, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,

Anderson, A.R., 287. 18, 21, 98, 100, 278; medieval,

Angelo of Clareno, xii, xvii, 12; 3, 10, 81, 101, 153, 183, 184,
life of, 149-150, 154, 297; and 185, 186, 189, 191, 277; and
Spirituals, 149-156; History of optimism, xii, xvi, 7, 84, 86,

the Seven Tribulations of the 98, 112, 185, 292, 305; and
Franciscan Order, 151, 152, 157, pessimism, xii, 7, 83, 84, 112,

300, 301, 302; Letter of Defense, 184, 186, 292, 305; and time,
149, 154, 298-301. xiii, xiv, 6; traditions, xi, 6, 8,

Anselm of Canterbury, 88. 10, 14, 15, 18, 19;and

Anselm of Havelberg, xvi. universalism, xviii; and
Antichrist, xi, xiv, xvi, xvii, 10, waiting, xiii, xiv, 6.

II, 22, 23, 82-88, 106, 107, 108, Apostolic Brethren, 186
III, 151, 152, 153, 155, 157, Arians, 82, 294.
183, 185, 186, 191, 283, 284, Aristippus, 282.
285, 287, 288, 289, 295, 296, 302. Ariston of Ceos, 281.

317
Aristotle, 280, 282, 301, 306, 307. Charles VIII, 187, 188, 191, 304,
Arnobius, 17. 305, 306.
Asciepius, 24, 280. Chastel, Andre, 183.
Atzberger, L., 280. Chaume, M., 303.
Augustine, xv, xvi, 5, 84, 88, 99, Chiliasm, 4, 5, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23,

101, 281, 293, 294, 306, 307. 280, 285.

Auw, L. von, 297. Chosroes, 294.
Christ, and Antichrist, 82, 107,
Baker, D., 298.
157; disciples of, xv; and
Beatus of Liebana, 83.
Francis, xvii; imitation of, 108,
Bede, 87, 287, 288, 289.
155-156; reign of, 5, 18, 21, 23;
Beguins, xvii.
Resurrection of, 19, 20; return
St. Benedict, 102, 103, 293, 296.
of, 5, 14, 19, 20, 21; work of,
Benedict XI, Pope, 300.
xvii.
Benedictines, 155.
Christianity, cf. also
Benz, Ernst, 158.
Apocalypticism; history of, 1,
Bignami-Odier, J., 291.
5, 7, 10, 19, 20, 81, 154, 156;
Bloch, Ernst, 297.
society, 9, 10.
Bonaventure, 152-156.
Christology, 82, 99.
Boniface VIII, Pope, 152, 153,
Church, and Antichrist, 82, 151,
155, 157, 298, 299, 300.
157; crisis in, 8, 11, 150, 152,
Botticelli, xviii.
184, 188; and history, xi, xv,
Bousset, W., 279, 280, 284, 287,
xvi; purification of, xii, 11,
288, 289.
157, 185, 186, 188, 191; and
Brandt, S., 280, 286.
redemption, xv; true, xvii,
Bridget of Sweden, 307.
15.
Bultmann, R., 278.
Cicero, Academica, 280, 281; De
Buonaccorsi, Francesco, 304.
consolatione, 282; De
Buonaiuti, E., 290.
divinatione, 283; De legibus,
Burr, D., 298.
282; De Senectute, 282;
Caird, George, 14, 278. Disputationes Tusculanae, 281,
Camporeale, S., 303. 282, 283, 285; Pro Marcello, 282;
Canticle of Canticles, 2:12, 301. Pro Murena, 280.
Carolingian Empire, 83, 87, 288. Clement V, Pope, 155, 300.
Catherine of Siena, 307. Clement of Alexandria, 21, 24.
Celestine V, Pope, 152, 153, 155, Collins, Adela, 278.
156, 298, 299. Collins, John, J., 14, 278.
Charlemagne, 82. Colonna, Jacopo Cardinal, 154,
Charles II, 301; sons of, 301. 300.
Charles VI, 187. Colossians, 2:3, 288.

318
Commodian, xiv, 22, 279, 283, Democritus, 282.
285. Deuteronomy, 4:24, 112.
Conrad of Offida, 152, 156. Dicaearchus, 282.
Consolation, 8, 9, 86. Diocletian, 17.
Constantine, xi, 18, 81, 82, 84, Dionysius, Pseudo-, 309.
85. Doddridge, P., xiii.
Constantius, 294. Dominicans, 151, 183, 184, 186,
Conversion, xvi, 9, 10, 84, 85, 189, 190, 191.
185, 295. Domitian, 82.
1 Corinthians, 1:20-21, 307; 1:25, Donatism, 82.
302; 3:8, 302; 4:4, 308; 4:10, Douie, D., 297.
302, 307; 7:1-2, 293; 10:11, 291; Dronke, P., 290.
12:11, 306; 13:1, 307; 13:7, 307;
13:11, 281; 15:8, 306. Ecclesiastes, 1:15, 307.
2 Corinthians, 4:3-4, 310; 5:10, Ecclesiasticus, 2:11, 305; 19:4, 307;
307; 6:6, 309; 11:17, 308; 12:4, 34:11, 301.
293; 12:11, 308. Ehrle, R, 297, 298, 301.
Courcelle, P., 281, 282. Eliade, Mircea, 13.
Creation, 22, 281; new, 103. Elias, 284.
Crescentius of Jesi, 301. Elias, Fra, 300.
Crispus, 18. Elijah, 108.
Crucitti, Angela, 303. Elisha, 103.
Cuming, G.J., 298. End, and conversion, xvi; of
Cyrus, 191, 295. history, xii, 1, 5, 10, 12, 21,

157; imminence of, 5, 6, 12, 14,

Daniel, 100. 22, 23, 98, 151, 184; -time, 12,

Daniel, 1, 7, 100; 2, 84; 4:32, 305; 14; waiting for, xiv, xv; of
5:25, 304; 7, 294; 7:2-8, 283; world, 4, 102, 103.

7:8, 283; 7:10, 309; 7:23-25, Enoch, 284.

283; 7:25, 284; 8:14, 284; 10:1, Ephesians, 4:13, 281, 293.
304; 12:4, 304; 12:11-12, 289. Ephraim, 107.
Daniel, E. Randolph, 16, 294, Epicurus of Samos, 280, 281.
295, 297. Esau, 107.
Danielou, J., 280, 285. Eschatology, 4, 5, 15, 20.

Dante, 106, 155. Ezechiel, 98, 100.

David, 112. Ezechiel, 2:1, 3, 23, 308; 3:17, 291;
Davis, C.T., 298. 5:6, 305; 5:11, 305; 5:13,19, 305;
Death, transcendence of, 7, 13, 7:25, 305; 28:12-15, 310, 28:13,
14, 15, 278. 309, 38:20-22, 285; 39:9-10,
De Lubac, H., 101, 290. 285; 44:4, 308.

