DESIGN OF 100 SEATER PASSENGER AIRCRAFT

RANGE OF 7000 kms

A REPORT FOR AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT

Submitted by

ACHINTH S 2020501001
ADITYA M 2020501002
ANANDHANARAYANAN R 2020501003
ANISH RAJ A 2020501004
APARNA R 2020501005
ARUNDHATI N S 2020501006
BALA SELVAKUMAR V 2020501007

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF AEROSPACE ENGINEERING

MADRAS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY CAMPUS
ANNA UNIVERSITY :: CHENNAI 600044
NOVEMBER 2023
 ANNA UNIVERSITY : CHENNAI 600 044

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report ”DESIGN OF 100 SEATER PASSENGER AIR-

CRAFT WITH RANGE OF 7000 kms” is the bonafide work of the following

students

ACHINTH S 2020501001
ADITYA M 2020501002
ANANDHANARAYANAN R 2020501003
ANISH RAJ A 2020501004
APARNA R 2020501005
ARUNDHATI N S 2020501006
BALA SELVAKUMAR V 2020501007

towards aircraft design project.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

(FACULTY INCHARGE) (HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT)

Dr. R. ARUN PRASAD Dr. K. M. PARAMMASIVAM

Teaching Fellow, Professor & Head,

Department of Aerospace Engineering Department of Aerospace Engineering

MIT Campus MIT Campus

Anna University Anna University

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

As a matter of first importance, we are offering our genuine thanks

and sincere gratitude to Dr. R. Arun Prasad for his guidance through-

out our Aircraft Design Project.

We would also like to express our sincere gratitude to Dr. Arumugam

for his guidance regarding the Stability and Control of the aircraft.

ii
 Contents

List of Figures vi

List of Tables vii

1 Data Collection of Existing Aircrafts 1

2 Preliminary Weight Estimation 12

3 Selection of Aerofoil and Flaps 20

4 Empennage Selection and Design 29

5 Seating Arrangement 34

6 Landing Gear 36

7 Three View Diagrams 42

8 Determination of C.G 44

9 Drag Polar Estimation 49

10 Performance Analysis 57

11 Stability Analysis 65

12 V-n diagram 75

13 Schrenk’s Approximation Method 80

14 Shear Force Diagrams 85

15 Bending Moment Diagrams 92

16 Spars Flange and Web Design 98

17 Stringer Design 101

iii
 List of Figures

1.1 Range vs Cruise Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2 Cruise Speed vs Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Cruise Speed vs Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Cruise Speed vs Wing Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Cruise Speed vs Wing Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Cruise Speed vs Service Ceiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7 Cruise Speed vs Wing Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.8 Cruise Speed vs Aspect Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.9 Cruise Speed vs Taper Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.10 Cruise Speed vs Fineness Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.11 Cruise Speed vs One Engine Thrust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.12 Cruise Speed vs Thrust-to-Weight Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.13 Cruise Speed vs Maximum Take-off Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.14 Cruise Speed vs We/Wo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3.1 NACA 64(3)-618 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3.2 Flap deflection graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3 Wing Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

4.1 Half span of Horizontal Tail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

4.2 Vertical Tail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

5.1 Fuselage Cross section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

5.2 Seating Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

7.1 Top View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

7.2 Side View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

iv
7.3 Front View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
7.4 Three View Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

9.1 CD vs CL f or Cruise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9.2 CD vs CL f or T ake − of f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
9.3 CD vs CL f or Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

10.1 ROC vs Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

10.2 Rate of Climb Tabulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
10.3 Glide Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
10.4 Take-off Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
10.5 Landing Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
10.6 Turn Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
10.7 Pull-up maneuver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
10.8 Pull-down maneuver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

11.1 Graph for Correction factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

11.2 α vs CM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
11.3 Angle of attack vs CM w.r.t varying elevator deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
11.4 CL vs Elevator Def lection graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
11.5 Graph for Correction factor of Directional stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

12.1 Limit Maneuver Envelope tabulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

12.2 Gust Maneuver Envelope tabulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
12.3 V-n diagram (Limit Combined envelope) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

13.1 Elliptic Lift Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

13.2 Trapezoidal Lift Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
13.3 Mean Lift Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
13.4 Schrenk’s Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

14.1 Shear Force Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

14.2 Shear force due to Elliptical Lift Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

v
14.3 Shear force due to Trapezoidal Lift Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
14.4 Shear force due to Mean Lift Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
14.5 Shear force due to Wing Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
14.6 Shear force due to Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
14.7 Shear force due to Fuel storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
14.8 Shear force due to Landing Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
14.9 Shear force due to without Lift Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
14.10Total Shear Force on Wing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

15.1 Bending Moment Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

15.2 Bending Moment due to Elliptical Lift Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
15.3 Bending Moment due to Trapezoidal Lift Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
15.4 Bending Moment due to Mean Lift Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
15.5 Bending Moment due to Wing Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
15.6 Bending Moment due to Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
15.7 Bending Moment due to Fuel storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
15.8 Bending Moment due to Landing Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
15.9 Bending Moment without Lift Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
15.10Total Bending Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

16.1 Selected Angular Section for Flange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

16.2 Spars in Wing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

17.1 Selected Stringer section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

17.2 Stringer calculation Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
17.3 Stringer Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

vi
 List of Tables

1.1 Existing Data Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2 Parameters Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.1 First Stage of Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.2 Second Stage of Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Weight Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4 Engine Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

8.1 C.G determination of wing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

8.2 C.G determination of fuselage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
8.3 C.G values for different conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
8.4 C.G variation under different conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

9.1 Interference Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

9.2 CD0 for Cruise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
9.3 CD0 for Take-off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
9.4 CD0 for Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
9.5 CD Drag Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

13.1 Span-wise Lift Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

vii
 1 Data Collection of Existing Aircrafts

The first step in designing an aircraft is to collect data of existing aircraft with

similar payload and similar range. This step is vital in aircraft design as it gives the

designer an insight into the conventional trend of aircraft design. The designer with

the help of data thus acquired, may get an idea of the basic factors that affect the

aircraft’s performance which is Weight, Cruise velocity, Length, Height, Service

ceiling, Taper ratio, Aspect ratio, Maximum Take off weight, Fineness ratio, Wing

area, Wing span etc. This database will also serve, during the design process, as

a guide for validation of the design parameters that will be calculated, so that the

designer does not deviate unduly from the conventional design.

Across the data we have collected, all the aircraft almost matches our specifi-

cations of 100 seater aircraft which covers the range of 7000 kilometers. We have

collected data for 6 turbofan aircrafts.

1
S.No Units 1 2 3 4 5 6

Aircraft (-) Airbus Airbus Airbus Airbus Boeing Boeing

Name 220-100 A220- A318 A319- 707-100 737
300 111 MAX
7

Range (km) 6390 6700 5740 6940 6722 7130

Cruise (kmph) 871 850 829 829 965 839

speed

Length (m) 35 38.7 31.44 33.84 44.07 35.56

Height (m) 11.5 11.5 12.56 11.76 12.09 12.29

Wing (m) 35.1 35.1 34.1 35.8 39.9 35.92

span

Wing (m) 35.1 35.1 34.1 35.8 39.9 35.92

span

Wing (m2 ) 112.3 112.3 122.4 122.4 283 127

area

Wing (Kg/m2 ) 561.88 631.3 555.55 616.83 373.145 629.92

loading

Service (m) 12,500 12,500 12,500 12,500 12,802 12,000

ceiling

Aspect (-) 10.97 10.97 9.5 10.47 7.1 10.15

ratio

Taper (-) 0.21 0.21 0.24 0.24 0.4 0.26

ratio

Type of (-) Pratt & Pratt & CFM56- CFM Intl. Pratt & CFM Intl
Engine Whitney Whit- 5B (or) CFM56- Whitney LEAP-1B
PW1500G ney PW Pratt & 5B or JT3D-3B
1500G Whitney IAE Intl
PW6000A Engines
V2524-
A5

2
 S.No Units 1 2 3 4 5 6

Aircraft (-) Airbus Airbus Airbus Airbus Boeing Boeing

Name 220-100 A220- A318 A319- 707-100 737
300 111 MAX
7

One (kN) 103.6 104 106 120 100 130

Engine
thrust

T/W (-) 0.335 0.299 0.318 0.324 0.386 0.331

ratio

Max. (kg) 63,100 70,900 68,000 75,500 1,05,600 80,000

Take off
weight

Payload (-) 15,104 18,688 11,067 14,000 19,300 14,016

weight

Empty (kg) 37,195 37,081 39,500 40,800 55,589 43,000

weight

Wpl/Wo (-) 0.2394 0.2636 0.1628 0.1854 0.1828 0.1752

We/Wo (-) 0.5895 0.523 0.58 0.54 0.526 0.5375

Diameter (m) 3.5 3.5 3.95 3.95 3.76 1.93

Fineness (-) 10.0000 11.0571 7.9595 8.5671 11.7207 18.4249

Ratio

Table 1.1: Existing Data Table

These values are plotted in a graph and the values for our aircraft is decided. The

graphs are attached as follow:

3
Figure 1.1: Range vs Cruise Speed

Figure 1.2: Cruise Speed vs Length

4
 Figure 1.3: Cruise Speed vs Height

Figure 1.4: Cruise Speed vs Wing Span

5
 Figure 1.5: Cruise Speed vs Wing Area

Figure 1.6: Cruise Speed vs Service Ceiling

6
Figure 1.7: Cruise Speed vs Wing Loading

Figure 1.8: Cruise Speed vs Aspect Ratio

7
 Figure 1.9: Cruise Speed vs Taper Ratio

Figure 1.10: Cruise Speed vs Fineness Ratio

8
 Figure 1.11: Cruise Speed vs One Engine Thrust

Figure 1.12: Cruise Speed vs Thrust-to-Weight Ratio

9
Figure 1.13: Cruise Speed vs Maximum Take-off Weight

Figure 1.14: Cruise Speed vs We/Wo

10
The values from the graphs are tabulated

S.No Parameters Values

1 Cruise Speed 820 km/hr

2 Length 37 m

3 Height 12 m

4 Wing span 36 m

5 Service Ceiling 12,400 m

6 Wing Loading 575 kg/m2 (5640.75 N/m2 )

7 Wing Area 135 m2

8 Aspect Ratio 10.5

9 Taper Ratio 0.25

10 One Engine Thrust 120 kN

11 T/W 0.32

12 Maximum Take-Off Weight 80000 kgf

13 We/Wo 0.55

14 Fineness Ratio 10

Table 1.2: Parameters Table

11
 2 Preliminary Weight Estimation

In Preliminary weight estimation, we calculate the gross weight of the aircraft,

empty weight, Weight of fuel, thrust required and weight of the power plant. It is

based on the thrust required, the power plant is selected. The weight estimation is

done using the iteration method [7].

The step-by-step procedure is as follows

Wc + Wpl
W0 = Wf We
kgf (2.1)
1− W0 − W0

where,

We = Wpp + WF E + WLG + Ws (2.2)

W0 - Take-off Gross Weight (kgf)

Wc - Crew weight including luggage (kgf)

Wpl - Payload Weight (kgf)

Wf - Weight of fuel (kgf)

We - Empty weight (kgf)

Ws - Structural weight

Wpp - weight of power plant

WLG - Landing gear weight

WF E - Fixed Equipment weight.

12
 The Weight of the aircraft is calculated iterated by changing the guessed max-

imum take-off weight using weight fractions on each stages like taxiing, take-off,

climb, cruise, loiter, Descend and landing. We calculate Mission weight fraction

(WLanding /W0 ) and Mission fuel fraction (Wf /W0 ). The equations are shown as fol-

lows:
Wf WLanding
= 1.06 ∗ [1 − ] (2.3)
W0 W0
WLanding W7 W6 W5 W4 W3 W2 W1
= ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ (2.4)
W0 W6 W5 W4 W3 W2 W1 W0

In first iteration, the guessed maximum take-off weight is 75,500 kgf. Weight of

payload and crew is 11660 kgf. Some of the ratios arew kept as constant. They are

W1 W2 W8
= = = 0.99 (2.5)
W0 W1 W7

W3 W4
= 0.995, = 0.95 (2.6)
W2 W3

Then the iteration is following as:

13
 S.no Gussed W5 /W4 W6 /W5 W7 /W6 Wland /W0 Wf /W0 We /W0 Maximum
W0 in kgf Take-off
weight in
kgf

1 75500 0.969 0.998 0.8357 0.757 0.3057 0.46969 51924.85

2 51924.85 0.969 0.998 0.83576 0.757 0.3057 0.4803 54514.905

3 54514.905 0.969 0.998 0.83576 0.757 0.3057 0.479 54207.416

4 54207.416 0.969 0.998 0.83576 0.757 0.3057 0.479 54201.099

5 54201.099 0.969 0.998 0.83576 0.757 0.3057 0.479 54201.943

6 54201.943 0.969 0.998 0.83576 0.757 0.3057 0.479 54201.831

7 54201.831 0.969 0.998 0.83576 0.757 0.3057 0.479 54201.846

8 54201.846 0.969 0.998 0.83576 0.757 0.3057 0.479 54201.844

9 54201.844 0.969 0.998 0.83576 0.757 0.3057 0.479 54201.844

10 54201.844 0.969 0.998 0.83576 0.757 0.3057 0.479 54201.844

Table 2.1: First Stage of Estimation

The Maximum take-off weight of the aircraft is 54201.844 kgf.

Second Stage of weight Estimation

In second stage of weight estimation, we have to choose the powerplant in order

to lift the maximum take-off weight. The Thrust requirement is calculated from the

thrust-to-weight ratio obtained from graph. The weight obtained in the first stage of

weight calculation is used as W0 .

T
= 0.32 (2.7)
W

14
 T = 17344.59 kgf = 170150.42868 N

T ∗ 1.2
T hrust per engine = (2.8)
N o.of engines

We decided the number of engines required for the aircraft is 2.