319
Faith, xv. Gregory I, Pope, 291.
Fall, xiv. Gregory of Nyssa, 281.
Father, xv, xvi, 103, 104. Gregory the Great, 287, 307.
Fathers of the Church, 17, 23, 82, Grundmann, Herbert, 101, 111,
83, 84, 281, 283, 285, 288, 295. 153, 289, 290, 297.
Ficino, Marsilio, xviii, 183. Guilloche of Bordeaux, 187.
Firpo, L., 303.
St, Francis, xvii, 150, 151, 152, Ham, 104.
155, 156, 157, 299, 302. Haussleiter, J., 279.
Franciscans, xvii, 108, 150, 151, Haymo of Auxerre, 87, 287, 288,
152, 153, 157, 186, 189; 289.
Conventuals, 150, 155, 298, Hayton II, King of Armenia, 299.
301; Sprituals, xii, 12, 149-151, Hebrews, 2:16, 309; 4:13, 307; 5:8,
154, 155, 157, 297-303. 301; 11:31, 112; 12:1-3, 301;
Fraticelli, xvii, 10, 154, 301. 12:6-7, 301; 12:8, 301; 12:11,
Frederick II, 11. 301; 13:1, 304.
Frederick III, 306. Heilbroner, Robert, 2.

Frugoni, A., 297, 298. Hennecke, E., 279.

Funk, R.W., 279. Heresy, 10, 20, 154, 295, 302.

Hermes Trismegistus, 280, 281.
Gager, John, 20, 279. Herod, 294.
Galatians, 1:10, 307; 4:1, 301. Hinnells, J., 280, 284.
Garin, E., 303. Hippolytus, 21, 22, 88, 100, 279,
Gaufridi, Raymond, 298, 299. 283, 284, 285, 288.
Genesis, 4:10, 305; 6:16, 304; 7:4, Hippolytus, Pseudo-, 288.
306; 9:5, 301; 19, 291; 19:20-23, Hirsch-Reich, B., 103, 289, 290,
291; 42 sq, 283; 49:17, 287. 294, 295, 296.
Gercke, A., 285. History, end of, xii, 1, 5, 10, 12,
Gerberga, Queen, 82, 83, 87. 21, 157; and Incarnation, xv;
Ghinato, R
Alberto, 297. lineal concept of, xiii;
Giovanni Nanni of Viterbo, 306. perfection of 13; process of,
Girolamo, Fra, 188. xv, 9, 12, 13, 14, 22, 85; and
Gnosticism, 20. redemption, xv; sacred, 85;
God, and creation, xiv; as judge, stages of, xvi, xvii, 102, 104,
8; as lovable, 112; plan of, 6, 7, 106, 107, 108, 111, 151, 156,
13, 22, 104, 154, 295; 185, 191, 283, 292, 293, 295;
revelations of, xv; seeking of, terror of, 13; theology of, 101,
7; as terrifying, 112, worship 103, 108, 112, 150, 152, 156,
of, 19. 158; triumph of, xvi.
Gog, 86. Hollerich, Michael, 16.

320
Holy Spirit, xvi, 99, 100, 102, xviii, 3, 8, 12, 14, 150, 153, 157,

104, 107, 108, 185, 293, 296. 183, 185, 191, 289-297, 309;
Hope, for future, 7, 83, 103, 107, figures of, 103, 104, 106, 111,
185, 188; and history, xii; of 290; hermeneutics of, 100-102,
renewal, 87, 108, 185, 186, 188, 106; importance of, 97-98; life
191, 308; for return of Christ, of, 97-99, 289; visions of,

19, 99; for salvation, 6, 15; in 99-100, 289; Book of

suffering, 8, 12, 14. Concordance, 16, 97, 101, 102,
Hussites, 11. 289, 290, 292-294, 296; Book of
Figures, 103, 104, 106, 107,
Illumination, xvi, xvii, 12, 99.
290, 294-296; Exposition on the
Incarnation, xv.
Apocalypse, 97, 289, 290, 294;
Innocent VIII, 305.
Ten-Stringed Psaltery, 97, 289,
Irenaeus, xiv, 20, 21, 279, 283,
293; Treatise on the Life of St.
284, 287.
Benedict, 107, 293.
Issac, 107.
Joachim, Pseudo-, 150, 151.
Isaiah, 1:15, 305; 1:20, 305; 3:10,
Job, 9:13, 306; 12:17-18, 305;
310; 6:3, 309; 11:6-8, 285;
14:13, 305.
26:1-9, 308; 30:18, 305; 30:26,
Joel, 2:13, 305; 2:28, 293; 3:4, 310.
285; 33:18-19, 307; 38:1, 310;
John, xiv, 1, 84, 98, 100, 101,
41:25, 306; 45:1-4, 305; 45:22,
278, 296.
305; 47:10, 306; 47:13-14, 306;
John, 1:23, 307; 1:33, 293; 2:6,
55:1, 308; 65:25, 285.
294; 4:13-14, 308; 5:17, 293;
Ishmael, 107.
6:35, 286; 7:37, 308; 9:39, 307;
Isidore of Seville, 287.
10:41-42, 307; 12:24, 301; 13:35,
Islam, xv, 10, 83, 85, 86, 294, 295.
308; 14:16-17, 293; 15:2, 301;
Isnard, 300.
15:12, 308; 15:13, 301; 16:21,
Jacopone da Todi, 155. 301; 20:22, 293.
Jacob, 107. 1 John, 2:18-19, 286; 4:1, 307.
James, 1:2-4, 301; 1:4, 306; 1:12, John XXII, Pope, 149, 152, 153,
310; 1:17, 309; 5:10-11, 301. 154, 155, 156, 157, 298.
Japeth, 104. John Climacus, 153.
Jeremiah, 10:2-3, 306; 25:11, 306; John of Murrovalle, 299.
28:7-9, 307; 46:10, 305. John de Papazuris, 300.
Jerome, 17, 281, 286, 287, 289, John of Parma, 152, 301.
307, 309. John the Baptist, 292.
Jerome, Brother, 300. Jonas, 1:12-16, 310; 3:4, 310.

Jerusalem, 86, 106, 185, 289; Joseph, 107.

New, xiv, 296. Josiah, 102.
Joachim of Fiore, xii, xvi, xvii, Josua, 23:16, 310.

321
Judaism, xiii, xiv, xv, xvi, 7, 9, Lord, return of, xi, xiii; Risen,
23, 82, 104, 107, 287, 289, 295. 19; servants of, xvi.

Judgement, Day of, xvii; Lot, 291.

imminent, 6, 7, 12, 19, 21, 23. Louis IV, 87, 287.
Judith, 15:9-10, 310; 15:10-11, Louis the Pious, 83.
309. Lucius III, Pope, 98.
Justin Martyr, 21, 24. Lucretius, 281, 282, 286.
Justinian, 83. Luke, 1:68 sq., 308; 2:29 sq., 308;

3:22, 292; 10:21, 307; 21:15,

Kamlah, W., 290.
307; 24:17, 308; 24:26, 301.
Kasemann, Ernst, 3, 19, 277, 279.
Luneau, A., 279, 280.
Kermode, Frank, 13, 15, 277,
Lyons, Second Council of, 298.
278, 279.
Kingdom, 19, 20, 23, 188, 285,
Magog, 86.
297.
Magyars, 83.
1 Kings, 2:6, 302; 9:9, 304; 16:7,
Malachy, 4:1, 284.
307.
Man of Perdition, 87.
3 Kings, 10:18-20, 308.
Manasses, 107.
4 Kings, 4:27, 307.
Manselli, R., 291, 298, 302.
Konrad, R., 87, 287.
Mark, 13, 284.
Kotting, B., 280, 283, 285.
Martin of Tours, 82.
Lactantius, xiii, xiv, xv, 14, 81, Matthew, 3:17, 292; 5:11-12, 307;
82, 98, 279-286; 5:12, 305; 7:6, 303; 7:22-23,
apocalypticism of, 18-24; 306; 10:5, 293; 10:23, 299;
importance of, 17; life of, 10:24, 308; 10:28, 282; 11:5,
17-18; Divine Institutes, xi, 12, 286; 11:25, 304, 307; 18:3, 309;
18, 22. 20:16, 307; 21:9, 309; 22:14,
Lambert, M.D., 298. 307; 22:29, 307; 24:21, 284;
Lamentations, 4:7, 309; 4:11, 305. 24:24, 286.
Last World Emperor, xv, 10, 11, McGinn, B., 277, 278, 286, 289,
85-88, 185, 187-188, 286, 288, 297, 298, 302, 303.
305. Medici, Lorenzo de, 186, 305.
Leff, a, 297. Medici, Piero de, 187.
Lerner, R.E., 286-287. Meier, C, 309.
Leviticus, 25:22, 294. Meiss, M., 303.
Liberato, Fra, 152, 299, 300. Melsemutus, 294.
Lichtenberger, Johannes, 306. Messianism, 4, 5, 10, 11.
Lindsey, Hal, 1, 2, 277. Methodius, Pseudo*, xv, 85, 86,
Little, L.K., 286. 286, 288.
Loi, Vincenzo, 17, 18, 280, 284. Michael, 289.

322
Michael of Cesena, 155. also Sibylline Oracles.
Millenarianism, 4, 5, 7, 19, 20, Origen, 281.
99, 107, 185, 188, 305. Orsini, Napoleon Cardinal, 155,
Millenium, age of, xi, 14, 23, 107, 299.
150, 152, 157, 183, 186, 188, Osee, 12:10, 304.
191, 285; visions of, xiv, xv. Otto the Saxon, 87.
Mohammed, 286, 294. Ovid, 281.
Moltmann, Jurgen, 3, 15, 277.

Mongols, 10. Palmarocchi, R., 303.

Monti, Dominic, 16. Pannenberg, Wolhart, 3, 15, 277.

Morality, and apocalypticism, 12, Papacy, 10, 11, 111, 153, 184, 185,

23; crisis of, 7; roots of, xiii; of 191, 296.

waiting, xiv, xv. 1 Paralipomenon, 17:2, 307.
Moran, James, 16. Parousia, 19, 20.
Moses, 108. Paul, xiv, 112.
Mottu, H., 3, 101, 102, 277, 290. Paulus Al varus, 287.
Mystical Body, xvii, 184, 293, Payne, Richard, 16.
296. Persecution, xvii, 7, 8, 9, 12, 83,
Mysticism, xviii. 84, 86, 98, 111, 152, 157, 186,
191, 291, 292, 294; of Church,
Nero, 11, 82, 284, 294, 295.
23, 106, 295; of Diocletian, 17;
Nesi, Giovanni, 183.
of Jews, 7, 295.
Neuss, W., 286.
Peter, 295.
New Testament, xi, 3, 19, 82, 99,
Peter of Constantinople, 299,
100, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107,
300.
295.
Peter of Fossombrone, 149, 299;
Noah, 104.
cf. Angelo of Clareno.
Numbers, 24, 306.
Peter of Macerata, 299; cf.

Old Testament, xv, 5, 22, 98, 99, Liberato, Fra.

102, 103, 104, 107, 291, 295. Peter of Murrone, 299; cf. also
Oliger, L., 297. Celestine V.
Olivi, Peter John, xii, 295, 298; Petrus Alphonsi, 290.
and Spirituals, 156-158, 300, Pherecydes of Syros, 282.
302; Lecture on the Apocalypse, Philip of Majorca, 1 54.
156, 157; Letters to the Sons of Philippians, 4:7, 301, 302.
Charles II, 12, 157, 301-302. Piagnoni, the, xviii, 189.
Onians, R.B., 282. Pichon, Rene, 17.
Oracle of Apollo, 24. Pico della Mirandola, 17, 304.
Oracle of Hystaspes, 24. Plato, 282; Apology, 281, 286;
Oracula Sibyllina, 282-285; cf. Phaedo, 280, 282, 285; Phaedrus,

323
 282; Timaeus, 280, 281, 283. Renaissance, xii, xviii, 8, 184, 186.

Platonists, xviii, 18. Resurrection, 15, 23, 278; of

Pocock, J.G.A., 278. Christ, 19.
Poor Hermits, 299, 300. Revelation, ecstatic, 8; and
Porphyry, 283. prophecy, 1, 6, 99, 100, 112;
Privat, E., 297. scientific, 2.

Procopius, 83. Reward, 8, 12, 14, 15, 19, 23, 83,

Prophecy, 1; and Bible, xv, 2, 21, 98.
98, 100, 101, 106, 277, 283; and Richard the Lionhearted, 294.
eschatology, 5; and modern Ricoeur, Paul, 15, 279.
age, 1, 2; and Savonarola, xii, Ridolfi, R., 303, 304.
xviii, 184-191, 304, 305, 310; Romans, 4:17, 307; 5:3-5, 306;
and Sibylline tradition, 21, 8:16, 300; 8:26, 305; 8:29, 293;
101, 281. 9:18-21, 306; 13:1, 304, 309.
Proverbs, 3:32, 304, 306; 8:31, Rorico, 287.
309; 10:9, 306; 13:10, 308. Rosenwein, B., 286.
Psalms, 1:5, 284; 2:6-7, 285; 5:7, Ruben, 107.
306; 19:1-6, 309; 19:7-10, 310; Russell, D.S., 278, 279.
24:10, 305; 33:8, 112; 41:10,
305; 49:19-21, 310; 59:5-7, 308; Sabbath Age, xvi.
66:2-7, 309; 71:12, 301; 74:11, Sackur, E., 287.