Hence, the thrust required per engine is 102.0902 kN. Since the flight will be cruised

at different altitude, the density of air will be changed at that altitude. Hence for

turbofan engines, we use

Taltitude ρaltitude 1.2

=( ) (2.9)
Tsea level ρsea level

The engine also has to satisfy the required thrust at the cruise altitude. We choose

cruise altitude as 12.4 km by comparing cruise altitude of different flights. The

density of air at that altitude is 0.292 kg/m3 [3]. The weight of fuel (Wf ) required

to cover the given range with a safety factor 20% is calculated as follows:

no.of engines∗ Tcrusie altitude ∗ SF C∗ Range

Weight of the fuel (Wf ) = 1.2 ∗ Cruise V elocity
(2.10)

A new empty weight to maximum take-off weight ratio without powerplant is cal-

culated as follows:
We We WP P
= − [2 ∗ ] (2.11)
W0 without P P W0 W0

With known weight of powerplant and fuel, the maximum take-off weight is calcu-

lated more accurately as follows for the next iteration in which multiple engines are

checked to attain more accuarte maximum take-off weight. The maximum take-off

15
weight formula is

WP l + Wc + Wf + (n ∗ WP P )
W0 = We
(2.12)
1 − W 0 without P P

The selection of engine is done through multiple iterations until the required thrust

at sea level and cruise altitude and weight is converged. The iteration is tabulated

below[6]:

16
 .
S.No Name Thrust SFC Wpp Total T at Wf Wf /W0 We /W0 W0
of the of Wpp alti- with-
Engine en- tude out PP
gine

- - kN kg/(N. kgf kgf kN kgf - - kgf

hr)

1 CFM int. 143 0.051 3153 6306 25.167 26297.19 0.485 0.3626 69449.56
LEAP

2 IAE 111 0.059 2382 4764 19.57 23456.53 0.433 0.391 65495.77
V2525
D5

3 CFM 56 104 0.068 1954 3908 18.304 25500.31 0.471 0.407 69243.37
3C1

4 Pratt & 107 0.059 2,289 4578 18.832 22763.49 0.421 0.395 64416.08
Whitney
6000

5 F110- 131 0.055 1780 3560 23.056 25979.88 0.479 0.413 70225.42
GE-100

6 Aviadvi 107 0.054 2350 4700 18.831 20695.49 0.382 0.392 60975.32
-gatel
PD-10

7 Soloviev 103 0.072 2305 4610 18.128 26740.70 0.491 0.394 70968.62
D-
30KU-
154

8 Pratt & 102 0.033 2177 4354 17.952 12137.16 0.223 0.399 46814.88
Whitney
1900G

9 Pratt & 110 0.047 2858 5716 19.36 18705.51 0.345 0.374 57596.09
Whitney
1100G

10 Pratt & 102 0.045 2177 4354 17.951 16550.68 0.305 0.399 54154.48
Whitney
1500G

Table 2.2: Second Stage of Estimation

17
 After these iterations the weight distribution is follows

S.No Parameters Weight in kgf Ratio

1 Payload 11000 0.203

2 Crew 660 0.01218

3 Fuel 16550.678 0.3056

4 Powerplant 4354 0.08039

5 Structure 21589.754 0.39867

(Empty)

Table 2.3: Weight Distribution

The weight is reduced around 47 kgf. Hence the new and finalised weight of the

aircraft is around 54154.48 kgf.

And the Specifications of the selected engine is tabulated below:

18
S.No Parameters Value

1 Name Pratt & Whitney PW1500G

2 Type Geared Turbofan Engine

3 Weight 2177 kgf

4 Thrust 102 kN

5 Specific Fuel Consumption (at cruise) 0.045 kg/(N.hr)

6 Thrust-to-weight ratio 5.08

7 Length 3.184m

8 Fan diameter 155 cm

9 Fan case diameter 2.006 m

10 No.of Blades 18 blades

11 Compressor Axial flow, 1 geared, 3-stage LPC, 8-stage HPC

12 Turbine Axial flow, 2-stage HP, 3-stage LP

13 Combustor Talon-X Lean-Burn Combustor

14 By-pass ratio 12:1

15 Max Fan speed 3461 RPM

Table 2.4: Engine Parameters

19
 3 Selection of Aerofoil and Flaps

In this chapter, the wing characteristics are determined to select the appropriate

airfoil for the aircraft. Wing area (S), wing span(b), length of the fuselage(l), di-

ameter of the fuselage(d) and average chord (Cavg ) are determined from the data

collected as follows: From graphs,

W N
W ing Loading = = 5640.75 2 (3.1)
S m

W = 54154 kgf (or) 531250.74 N (3.2)

Then
b2
Aspect ratio = =7 (3.3)
S
b
Aspect ratio = (3.4)
Cavg

W ing area (S) = 94.18m2

W ing span (b) = 25.67m

Cavg = 3.668m

We have selected Mid wing configuration for our aircraft. Since mid wing aircraft

has less interference drag and they have better rolling stability. Here, we selected

our fuel as Jet A fuel. It has density 804 kg/m3 and composition of 30% kerosene

and 70% gasoline. We know the weight of the fuel and density of the fuel from

20
which volume of the fuel(Vf ), is found out to be 20.59 m3 .

W eight of f uel
V olume of f uel (Vf ) = (3.5)
Density of the f uel

16550.678
Vf = = 20.59m3
804

The most of fuel is stored in wing. 25% of the fuel volume will be stored in the

fuselage. To find percent of fuel stored in wing and thickness to chord ratio of

wing, we use the below equation

Vf ∗ 0.75 b
= (0.66 ∗ Cavg ) ∗ ((t/c) ∗ Cavg ) ∗ ∗ 0.5 ∗ 0.75 (3.6)
2 2

where, 0.5 is included on account of Tip and Root exclusion.

0.75 is included on account of Taper characteristics.

20.6 ∗ 0.375
t/c = = 0.1774
0.66 ∗ 3.7 ∗ 3.7 ∗ 25.7
2 ∗ 0.5 ∗ 0.75

The t/c comes out to be 17.74%. And 75% of the fuel is stored in wings. The airfoil

is selected based on the coefficient of lift in cruise (CLcruise ) and coefficient of the

drag (CDcruise ) must be low[4]. The cruise altitude is 12.4 km, the density at that

altitude is 0.29208. so CLcruise is calculated as follows:

W0 + Wlanding
Average Cruise weight =
2
Wlanding = W0 − (0.8 ∗ Wf ) = 54154 − (0.8 ∗ 16550.678) = 40913.4576
54154 + 40913.4576
Average Cruise weight = = 47533.7288
2

21
 Wavg
2∗ S
CL = (3.7)
ρcruise altitude ∗ V 2

2 ∗ 47533.7288∗9.81
94.18
CL = = 0.6538
0.29208 ∗ 227.772

ρ ∗ V ∗ L Vcruise ∗ C̄
Reynolds N umber = = (3.8)
µ ν

227.77 ∗ 3.668
Reynolds N umber = −5
= 1.7 ∗ 106
4.93 ∗ 10

The aerofoil we selected is NACA 64(3)-618 aerofoil. The specifications of the

aerofoil from the graphs are listed below:

• Maximum thickness is 17.7% 34.7% chord

• Maximum camber is 3.3% 50% chord

• CLcruise value is 0.6538

• CDmin for the corresponding CLcruise is 0.075

• α(L=0) = -4.5°

• CLmax = 1.3

• Stall α= 7°

• Wing incidence angle = 1°

22
Selected Aerofoil

Figure 3.1: NACA 64(3)-618

Graphs for the selected aerofoil

23
Flap Selection
Landing

Vlanding = 1.23 ∗ Vstall (3.9)

slanding = 0.6 ∗ stake−of f (3.10)

g
a= (3.11)
4
√
Vlanding = 2∗a∗s (3.12)
2 ∗ Wlanding ∗ 9.81
CLlanding = 2 (3.13)
ρsea level ∗ Vstall ∗S

slanding = 0.6 ∗ 1950 = 1170m

r
9.81
Vlanding = 2 ∗ ∗ 1170 = 75.75m/s
4
75.75
Vstall = = 61.589m/s
1.23
2 ∗ 40913.4576 ∗ 9.81
CLlanding = = 1.834
1.225 ∗ 61.592 ∗ 94.18

∆CL = CLlanding − CLmax = 1.834 − 1.3 = 0.5363

∆CL
= 0.76622
0.7

Flap chord required is 0.2*C̄ = 0.2*3.668 = 0.7336 m

t/c = 17.7% and ΔCL = 0.76622. We are going to use Split flaps.

From the data book, we can get the flap deflection angle around 33°

24
Take-off

Vtake−of f = 1.3 ∗ Vstall (3.14)

2 ∗ Wtake−of f ∗ 9.81
CLtake−of f = 2 (3.15)
ρsea level ∗ Vtake−of f ∗S

Wtake−of f = 0.99 ∗ W0 (3.16)

Vtake−of f = 1.3 ∗ 61.589 = 80.067m/s

Wtake−of f = 0.99 ∗ 54154 = 53612.46 kgf

2 ∗ 53612.46 ∗ 9.81
CLtake−of f = = 1.422
1.225 ∗ 80.0672 ∗ 94.18

∆CL = CLtake−of f − CLmax = 1.422 − 1.3 = 0.122

∆CL
= 0.1745
0.7

Flap chord required is 0.2*C̄ = 0.2*3.668 = 0.7336 m.

t/c = 17.7% and ΔCL = 0.1745. Since we are going to use Split flaps.

From the data book, we can get the flap deflection angle around 6°-7°.
2∗Wavg ∗9.81
CLmax = 2
S∗ρsea level ∗Vstall
2∗47533.7288∗9.81
CLmax = 94.18∗1.225∗61.5892 = 2.131

25
Figure 3.2: Flap deflection graph

26
Wing Parameters
We assume that Taper ratio for our flight is 0.3. Thus

Ct
T aper ratio λ = (3.17)
Cr

2∗S
Cr = (3.18)
b ∗ (1 + λ)
2 1 + λ + λ2
M ean Aerodynamic Chord = ∗ ∗ Cr (3.19)
3 1+λ

2 ∗ 94.18
Cr = = 5.64m
25.67 ∗ (1 + 0.3)
Ct = 0.3 ∗ Cr = 0.3 ∗ 5.644 = 1.69m
2 1 + 0.3 + 0.32
M ean Aerodynamic Chord = ∗ ∗ 5.64 = 4.02m
3 1 + 0.3

Figure 3.3: Wing Dimensions

27
Sweep Angle
The leading edge sweep angle is determined from the following formula

t − (b/2)
tan(Λ) =
b
where,

t is the length of the tip chord,

b is the total span of the wing.

1.69 − 12.835
tan(Λ) =
25.67
Λ ≈ −24◦

The Leading edge sweep angle is 24°. The negative sign indicates that the leading

edge is swept backward from the perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the air-

craft. This backward sweep is typical for many modern aircraft designs as it helps to

delay the onset of shockwaves and improve transonic and supersonic performance.

The below formula is used to find the quarter-chord sweep angle

1−λ
tan(ΛLE ) = tan(Λc/4 ) + (3.20)
AR ∗ (1 + λ)

1 − 0.3
tan(24) = tan(Λc/4 ) + = 20.22◦
7 ∗ (1 + 0.3)

Thus, the leading edge sweep angle is 24°and the quarter-chord sweep angle is

20.22°.

28
 4 Empennage Selection and Design

The empennage, also known as the tail assembly, is an essential part of an aircraft’s

design that provides stability and control during flight. It is located at the rear of

the aircraft and typically consists of the horizontal stabilizer, vertical stabilizer, and

control surfaces like elevators, rudder and tabs.It is carefully designed and engi-

neered to ensure safe and efficient aircraft operations. The dimensions of horizontal

and vertical tail are determined using the approximate ratio relating the parameters

of HT and VT with those of the wing.

Horizontal Tail
The Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) = 4.02m

Horizontal Tail Arm length (LHT ) = 3.5*MAC

LHT ∗ SHT
Horizontal T ail volume (V̄HT ) = (4.1)
M AC ∗ S
Aspect ratio(ARHT ) = 0.6 ∗ AR (4.2)
p
Horizontal T ail span(bHT ) = SHT ∗ ARHT (4.3)

29
Taper ratio of Horizontal tail is equal to Wing taper ratio

λHT = 0.3 (4.4)

2 ∗ SHT
Root Chord(CrHT ) = (4.5)
bHT ∗ (1 + λ)
T ip Chord(CtHT ) = λ ∗ CrHT (4.6)

The distance of MAC from the centerline, which is the span-wise location of the

mean chord
bHT (1 + 2λ)
YHT = ∗ (4.7)
6 (1 + λ)

Mean Aerodynamic Chord of the horizontal tail

2 ∗ CrHT ∗ (1 + λ + λ2 )
M ACHT = (4.8)
3 ∗ (1 + λ)

Weight of the Horizontal tail

WHT = 0.03 ∗ W0 (4.9)

LHT = 3.5 ∗ 4.02 = 14.07 m

V̄HT = 0.6 (Assumption)

V̄HT ∗M AC∗S 0.6∗4.02∗94.18
SHT = LHT = 14.07 = 16.145 m2

ARHT = 0.6 ∗ 7 = 4.2

√
bHT = 16.14514 ∗ 4.2 = 8.2346 m
2∗16.14514
CrHT = 8.2346∗(1+0.3) = 3.483 m

CtHT = 3.42899 ∗ 0.3 = 3.01636 m

8.2346 1+2(0.3)
YHT = 6 ∗ 1+0.3 = 1.6892 m

30
 2∗3.483∗(1+0.3+0.32 )
M ACHT = 3∗(1+0.3) = 2.1501 m

WHT = 0.03 ∗ 54154 = 1624.62 kgf

Vertical Tail

V ertical T ail Arm length (LV T ) = 0.95 ∗ LHT (4.10)

LV T ∗ SV T
V ertical T ail volume (V̄V T ) = (4.11)
S∗b
2
H
Aspect ratio(ARV T ) = V T (4.12)
SV T
p
Height of V ertail T ail(HV T ) = SV T ∗ ARV T (4.13)