305; 80:11, 292; 83:8, 309, Saladin, 106, 107, 294, 295.
88:33, 305; 88:34, 305; 102:6, Sailust, 281.
305; 103:24, 293; 110:2, 293; Salvation, 6, 101.

111:4, 307; 112:1-9, 309; Sambursky, S., 281, 282.

113:14-15, 309; 115:11, 310; Satan, 23.
117:1-2, 309; 117:28, 310; Savonarola, Girolamo, xii, xviii,

118:103, 305; 121:7-9, 308; 8, 12, 183-191, 302-310; life of,

122:3-4, 310. 186-191; and prophecy,

Punishment, 8, 12, 15, 23. 184-191, 304, 305, 310; visions
of, 186, 189, 190; Compendium
Rad, G. von, 278. of Revelations, xii, 188, 189,
Rahner, Karl, 3, 15, 277. 190, 191, 303-310; Italian
Ralph of Coggeshall, 289. Sermons to the Florentines, 191;

Ragheri, ML, 87, 286, 287. Sermons Haggai, 190.

Ratzinger, J., 296, 297. Sayers, Dorothy, 290.
Redemption, xiv, xv. Scarerii, Peter, 302.
Reeves, Marjorie, 102, 103, 111, Schall, J.V., 2, 277.
289, 290, 291, 292, 294, 295, Schmithals, Walter, 8, 13, 278.

296, 297, 302, 303. Schneemelcher, W., 279.

Reformers, 11. Schnitzer, J., 308.

324
Seneca, 283. Thomas Aquinas, 184, 190, 304,
Shem, 104. 305, 306, 307, 310.
Sibylline Oracles, xv, 21, 23, 24, Thompson, B., 279.
85, 101, 279, 284, 307; Oracula Tiburtine Sibyl, 286, 288.
Sibyllina, 282-285. Time, end of, xv, xviii; and
Signorelli, Luca, 183. eternity, xiii, 6; and soul, xiii,
Signs, xv, xvi, 23, 84. xiv.
Simon Magus, 295. 1 Timothy, 6:12, 301; 6:15-16, 305.
Socrates, 282. 2 Timothy, 2:4, 308; 2:19-21, 310.
Son, xvi, 102, 103, 104. Tityus, 285.
Soul, immortality of, xiii, 7, 15, Tobias, 3:2, 302.
22; individual, xv, xvi, xvii; Toffler, Alvin, 277.
and meditation, xiv; and time, Tognetti, G., 303.
xiii, xiv; and vice, 101. Tommaso da Rieti, 308.
Sprituality, apocalyptic, xi, xiv, Tondelli, L., 290.
xviii, 3, 12, 15, 24, 83, 88, 97, Trials, enduring of, 6, 8, 12, 154,
99, 112, 155, 184; forms of, xi, 158; of present, 6, 12.
xv; Franciscan, xvii, 155. Trinity, xvi, 99, 102, 103, 104,
Stevenson, J., 279, 286. 293.
Stoicism, 18, 281, 282. Tyconius, 82, 83, 101.
Suffering, enduring of, xv, xviii,
Ubertino of Casale, 155, 156, 297,
12, 13, 14, 83, 157; and hope,
298.
8, 83; reward of, xvii, 13.
Usener, H., 280.
Sulpicius Severus, 286.
Symbolism, historical, xii, 9; Van Rooijen-Dijkman, H.W.A.,
interpretation of, 15, 16, 97, 280.
295; in Joachim, 103, 104, 106, Vergil, 24; Aeneid, 281, 285, 286;
295, 296; of visions, 1. Eclogue, 285; Georgics, 280.
Verhelst, D., 87, 88, 287.
Taborites, 10. Victorinus, 100.
Teleology, 22, 85. Vielhauer, P., 279.
Terence, 281. Villari, P., 303, 305, 308.
Tertullian, 21, 84, 285. Vikings, 83, 84.
Theology, apocalyptic, 3, 19, 103; Vindication, hope for, 9, 13; of
Christian, 19, 20, 21, 103; of just, 7, 10, 13, 14, 15.
history, 101, 103, 108, 112, 150, Virtue, 22.
152, 156, 158. Visions, apocalyptic, 21, 191; of
Theophilus of Antioch, 21. Joachim, 99-100; kinds of, 99;

1 Thessalonians, 5:20, 307. of millenium, xii, xiv, xv; of

2 Thessalonians, 2:2-3, 84; 2:4, Savonarola, 186, 189, 190; of
284, 288; 2:6-7, 84. soul after death, 7, 278.

325
Weinstein, Donald, 188, 190, 304, Wolff, G., 283.
305, 306, 308. World, ages of, 22; end of, 102,

Werner, Martin, 19, 279. 103; transformation of, 14.

Whore of Babylon, 84.

Wilder, Amos N., 7.

Wisdom, 2:9, 305; 5:1, 307; 5:3-5, Zachariah, 8:5, 309.

307; 9:15, 309. Zeno, 282.

Index to Text
Aaron, 127. 96, 136, 140; time of, 138-141.
Abraham, 120, 122, 123, 124, 125, Antiochus, 90.
127, 129, 131, 133, 134, 250, Antoninus, Saint, 252.
254; oratory of, 147-148. Apocalypse, 2:9, 137; 3:9, 137;
Acts, 20:26, 113. 4:1-7, 142; 4:7, 144, 145; 7:4,
Adam, 124, 125, 127, 130, 131, 118; 11:7, 96; 12:3-4, 137;
133, 134. 13:13,92; 17:9-10, 136; 17:10,
Adso, Brother, 89. 136, 137; 17:12-16, 137; 18:4-5,
Aeacus, 69. 117; 19:16, 138; 20:4,96;
Agag, 138. 20:7-8, 140; 20:9-10, 140;
Agar, 122. 22:11, 119.
Ages, end of, 28, 57, 76, 124, 127, Apollo, 69, 94.
133; Golden, 28, 73; King of, Apollo of Miletus, 53.

274; present, 28; of Rome, Apostles, 120, 121, 127, 132, 142,
58-59. 160, 218, 228, 231, 274.
Allegory, 120, 122-123. Aristippus, 42.
Aman, 138. Ariston, 42.
Ambrose, Saint, 224. Aristotle, 25, 237.
Amos, 195, 217. Aristoxenus, 54.
Ananias, 223. Asa, 124.
Angelo of Clareno, and Asclepiades, 35.
Franciscans, 159-172. Augustine, 224-225; City of God,
Angelo of Tolentine, 162. 128, 134.
Ann, Saint, 250.
Anna, Saint, 251. Balaam, 218, 219.
Antichrist, and Christ, 65, 66, 90, Babylon, 91, 94, 113, 115,
93; death of, 96, 139; as 116-117, 118, 122, 136, 137,
destroyer, 61-63; final, 136, 138, 178, 214.
140; origin of, 90, 91, 96; Baptism, 38, 204, 250; and
persecution of, 89, 91, 92, 94, Christ, 121, 122, 128, 131; and

326
 Holy Spirit, 121, 122, 126, 127, 264, 274; Passion of, 173, 177,
132; of John, 121. 274; teaching of, 224, 229, 232,
Belshazzar, 195. 234, 274, work of, 216, 231.

Benedict, Pope, 169. Church, 113, 119, 128, 161, 174;

Benedict, Saint, 124, 125, 129, and Angelo, 159-172; crisis of,
130, 131, 133, 222; Rule of, 201, 217, 218; good of, 209,
132, 133. 216; militant, 243; persecution
Bernard of Quintavalle, 171. of, 137, 138; reform of, 160,

Bethlehem, 91. 195, 196, 204, 207, 218, 244,

Bethsaida, 91. 247, 253, 267, 270, 271;
Body, and death, 47, 48, 49; teaching of, 224, 225;

fragility of, 36, 50, 79; mortal, Triumphant, 243, 248.

28, 34, 54, 260; as prison, 29, Chrysippus, On Providence, 72.

43, 51; renewed, 70, 71; and Cicero, 29, 34, 43, 44, 45, 48, 72;
soul, 35, 38, 39, 40, 44, 45, 49, On Divination, 55; Tusculan
50, 51, 260. Disputations, 47.
Boniface, Pope, 159, 160, 166, Cistercians, 144.
167, 169. Clement, Pope, 169, 170.
Bridget, Saint, 221, 222. Clergy, 125, 129, 130, 131, 132,
Brutus, 59. 133, 202.
Commandments, 26, 89, 198.
Canticles, of Simeon, 244, 245; of Concordia, 120-124, 126, 132.
the Virgin, 244, 245; of Consiglio de' Richiesti, 238.
Zachary, 242, 245. Consolation, 39, 78, 117, 119,
Carthage, 59. 180, 208, 217*245, 267, 269.
Catherine, Saint, 252. Constantius, 136.
Catherine of Sienna, Saint, 222, Conversion, 61, 79, 94, 117, 140,
237, 252. 198, 202, 203, 206, 222, 250,
Celestine, Pope, 160, 163, 165, 267, 268; and Antichrist, 91.
166. 1 Corinthians, 216; 7:5, 147;

Cesarius of Spira, 171. 10:11, 116; 12:14-20, 142.

Charles II, 173. Corozain, 91.
Christ, and Antichrist, 65, 90, Creation, 173; of man, 31-37, 39,
93, 96; Ascension of, 216; and 40, 45, 53, 56, 72; reason for,
baptism, 121, 122, 128, 131; 29-36; of world, 25, 29-37, 39,
Blood of, 204; Body of, 142; 42, 55, 56.
and concordia, 120, 122, 123; at Cyrus, 201.
end of world, 65, 66, 141, 218;
fruits of, 125, 127, 128; gifts Dan, 90.
of, 142; Incarnation of, 248, Daniel, 140, 193, 194, 195, 218,
256; Mother of, 91, 243, 248, 258, 273; 7:24, 136, 138;

327
 8:23-34, 136, 138; 12:1, 92. Exodus, 16:16-23, 139.
David, 128, 180, 229, 253, 271. Ezechiel, 113.
Death, of Christ, 173, 176; and Ezechiel, 256, 273; 3:18, 113;
judgment, 69; and 9:4-6, 118.
resurrection, 70, 71; second,
47, 198; temporary, 48; and Faith, 115, 116, 119, 124, 129,
virtue, 47, 78; way of, 27, 79. 132, 134, 138, 142, 160, 161,
Democritus, 26, 32, 42, 43, 54. 166, 169, 171, 175, 208, 209,
Denis, The Celestial Hierarchy, 211, 220, 248, 266.
195. Father, 36, 39, 63, 78, 173, 208,
Dicaearchus, 42, 43, 54. 218, 264; and baptism, 121;
Dominic, Saint, 234. and concordia, 120, 123, 128;
Dominicans, 170, 203, 219, 221, and Trinity, 126, 129-133, 243.
269. Fathers of the Church, 224, 225,
Domitian, 90. 226.
Dragon, Seven-Headed, 136-141. Florence, 232; attack on, 202,
203, 270, 272; government of,

Egypt, 57, 58, 115, 119, 122, 174, 202, 206, 207, 208, 210, 220,
180. 236-239, 272; prayers for, 242,
Elect, 121, 125, 128, 137, 138, 244, 250-254, 261-264, 266;
140, 141, 195, 201, 217, 218, prophecies about, 195, 201,
240, 274. 202, 206, 207, 211, 220, 221,
Elias, 140. 222, 227, 236, 239, 261, 267,
Elijah, 94, 96, 124, 128. 268; sins of, 205, 239, 242, 267,
Elisabeth, 120, 123, 251. 268.
Elisha, 124, 125, 128, 129, 130, Fortitude, 38, 51.
131, 230. France, King of, 197, 202, 203,
Enoch, 94, 96. 270, 271.
Ephesians, 4:7-13, 142; 4:28, 148. Francis, Saint, 171; Rule of, 159,
Epicurus, 26, 31, 32, 35,42,43, 162, 163, 216; Testament of,
53, 54. 163.
Erythraean, Sibyl, 66, 74. Franciscans, 173; and Angelo of
Esther, 138. Clareno, 159-172; General
Esau, 121. Chapter, 162; Rule of, 160, 162.
Euphorbus, 71. Future, and contingency, 193,
Evil, 209, 216; an Antichrist, 91, 194, 213, 215, 216; knowledge
93, 96, 136; and body, 38; of, 197; predictions of, 192,
destruction of, 28, 38, 56, 66, 194, 195, 197, 201, 215, 216,
71, 180; at end of world, 57, 219-221, 223, 226, 228, 229,
58, 62, 76; and good, 34, 36, 231, 235, 239, 240, 266, 267,
37, 38; punishment of, 42, 274. 271, 272, 274.