Taper ratio of Vertical tail is equal to Wing taper ratio

λV T = 0.3 (4.14)
2 ∗ SV T
Root Chord(CrV T ) = (4.15)
HV T ∗ (1 + λ)
T ip Chord(CtV T ) = λ ∗ CrV T (4.16)

The span-wise location of the mean chord

2 ∗ HV T (1 + 2λ)
ZV T = ∗ (4.17)
6 (1 + λ)

Mean Aerodynamic Chord of the vertical tail

2 ∗ CrV T ∗ (1 + λ + λ2 )
M ACV T = (4.18)
3 ∗ (1 + λ)

31
Weight of the Vertical tail

WHT = 0.02 ∗ W0 (4.19)

LV T = 0.95 ∗ 14.07 = 13.3665m

V̄V T = 0.04 (Assumption)

V̄V T ∗b∗S 0.04∗25.67∗94.18
SV T = LV T = 13.3665 = 7.2348m2

ARV T = 1.5(Assumption)
√
bV T = 1.5 ∗ 7.2348 = 3.2943m
2∗7.2348
CrV T = 3.2943∗(1+0.3) = 3.3787m

CtV T = 3.37787 ∗ 0.3 = 1.0136m

2∗3.2943 1+2(0.3)
ZV T = 6 ∗ 1+0.3 = 1.3515m
2∗3.3787∗(1+0.3+0.32 )
M ACV T = 3∗(1+0.3) = 2.4084m

WV T = 0.02 ∗ 54154 = 1083.08kgf

Since a symmetric airfoil has a symmetric CL , CD , CM characteristics about the

zero-lift angle of attack (which is 0°for symmetric airfoils). Hence, they are very

suitable for Horizontal Tail and Vertical Tail. Usual choice of airfoil for HT and VT

is NACA 0009 or NACA 0012. A symmetric airfoil NACA 0009 airfoil is selected

for the Horizontal and Vertical tail.

32
Design of Vertical and Horizontal tail.

Figure 4.1: Half span of Horizontal Tail

Figure 4.2: Vertical Tail

33
 5 Seating Arrangement

No.of seats given- 100 seater

No.of seats in Business class- 16 seats.
No.of seats in Economy class- 84 seats
Fuselage length- 26.39 m
Fuselage diameter- 2.639 m
Business Class
Arrangement- 4 rows of 2+2
No of seats= 16
Airhostess cabin- 1
Seat width= 0.42 m
Seat pitch= 0.889 m
Cabin luggage storage= 0.4 m
Baggage per passenger= 30 kg
Head room= 1.67 m
Aisle width= 0.459 m
No of lavatories- 1
Lavatory dimensions= 0.85 x 0.5 x 1.6 m3
Economy Class
Arrangement- 21 rows of 2+2
No of seats= 84
Airhostess cabin- 1

34
Seat pitch= 0.8 m
Cabin luggage storage= 0.3 m
Baggage per passenger= 20 kg
Head room= 1.67 m
Aisle width= 0.459 m
No of lavotaries- 4
Lavotary dimensions= 0.85 x 0.5 x 1.6 m3
Fuselage Cross Section

Figure 5.1: Fuselage Cross section

Seat Arrangement

Figure 5.2: Seating Arrangement

35
 6 Landing Gear

In this section, the tyre dimensions for the landing gear are determined based

on the amount of load that each tyre can withstand. With those obtained tyre di-

mensions, runway loading is calculated to find the suitable type of runway for the

landing of the aircraft.

Nose wheel
Landing gear type: Two wheel bogey Aircraft gross weight, (W0 ) is 54154.48

kgf. Assuming 10% of the Gross weight acts on the Nose landing gear. Number of

wheels = 2 Required Weight to be carried by each nose wheel:

0.1Wo
Wn =
2
0.1 ∗ 54154.48
Wn =
2

Wn = 5969.409 lbsf

Wheel Diameter

d = A WNB

Where A = 1.51 and B = 0.349

d = 1.51 5969.4090.349

d = 31.388 in

36
Wheel Width

w = A WNB

Where A = 0.715 and B = 0.312

w = 0.715 5969.4090.312

w = 10.774 in

With the obtained dimensions as references, a tyre is chosen. Manufacturer: Dunlop

Part Number: DR3628T Diameter,(d): 26 in Width,(w): 6.6 in Rim diameter: 5 in

Radius under maximum deflection,(Rf ): 11.2 in Loaded pressure,(PL): 156 psi

Let the footprint area be AP.

√ d
AP = 2.3 d w( − Rf )
2
√ 26
AP = 2.3 26 6.6( − 11.2)
2

AP = 54.23 sq.in

Weight carried by each nose wheel:

Wn = AP PL

Wn = 54.23 156

Wn = 8459.88 lbsf

This weightWn is greater than the required weight it needs to be supported Wn .

Therefore, this tyre can be used for the Nose wheel Landing gear arrangement.

37
Main wheel
Landing gear type: Four-wheel bogey Aircraft gross weight, (W0)= 54154.48 kgf

Assuming 90% of the Gross weight acts on the Main landing gear. Number of

wheels = 8 Required Weight to be carried by each main wheel:

(0.9)(Wo )
WM =
8

(0.9)(54154.48)
WM =
8

WM = 13431.170 lbsf

Wheel Diameter
d = A WNB

Where A = 1.51 and B = 0.349

d = 1.51 13431.1700.349

d = 41.657in

Wheel Width
w = A WNB

Where A = 0.715 and B = 0.312

w = 0.715 13431.1700.312

w = 13.876 in

38
With the obtained dimensions as references, a tyre is chosen. Manufacturer: Dun-

lop Part Number: DR11747T Diameter,(d): 39 in Width,(w): 13 in Rim diameter:

10 in Radius under maximum deflection,(Rf ): 15.8 in Loaded pressure,(PL): 104

psi Let the footprint area be AP.

√ d
AP = 2.3 d w( − Rf )
2
√ 39
AP = 2.3 39 13( − 15.8)
2

AP = 191.56 sq.in

Weight carried by each nose wheel:

Wn = AP PL

Wn = 191.56 104

Wn = 19922 lbsf

This weightWm is greater than the required weight it needs to be supported Wm .

Therefore, this tyre can be used for the Nose wheel Landing gear arrangement.

Runway Loading
Runway loading is calculated by using maximum contact area of all the wheels of

the Landing gear with the ground. Under maximum deflection, surface contact area

of tyre with ground is in the shape of ellipse. Therefore, by using area of ellipse

39
formula, maximum contact area is calculated. Contact area for each Nose wheel:

An = πab

Where, r
d p
a= ( )2 − (Rf )2 = (13)2 − (11.2)2 = 6.6 in
2
w 6.6
b= = = 3.3 in
2 2

Thus,

An = π(6.6)(3.3) = 68.38 sq.in

Contact area for two Nose wheels:

An = 68.38 ∗ 2 = 136.77 sq.in

Contact area for each Main wheel:

Am = πab

Where, r
d p
a= ( )2 − (Rf )2 = (19.5)2 − (15.8)2 = 11.42 in
2
w 13
b= = = 6.5 in
2 2

Thus,

An = π(11.42)(6.5) = 233.08sq.in

40
Contact area for Eight Main wheels:

An = 233.08 ∗ 8 = 1864.65 sq.in

Contact area for eight Main wheels:

Am + An = 136.77 + 1864.65 sq.in = 12912.36sq.cm

9.81 ∗ Wo
Runway Loading =
N et Contact Area
9.81 ∗ 54154.48
Runway Loading =
12912.36

Runway Loading = 42.621 N cm−2

This obtained Runway Loading is suitable for the runway made of Concrete. Hence,

this aircraft is best suited for landing on Concrete runway.