328
Genesis, 197; 6:12, 114; 6:13, 114; 175, 176, 204, 207, 211, 218,
18:26 ff., 116; 19:20, 117. 219, 235, 239, 244, 245, 248,
Gentiles, 128, 214. 251, 268, 271.
Gerberga, Queen, 89. Gregory XI, Pope, 237.
God, abandoning of, 115; belief Gregory, Saint, Dialogues, 225.
in, 27, 208; commands of, 27,
Heaven, gates of, 241, 246; King
56, 77, 178, 198, 204, 222, 245,
of, 176; Kingdom of, 73, 89,
246, 270, 271; as Creator, 29,
174, 201, 206, 250; rewards of,
31, 32, 33, 63, 126, 129, 243;
25, 39; and virtue, 27, 39;
denial of, 33, 44, 92; goodness
visions of, 198, 247-270.
of, 204, 209, 211, 253, 270;
Hebrews, 10:31, 116.
knowledge of, 45, 114, 115,
Hell, 66, 204.
194, 196, 212, 249, 271; love
Hercules, 94.
for, 45, 246, 253; mercy of, 89,
Heresy, 159, 161, 166, 168, 171,
198, 200, 202, 204, 206, 207,
172, 223, 224, 273.
209, 218, 232, 244, 245, 254,
Hermes, 33, 53; The Perfect
264, 269, 270; new people of,
Treatise, 63.
142; people of, 73, 77, 92, 94,
Herod, 136, 250.
96, 117, 119, 125; perfection of,
Holof ernes, 138.
28, 44; promises of, 211, 244,
Holy Spirit, 74, 75, 90, 91, 209,
269; providence of, 28, 30, 31,
263; and baptism, 121, 122,
33, 35, 36, 40, 44, 96; rule of,
126, 127, 132; and concordia,
28, 173, 258; Spirit of, 51;
120, 123, 125; gifts of, 128, 129,
teaching of, 25-28, 41, 56, 123,
132, 219, 228, 244; and
124, 145, 193, 239; will of, 119,
inspiration, 192, 201; and
137, 197, 207, 210, 219, 227,
revelation, 127, 202, 213, 229,
235, 236; works of, 28, 32, 35,
267, 273; and Trinity, 126,
36, 44, 56, 72, 173, 204, 226,
129-133, 243.
233, 241; and world, 29-31;
Hystaspes, 59, 63.
worship of, 25, 35, 36, 38, 39,

49, 53, 61, 71; wrath of, 61, 76, Illumination, 257; and prophecy,
77, 119, 201, 207, 246, 265, 272. 195, 207, 225, 267; and truth,
Gods, 39, 40, 45, 48. 193, 195, 217, 229.
Gog, 136, 140, 141. Innocent III, 202.
Gomorrah, 115. Inquisitors, 168, 169, 170.
Good, earthly, 25, 38, 39, 46, 48, Inspiration, from God, 197, 201,
79, 80, 232-234, 248; and evil, 204, 209, 223, 235, 236, 272;
34, 36, 37, 38; heavenly, 39, 46, and Holy Spirit, 192, 201, 213;
71, 78; highest, 38, 42, 43, 79; and predictions, 192.
of soul, 38. Isaac, 120, 121, 123, 125, 129, 131,
Grace, 89, 121, 122, 128, 142, 173, 133.

329
Isaiah, 201, 214, 215, 222, 224, Jonas, 16:19, 119.
226, 241, 271; 1:4, 115; 1:23, Joseph, 119, 180.
114; 2:4, 139; 3:14,96; 5:2, 114; Joseph, Saint, 242-255.
13:9, 118; 24:5, 115; 24:19-21, Josiah, 124, 125, 128, 130, 131,
115; 30:1, 115; 48:18, 117; 57:1, 133, 134.
114. Jove, 63, 69.
Isnard, Patriarch, 170. Judah, 124, 125, 128, 131.
Israel, 94, 113, 115, 120, 121, 122, Judgment, of Christ, 228, 232;
128, 139, 174, 178, 201, 218, Day of, 92, 96, 177, 218; of
223,242,253,257,265,270,271. God, 27, 39, 44, 54, 59, 67, 72,
96, 116, 198, 222, 232, 234, 272;
Jacob, 120, 121, 123, 125, 127, imminent, 55; of just, 67, 69,

128, 129, 131, 133, 201, 262. 72; Last, 66-67, 72, 73, 77, 141;
Jacopo de Monte, 168-169. time of, 55, 67, 69.

James, 174. Judith, 138.

Jericho, 128. Jupiter, 94.
Jerome, Brother, 167, 168. Justice, following of, 38, 78, 80,

Jerome, Saint, 224, 229; Lives of 237; and heaven, 27; and
the Holy Fathers, 225. immortality, 55; law of, 175;

Jeremiah, 214, 218, 222, 223; 2:8, and mercy, 210; order of, 115;
114; 48:43-44, 115. persecution of, 62, 63; reign
Jerusalem, 91, 93, 94, 116, 122, of, 56, 57, 70, 73, 77, 139; and
142, 144,207,249,257,265,271. virtue, 48.
Jews, 27, 28, 57, 90, 94, 128, 138,
King, of ages, 275; at end of
140, 274; persecution of, 136.
world, 61-63; Eternal, 257;
Joachim, Abbot, 113, 118, 221.
seven, 136-141.
Joachim, Saint, 251.
Kingdom, of Christ, 174; eternal,
Job, 175.
71; heavenly, 73, 89, 174, 201,
Job, 206; 41:25, 94.
206, 250; man as, 39;
Joel, 127; 1:2, 113.
John, 134, 174, 223; 6:45, 145:
Thousand year — , 73-75; of
world, 65.
7:18, 90; 9:34, 90; 16:22, 119.
1 Kings, 193.
1 John, 2:18, 139.
3 Kings, 247.
John of Parma, 171.
John the Baptist, 120, 121, 123, Law, 114, 115, 121, 123, 128, 173,
124, 125, 132, 133, 140, 223, 174, 175, 227, 249, 250.
224, 251, 253; Oratory of, Lady Prayer, 212, 241.
146-147. Lady Simplicity, 212, 241, 242,
John the Evangelist, 253; 265.
Oratory of, 144. Lamb, 137, 178, 253.
Jonah, 180, 223, 271. Leviticus, 26:24, 139.

3 30
Liber, 69. Marriage, 125, 129, 131, 132, 133,
Liberate Fra, 161, 162, 163, 166, 147-148, 250-251.
169. Martyrdom, 136, 137, 138, 176,
Life, eternal, 39, 47, 48, 55, 71, 252.
160, 240, 248; spiritual, 38; Mary Magdalene, 251.
temporal, 39, 46, 47, 48, 78. Matthew, 197; 3:10, 117; 11:21,
Light, of faith, 225, 266; of grace, 91; 13:52, 145; 24:16, 92; 24:21,
217; of prophecy, 193-195, 92, 138; 24:22, 92, 138; 24:24,
213, 215, 216, 226, 228, 232, 92; 24:34, 117; 26:41, 113.
272; of reason, 213; and Medes, 59.

scripture, 197, 263; of Son, Medici, Lorenzo de, 202.