41
 7 Three View Diagrams

A Three-view diagram typically refers to a technical drawing that shows an ob-

ject or system from three different perspectives: front view, top view, and side view.

This is commonly used in fields such as engineering, architecture, and design to

provide understanding of an object’s dimensions and characteristics.

Top View

Figure 7.1: Top View

Side View

Figure 7.2: Side View

42
Front View

Figure 7.3: Front View

Three Views

Figure 7.4: Three View Diagrams

43
 8 Determination of C.G

A balance diagram is the graphical representation of an aircraft’s weight distri-

bution and used to estimate the weight distribution and to approximately locate the

center of gravity of the aircraft. The weights of the individual components in the

fuselage and wing and their CG are tabulated below for the full payload and full

fuel condition of the aircraft.

Determination of CG of Wing

S.No Components Weight Weight Xi Wi ∗ Xi

Units - kgf N m N-m
1 Wing Structure (1 2707.724 26535.6952 3.108 82472.94068
wing) (0.05W0 )
2 Fuel stored (one wing) 6206.50425 60823.74165 2.82 171522.9515
3 Undercarriage (0.02 1083.0896 10614.27808 4.6812 49687.55855
W0 )
4 Powerplant 2177 21334.6 2.2736 48506.34656
P P
Ww 119308.3149 W w ∗ Xw 352189.7972
Xw (1 Wing) 2.9519300 m

Table 8.1: C.G determination of wing

where, Xi for wing structure is XW S = x′ + (0.4 ∗ M AC).

Xi for powerplant is Xpp = x” + (0.4 ∗ lpp ).

x′ is the longitudinal distance between Leading edge (LE) of root chord and MAC.

x” is the longitudinal distance between LE of root chord and inlet of powerplant.

Powerplant is attached at the front spar and Undercarriage is attached at rear spar.

44
Determination of CG of fuselage

S. No Components Weight Weight Xi Wi*xi

Units - kgf N m N-m

1 Instrument(0.045W0 ) 2436.5466 23878.15668 1 23878.15668

2 Pilots(2) 190 1862 2 3724

3 Crew (2) 190 1862 2.6 4841.2

4 Lavatory (1) 1083.0896 10614.27808 2.6 27597.12301

5 Business Class Row 1 440 4312 3.295 14208.04

6 Business Class Row 2 440 4312 4.185 18045.72

7 Business Class Row 3 440 4312 5.075 21883.4

8 Business Class Row 4 440 4312 5.965 25721.08

9 Economy Class Row 1 400 3920 7.065 27694.8

10 Economy Class Row 2 400 3920 7.835 30713.2

11 Economy Class Row 3 400 3920 8.605 33731.6

12 Economy Class Row 4 400 3920 9.375 36750

13 Economy Class Row 5 400 3920 10.145 39768.4

14 Economy Class Row 6 400 3920 10.915 42786.8

15 Economy Class Row 7 400 3920 11.685 45805.2

16 Economy Class Row 8 400 3920 12.455 48823.6

17 Economy Class Row 9 400 3920 13.225 51842

18 Lavatory (2) 2166.1792 21228.55616 14.11 299534.9274

19 Economy Class Row 10 400 3920 15.01 58839.2

20 Economy Class Row 11 400 3920 15.81 61975.2

21 Economy Class Row 12 400 3920 16.61 65111.2

22 Economy Class Row 13 400 3920 17.41 68247.2

23 Economy Class Row 14 400 3920 18.21 71383.2

45
 24 Economy Class Row 15 400 3920 19.01 74519.2

25 Economy Class Row 16 400 3920 19.81 77655.2

26 Economy Class Row 17 400 3920 20.61 80791.2

27 Economy Class Row 18 400 3920 21.41 83927.2

28 Economy Class Row 19 400 3920 22.21 87063.2

29 Economy Class Row 20 400 3920 23.01 90199.2

30 Economy Class Row 21 400 3920 23.81 93335.2

31 Lavatory (1) 1083.0896 10614.27808 24.46 259625.2418

32 Crew (2) 190 1862 24.46 45544.52

33 Nose Wheel 541.5448 5307.13904 3 15921.41712

34 Structural Weight 5415.448 53071.3904 12 636856.6848

35 Fuel in Fuselage 4137.6695 40549.1611 12.3 498754.6815

36 Horizontal Tail 1624.6344 15921.41712 25.55 406792.2074

37 Vertical Tail 1083.0896 10614.27808 25.55 271194.8049

P P
Wf 296952.6547 W f ∗ Xf 3845085.205

Xf (Fuselage) 12.948479 m

Table 8.2: C.G determination of fuselage

Using the tables above, we can find the centre of gravity for fuselage from the

nose and C.G for wing from leading edge of the wing by the formula,

P
W i Xi
Xx = P
Wi

We can calculate the location of wing from the nose of aircraft by assuming ”the

total C.G of aircraft to be 0.25 times the Mean Aerodynamic Chord of wing from

the Leading edge of the wing”. Hence C.G of the aircraft is calculated as

46
XC.G = x′ + (0.25 ∗ M AC)

XC.G = 1.5 + (0.25 ∗ 4.02) = 2.505m

Using the equation,

W0 (x + XC.G ) = (Wf ∗ Xf ) + (WW ∗ (x + Xw )) where,

x is the distance of Leading edge of root chord of the wing from fuselage nose.

W0 is the weight of fuselage and two wings => W0 = Wf + WW .

Wf and WW are the weight fuselage and two wings respectively (WW = 2 ∗ Ww )

From the full payload and full fuel condition, we find that x = 10.802 m

Then the overall C.G for the plane will be XC.Ga/p = 10.802 + 2.505 = 13.307 m.

Now for different conditions with respect to weight of the payload and fuel, C.G is

calculated and C.G shift is calculated.

Conditions Xf (m) Xw (m)
Full 12.9484 2.9519
Half 12.8239 2.9971
Minimal 12.6365 3.0891

Table 8.3: C.G values for different conditions

For example, we have Half payload and Full fuel

W0 (x + XC.G ) = (Wf ∗ Xf ) + (WW ∗ (x + Xw ))

485734.455 ∗ (XC.G + 10.802) = (247117.855 ∗ 12.8239) + (238616.6 ∗ (10.802 +

2.9971))

XC.G = 2.4785 m and CG = 10.802 + 2.4785 = 13.2811m

XC.G (f ull load) − XC.G
XC.G Shif t = XC.G = 0.0107
CG (f ull load) − CG
% of C.G shif t = M AC ∗ 100 = 0.6598%

47
 S. Condition Fuselage Wing Total XC.G XC.G CG % of
No Weight Weight weight Shift CG
Shift

1 Full pay + 296952.655 238616.6 535569.255 2.505 - 13.3076 -

Full fuel

2 Full pay- 296952.655 177792.85 474745.505 2.4646 0.0164 13.2672 1.005

load + Half
fuel

3 Full pay 296952.655 116969.1 413921.755 2.4124 0.0384 13.215 2.3041

+ Reserve
fuel

4 Half pay + 247117.855 238616.6 485734.455 2.4785 0.0107 13.2811 0.6598

Full fuel

5 Half 247117.855 177792.85 424910.705 2.4296 0.031 13.2322 1.8761

pay+Half
fuel

6 Half pay 247117.855 116969.1 364086.955 2.3644 0.0595 13.167 3.4985

+ Reserve
fuel

7 No pay + 197283.055 238616.6 435899.655 2.4459 0.0242 13.2485 1.4694

Full fuel

8 No pay + 197283.055 177792.85 375075.905 2.3853 0.0502 13.1879 2.9786

Half fuel

9 No pay + 197283.055 116969.1 314252.155 2.3011 0.0886 13.1037 5.0717

Reserve
fuel

Table 8.4: C.G variation under different conditions.

From the above table, it is absorbed that CG variation is within 6% (< 8%) in

change within the original value.

48
 9 Drag Polar Estimation

The drag coefficients at zero-lift condition, called the Parasite drag for the differ-

ent components of the aircraft are estimated using different formula characteristic

of them. The total parasite drag, induced drag and interference drag for the entire

aircraft is calculated and overall drag coefficient for various CL values are tabulated

and the graph is plotted. Finally, the drag polar equations for various aircraft condi-

tions are obtained.[10]

Formulae

CDtotal = CD0 + CDi + CDinterf erence + ∆CDcompressible (9.1)

1
T otal P arasite Drag = D0 = CD0 ∗ ( ρV 2 SW ) (9.2)
2
1 1
D0 = CDf use ( ρV 2 Sf use ) + CDwing ( ρV 2 Swing ) + ... (9.3)
2 2

CD0 = Q ∗ F F ∗ Cf (9.4)

This formula is used to calculate the drag of rounded bodies which include Fuselage,

Powerplant, Nose wheel, Main wheel landing gears

where,

CD0 is the Parasite Drag + Interference Drag co-efficient.

Q is the Interference factor.

F F is the Form Factor.

49
Cf is the Co-efficient of Skin Friction drag.

0.455
Cf = (9.5)
(log10 Re)2.584 ∗ (1 + ( γ−1 2 0.65
2 )Mc )

ρ∗V ∗L
Re = (9.6)
µ

where,

Re is the Reynolds Number.

ρ is the Density at sea level.

V is the Velocity.

µ is the Dynamic Viscosity.

L is the Characteristic Length.

l
60 d
FF = 1 + l 3 + (9.7)
(d) 400

l
where, d is the Fineness ratio.

2 0.667 1
Swet = πLD[(1 − ) ∗ (1 + )] (9.8)
(l/d) (l/d)2

where

Swet is the Wetted area (m2 ),

S is the Planform area (m2 ).

For wing, horizontal tail and vertical tail the same CD0 is used but the formula for

Swet and F F changes as,

t 1 + τλ
Swet = 2 ∗ S [1 + 0.25 ( )] (9.9)
c 1+λ

50
where,

τ is varying thickness from root to tip.

λ is Aspect ratio.
t
c is Thickness-to-Chord ratio.

0.6 t t
F F = {1 + + 100 ( )4 } ∗ {1.34 M 0.18 (cosΛ)0.28 } (9.10)
xi c c

where, xi = 0.3 ∗ CM AC .

Λ is the Sweep Angle,

M is the Mach number.

Interference factor is fixed for the different components and values are taken for

calculation. The values are tabulated below:

Components Interfernce factor (Q)

Fuselage 1
Wing 1
Horizontal Tail 1.08
Vertical Tail 1.03
Powerplant 1.7
Nose Wheel 1
Main wheel 1
Flap 1

Table 9.1: Interference Values

To find out CD0 , we use the formula as

P
Cd ∗ Swet
CD0 = (9.11)
SW

51
Cruise condition
Components Fuselage Wing Horizontal Vertical Tail Powerplant
Tail
Velocity 227.78 227.78 227.78 227.78 227.78
Length 26.39 - - - 3.184
Diameter 2.639 - - - 1.5
l/d 10 - - - 2.122666667
Q 1 1 1.08 1.03 1.7
t
c
- 0.17549 0.09 0.09 -
τ - 1 - - -
Λ (sweep) - 20.22 0 0 -
CM AC - 4.02 2.1501 2.4084 -
xi - 1.206 0.64503 0.72252 -
S (Planform area) - 94.18 16.145 7.2348 -
Taper ratio - 0.3 0.3 0.3 -
Mach number 0.771935772 0.771935772 0.771935772 0.771935772 0.771935772
Re 121929294.1 18573541.58 9934072.576 11127491.93 14710984.18
Form Factor 1.085 1.485306039 1.394461961 1.382978335 7.278748135
Swet 190.51015 196.6238241 33.016525 14.795166 0.713967299
Cf 0.00196316 0.002584254 0.002851219 0.002800067 0.002679494
Cd 0.002130028 0.003838408 0.00429399 0.003988605 0.033155716
Cd *Swet 0.309841236 0.7547225 0.141772629 0.059012075 0.023672097

Table 9.2: CD0 for Cruise

Total Cd * Swet = 1.289020538

Cruise CD0 = 0.013686776

Take-off condition
For take-off, Velocity and Mach number will be changed. Vtake−of f = 80.067m/s

from Flap selection section.

52
 Components Fuselage Wing Horizo- Vertical Power Nose Main Flaps
ntal Tail Tail plant wheel wheel
Velocity 80.067 80.067 80.067 80.067 80.067 80.067 80.067 80.067
Length 26.39 - - - 3.184 0.797 1.058 -
Diameter 2.639 - - - 1.5 0.274 0.3524 -
l/d 10 - - - 2.123 2.909 3.002 -
Q 1 1 1.08 1.03 1.7 1 1 1
t
c
- 0.175 0.09 0.09 - - - 0.175
τ - 1 - - - - - -
Λ (sweep) - 20.22 0 0 - - - 0
CM AC - 4.02 2.150 2.408 - - - 0.734
xi - 1.206 0.645 0.723 - - - 0.221
S - 94.18 16.145 7.235 - - - 4.025
Taper ratio - 0.3 0.3 0.3 - - - 0
Mach num- 0.271 0.271 0.271 0.271 0.271 - - 0.271
ber
Form Fac- 1.0850 1.2305 1.1552 1.1457 7.2787 3.4452 3.2247 1.6629
tor
Swet 190.51015196.624 33.017 14.795 0.714 0.339 0.617 8.403
Cf 0.0023 0.0031 0.0034 0.0033 0.0032 0.0033 0.0031 0.0041
Cd 0.0025 0.0038 0.0042 0.0039 0.0393 0.0112 0.0100 0.0068
Cd *Swet 0.3597 0.7385 0.1396 0.0581 0.0280 0.0038 0.0062 0.0573

Table 9.3: CD0 for Take-off

Total Cd * Swet = 1.391303563

Take-off CD0 = 0.014772813.