259; and truth, 194, 225, 239. Mercury, 53, 69, 94.
Lord, ascension of, 96; fear of, Merit, 27, 38, 55, 67, 69, 121, 132,
137; judgment of, 96, 115, 116, 176, 208, 249, 264, 266, 271.
118, 242; mercy of, 128, 266; Mesemoth, 130.
promises of, 80, 127; return of, Michael, 96.
27, 139; sword of, 197, 198; Millennium, 76.
work of, 114. Minos, 69.
Lot, 116. Miracles, 61, 125, 160, 171, 208,
Louis, Lord, 173. 210, 223, 274.
Lucretius, 31, 49, 50, 51, 52, 79. Moechus, 128.
Luke, 218. Mohammed, 136.
Luke, 1:35, 91; 8:13, 115; 14:9, Monasticism, 125, 129, 130, 131,
144. 133, 144-148.
Moses, 127, 130, 134, 222, 223, 249.
1 Maccabees, 9:44, 117. Mother of God, Oratory of, 144.

Magic, 54, 91. Munaldo, Fra, 163.

Man, creation of, 31-37, 39, 40, Mystery, 121, 122; of creation,
and
45, 53, 56, 72; evil of, 113; 31, 39, 42,43; divine, 69, 192,
good and evil, 34, 36, 37, 38; 201, 259; of future, 74, 204,
honor of, 35; image of God in, 205; heavenly, 25; of religion,
33, 129; and immortality, 36, 77, 78, 132; of scripture, 56,
37, 38, 39, 42, 55, 80; just, 38, 57; of Trinity, 126, 127, 129,
114, 242; spiritual, 123, 127, 130.
128, 144; wisdom of, 29, 34, Mysticism, 120, 132.
36, 39,45, 50, 130, 200, 202,
208, 211, 214, 226, 227, 228, Nathan, 229.
231, 241; works of, 28. Napoleon, Rev. Lord, 163, 170.
Manichaeans, 166. Nero, 90, 136, 138.
Mark, 218, 253. Ninevites, 180, 223, 271.
Mark, Brother, 162. Noah, 116, 134, 178, 218.

331
Nature, and body, 47, 215; of Pherecydes, 42, 43.
man, 36, 38, 42, 53, 141; of Philippians, 1:8, 118.

soul, 45, 67; and Stoics, 29. Plato, 25, 26, 29, 31,42,43,44,
New Testament, 146, 208, 217, 49, 53, 55, 71, 217.
221, 225, 228, 248, 249, 253; Pico della Mirandola, 197.
and concordia, 120, 122, 127, Polites, 53.
128, 132, 133, 134. Poor Hermits, 160.
Numbers, 219. Predictions, of future, 192, 194,
195, 197, 201, 215, 216, 219,
Old Testament, 146, 208, 217,
220, 221, 223, 226, 228, 229,
220, 225, 228, 248, 249, 253;
231, 235, 239, 240, 266, 267,
and concordia, 120, 122, 127,
271, 272, 274; proof of, 192,
128, 132, 133, 134.
221, 223, 239, 240.
Olivi, Peter John, 167, 171, 173.
Prophecy, cf. also Savonarola;
Oratory, of Abraham, 147-148;
and Antichrist, 138, 141;
of John the Baptist, 146-147;
discernment of, 195, 213-240,
of John the Evangelist, 144; of
273; at the end, 61, 94, 178;
Mother of God, 144; of Paul,
and end of world, 57, 59, 69,
144-145; of Peter, 145-146; of
72, 74, 75; and God's teaching,
Stephan, 145.
25, 271; light of, 193, 194, 195,
Osee, 194; 4:1-2, 114.
213, 215, 216, 226, 228, 232,
Papacy, 160, 166. 272; and the Sibyl, 42, 54, 59,
Paraclete, 131. 61, 63, 65, 66, 72, 73, 75, 76;
Patriarchs, 120, 121, 253. and scripture, 56, 121.
Paul, 92, 93, 96, 113, 126, 130, Proverbs, 2:14, 116.
139, 142, 175, 177, 209, 216, Psalms, 7:3, 117; 13:3, 114; 22:3,

218, 219, 231, 234, 237; 90; 29:5, 118; 48:2, 115; 50:7,
Oratory of, 144-145. 90; 67:19, 142; 67:24, 146; 71:8,
Paul, Brother, 169. 92, 139; 89:4, 56; 94:7-8, 147;
Persecution, 218, 222, 228, 231, 105:38, 137; 105:38-39, 114;
274; of Angelo, 161, 165; of 136:1, 118; 136:3, 118.
Antichrist, 89, 91, 92, 94, 96, Punic War, 59.
136, 140; seven, 136, 137, 139. Punishment, 125; eternal, 28, 39,
Peter, 116, 128, 218; Oratory of, 55, 68, 69, 77; of God, 116,
145-146. 117, 175; and judgment, 27.
2 Peter, 2:7, 116. Pythagoras, 43, 53, 71.
Peter de Capocci, 170.
Peter, Patriarch of Radamanthus, 69.
Constantinople, 159, 167. Raymond Berengar, Lord, 173.
Phanuel, 251. Raymond, Brother, 162, 163.
Pharisees, 239. Red Sea, 174.

332
Redemption, 89, 123, 126, 173, 89,94, 113, 192, 194, 196, 197,
176, 264. 198, 209, 212, 214, 215, 217,
Religion, false, 25, 74; secrets of, 223, 224, 228, 230, 248, 260,
42, 77; true, 25,48, 71, 77, 78, 274.
206. Seal, 177.
Remus, 128. Sebastian, Saint, 252.
Resurrection, 69, 70, 71, 72, 77. Segor, 117.
Robert, Lord, 173. Sevastocrator, 167.
Romulus, 59, 128. Sibyl, 42, 54, 59, 61, 63, 65, 66,
Rorico, Don, 89. 72, 73, 75, 76.
Revelation, from God, 26, 29, 44, Signs, 43, 141, 178, 214; and
126, 194, 197, 221; and Holy Antichrist, 92, 141; and
Spirit, 127, 202, 213, 229, 267, concordia, 123; of end, 57-65,
273; prophetic, 193, 217; of 177; and prophecy, 221, 223,
Savonarola, 192, 202, 206; of 224, 227, 266, 274.
wrath, 113. Simon Magus, 138.
Reward, eternal, 25, 39, 46, 78, Simon of Assisi, 171.
206; for vice, 25, 38, 39, 55; for Simon of Comitissa, 171.
virtue, 25, 27, 36, 37, 38, 39, Sin, 209, 215; and Antichrist, 90,
46, 55, 66. 93; and cleansing, 195;
Romans, 9:27, 94; 14:16, 90. forgiveness of, 244, 254;

penance for, 96, 113, 175, 200,

Saladin, 136, 137. 202, 246; punishment for, 28,
Salvation, 89, 121, 122, 192, 195, 48, 55, 67, 68, 69, 77, 118, 139,
205, 217, 254, 258, 260, 263, 198, 203, 265, 266, 268, 271.
266; of souls, 213, 237, 240, 244. Sion, 118, 241, 261, 262.
Samaria, 122. Socrates, 29.
Samuel, 232. Sodom, 114, 116.
Sara, 120, 122. Solomon, 91, 194, 212, 247.
Saracens, 138. Son of God, 142, 248, 259, 266;
Satan, 90, 137, 140, 141, 147, 241. and concordia, 120, 123, 128; at
Saturn, 73. end of world, 62-66, 69, 72;
Saul, 180, 271. and redemption, 123, 173;
Savonarola, Compendium, 192, reign of, 72-75, 77; Passion of,

193; predictions of, 192, 201, 201, 264; and Trinity, 126,
202, 206, 207, 213-240; 129-133, 243.
revelations of, 192, 202, 206; Son of Perdition, 91, 93.
visions of, 192, 196, 201, 207, Soul, and body, 34, 38, 39, 40,
215, 219, 247-270. 49, 50, 51, 260; death of, 38,
Scribes, 239. 48, 51; immortality of, 40-55,
Scriptures, 42, 47, 55, 56, 68, 76, 67, 68; numbers of, 36, 37;

333
 peace of, 47; rewards of, 28; Vergil, 30, 69, 70, 71, 74.
works of, 48. Vice, and Antichrist, 90; man
Status, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, drawn to, 26, 27;

130, 131, 133, 134, 142. overthrowing of, 205, 239, 268;
Stephan, Saint, 229, 252; Oratory rewards of, 25, 38, 39;
of, 145. temporal, 46, 47.
Stoics, 29-33,42, 67, 72. Vincent Ferrer, Saint, 222.
Virgin, 131, 211, 234, 242-245,
Tarquin, 59.
249, 251, 254-269, 274.
Temple, 91, 94, 139.
Virtue, of Christ, 248; and
Temptation, 1 13, 1 15, 1 16, 1 19, 197.
difficulties, 25, 27, 36, 39, 48;
Tempter, 212-241.
eternal, 47; and immortality,
Tempus, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127,
46, 51, 67, 69; opposition to,
133, 134.
39, 47, 90; pursuit of, 27, 205,
Terence, 78.
239, 268; reward of, 25, 36, 37,
2 Thessalonians, 2:3, 91, 93; 2:4,
38, 46, 47, 78, 80, 208; way of,
94, 139; 2:8, 96.
26, 27, 79, 209, 261, 262.
Thomas, Brother, 162.
Visions, 74, 118, of Paradise,
Thomas of Aversa, 169.
247-270; prophetic, 194, 196,
Thomas of Castromili, 161-162.
218; of Savonarola, 192, 196,
Time, to come, 25, 124, 133; and
201, 207, 215, 219, 247-270;
contingency, 193; of the end,
testing of, 225, 226, 273.
55, 61, 62, 76, 92, 93, 94, 96,
114, 116, 117, 118, 119, 139, Wisdom, 257, 258; Christian, 77,

140, 177-178; present, 90, 117, 78, 120; false, 25; of God, 28,
124, 133, 175, 196, 197, 207; of 124, 194, 195, 226; of man, 29,
tribulation, 200. 34, 36, 39,45, 50, 130, 200, 202,
1 Timothy, 1:20, 119; 6:10, 91. 208, 211, 214, 226, 227, 228,

2 Timothy, 3:1-5, 114. 231, 241; source of, 26, 28, 263;

Titus, 1:16, 115. of world, 193, 226, 233.

Tityus, 68. World, creation of, 25, 29-37,
Torquatus, 167. 39, 42, 55, 56; end of, 44,

Trinity, 94, 126, 127, 129, 130, 55-66, 76,92, 114, 115, 124,
132, 133, 205, 211, 248, 250, 128, 139, 141; eternal, 25, 31,

260, 264, 265, 266, 269. 32; mortality of, 26; order of,

Trismegistus, 45. 28; slavery of, 57; structure of,

Trojans, 59. 25.

Truth, 25; denial of, 27; and Zachariah, 249, 273.

God, 198, 213; and Zachary, 120, 122, 123, 124, 125,
illumination, 193, 194; and 133, 251.
prophecy, 75, 193, 231; Zeno, 42.
understanding of, 26, 28, 41. Zenobius, Saint, 252.

334
9-
«*
7THEC1AS5ICSOFWESTERN SPIRITUALITY
71 UBR7IPY0F THE 6R€JT SPIRITUAL MASTERS

and seriousness ofpurpose, the series leaves little room for complaint
"In its breadth of vision
or cavil. . . . An
program of real vision; series like this are what makes religious
editorial
publishing the exciting intellectual and spiritual venture it is called to be."
Theology Today

APOCALYPTIC SPIRITUALITY-TREATISES AND LETTERS OF

LACTANTIUS, ADSO OF MONTIER-EN-DER, JOACHIM OF FIORE,
THE SPIRITUAL FRANCISCANS, SAVONAROLA
translation and introduction by Bernard McGinn
preface by Marjorie Reeves

"Just as Jesus Christ came with true signs, but cloaked and hidden because of the likeness
of sinful human nature so that he was hardly recognized as the Christ by even a few, so too
the seventh king will come with false signs and will be hidden and cloaked because of his
appearance of spiritual justice, so that only a few will be able to recognize that he is the
Antichrist." Joachim of Fiore, 1135-1202

'Amen. Come, Lord Jesus" (Apoc. 22: 20). The significance of these closing
words of the New Testament for later Christian spirituality is the subject of
this volume.

This book makes available major texts in the Christian apocalyptic literature
from the 4th to the 16th centuries. The apocalyptic tradition is that of tradi-
tional prophecy based on revelation and concerned with the end of the world.
Even an age such as ours characterized by its scientific and rationalistic out-
look has strong elements of literal apocalypticism found in fundamentalist
and charismatic groups. The popular success of Hal Lindsey's The Late
Great Planet Earth is evidence of this. Also the present hunger for apocalypse
has adopted a variety of secular disguises typified by Robert Heilbroner's
An Inquiry into the Human Prospect. Contemporary theologians like
Kasemann, Pannenberg, Rahner, Moltmann and others have devoted much
of their work to the meaning of apocalyptic thought. This is a collection
which can show the traditional roots of this contemporary phenomenon.
Dr. Bernard McGinn says in his introduction, "These treatises and letters
have been chosen because of the way in which they manifest how beliefs
about the imminent end affected the lives of their adherents ."
Perhaps . .

the task for us today is that by seeing how the lives of Lactantius, the monk
Adso, Joachim of Fiore, The Spiritual Franciscans and Savonarola were
affected by their apocalyptic vision we can recognize how our lives are
being affected by the contemporary prophetic sense of the end of history.

$7.95 ISBN: 0-8091-2242-1

PAULIST PRESS
NEW YORK RAMSEY TORONTO