Landing condition
VLanding = 75.75m/s from Flap selection section.

53
 Components Fuselage Wing Horizo- Vertical Power Nose Main Flaps
ntal Tail Tail plant wheel wheel
Velocity 75.75 75.75 75.75 75.75 75.75 75.75 75.75 75.75
Length 26.39 - - - 3.184 0.797 1.058 -
Diameter 2.639 - - - 1.5 0.274 0.3524 -
l/d 10 - - - 2.123 2.909 3.002 -
Q 1 1 1.08 1.03 1.7 1 1 1
t
c
- 0.175 0.09 0.09 - - - 0.175
τ - 1 - - - - - -
Λ (sweep) - 20.22 0 0 - - - 0
CM AC - 4.02 2.1501 2.4084 - - - 0.7336
xi - 1.206 0.645 0.723 - - - 0.221
S - 94.18 16.145 7.235 - - - 4.025
Taper ratio - 0.3 0.3 0.3 - - - -
Mach num- 0.2567 0.2567 0.2567 0.2567 0.2567 0.2567
ber
Form Fac- 1.0850 1.2170 1.1438 1.1344 7.2787 3.4452 3.2247 1.6488
tor
Swet 190.51015196.6008 33.0165 14.7952 0.7140 0.3392 0.6177 8.4037
Cf 0.0023 0.0031 0.0034 0.0034 0.0032 0.0033 0.0031 0.0041
Cd 0.0025 0.0037 0.0042 0.0039 0.0396 0.0113 0.0101 0.0068
Cd * Swet 0.3626 0.7369 0.1396 0.0580 0.0283 0.0038 0.0063 0.0574

Table 9.4: CD0 for Landing

Total Cd * Swet = 1.393893933

Landing CD0 = 0.014800318.

Compressibility effects are considered only for cruise condition and are calculated

using the formula:

CD0
CD0(compressible) = √ (9.12)
1 − M2

Induced Drag
1
Induced drag = KCL2 , where, K = πeAR , AR = 7, e = 0.8, hence K = 0.05684

54
CL KCL2 Velocity Mach sqrt(1 − CD0 CD cruise CD take- CD land-
number M 2) cruise off ing
0.5 0.0142 279.9011 0.9487 0.3162 0.043284 0.057494 0.028983 0.029010
0.6 0.0205 255.5136 0.8660 0.5000 0.027374 0.047836 0.035235 0.035263
0.7 0.0279 236.5596 0.8018 0.5976 0.022903 0.050754 0.042624 0.042652
0.8 0.0364 221.2813 0.7500 0.6614 0.020693 0.057070 0.051150 0.051178
0.9 0.0460 208.6260 0.7071 0.7071 0.019356 0.065397 0.060813 0.060841
1.0 0.0568 197.9200 0.6708 0.7416 0.018455 0.075295 0.071613 0.071640
1.1 0.0688 188.7093 0.6396 0.7687 0.017805 0.086581 0.083549 0.083577
1.2 0.0818 180.6754 0.6124 0.7906 0.017313 0.099162 0.096622 0.096650
1.3 0.0961 173.5873 0.5884 0.8086 0.016926 0.112986 0.110832 0.110860
1.4 0.1114 167.2729 0.5670 0.8238 0.016615 0.128022 0.126179 0.126207
1.5 0.1279 161.6010 0.5477 0.8367 0.016359 0.144249 0.142663 0.142690
1.6 0.1455 156.4695 0.5303 0.8478 0.016144 0.161654 0.160283 0.160311
1.7 0.1643 151.7977 0.5145 0.8575 0.015961 0.180229 0.179040 0.179068
1.8 0.1842 147.5209 0.5000 0.8660 0.015804 0.199966 0.198934 0.198962
1.9 0.2052 143.5863 0.4867 0.8736 0.015667 0.220860 0.219965 0.219993
2.0 0.2274 139.9506 0.4743 0.8803 0.015547 0.242907 0.242133 0.242160
2.1 0.2507 136.5778 0.4629 0.8864 0.015441 0.266105 0.265437 0.265465
2.2 0.2751 133.4376 0.4523 0.8919 0.015346 0.290452 0.289878 0.289906
2.3 0.3007 130.5046 0.4423 0.8969 0.015261 0.315944 0.315456 0.315484

Table 9.5: CD Drag Estimation

Figure 9.1: CD vs CL f or Cruise

55
Figure 9.2: CD vs CL f or T ake − of f

Figure 9.3: CD vs CL f or Landing

56
 10 Performance Analysis

Aircraft performance refers to the ability of airplanes and helicopters to accom-

plish certain useful maneuvers. Performance analysis of aircraft involves the de-

tailed evaluation of various aspects related to the aircraft’s operational capabilities,

efficiency, and overall effectiveness in flight.[8]

Rate of Climb
Pavailable −Prequired
Rate of climb, (ROC) = W (in N ) , where

Pav is the Power available and Preq is the power required.

Preq = AV 3 + B
V , where
1
A= 2 ∗ ρ ∗ S ∗ CD0
2∗K∗W 2
B= ρ∗S , where
1
K= π∗e∗AR

Pav = Tcruise ∗ V ∗ no.of engines

ρaltitude
Tcruise = Tsea level ∗ σ 1.2 , σ = ρsea level

Pav = Tsea level ∗ σ 1.2 ∗ V ∗ no.of engines

Pav = 102000 ∗ ( ρaltitude

1.225 )
1.2
∗ 227.778 ∗ 2 = 3642325.0999 ∗ (ρaltitude )1.2
1 2∗0.05684∗531074.011292
Preq = 2 ∗ ρ ∗ 94.18 ∗ 0.013686776 ∗ 227.7783 + ρ∗94.18∗227.778
1494595.7215
Preq = 7616670.6353 ρ + ρ

57
 Figure 10.1: ROC vs Altitude

Figure 10.2: Rate of Climb Tabulation

Glide Performance

Figure 10.3: Glide Performance

58
Horizontal distance travelled is ”d” and

vertical distance travelled is ”h”.

CD
tan γ = CL

Rate of Descent, (ROD) = V ∗ sin γ where γ is the Gliding Angle.

CLincompressible
CLcompressible = √ = √ 0.6538 = 1.0299
1−M 2 1−0.77272

CD = CD0 + KCL2 = 0.01368776 + (0.05684 ∗ 0.65382 ) = 0.03798427

CDincompressible 0.03798427
CDcompressible = √
1−M 2
= √
1−0.77272
= 0.059839

CD
tan γ = CL = 0.059839
1.0299 = 0.581017 => γ = 3.325◦
CD
d at crusie = 1000 ∗ CL = 1000 ∗ 0.581017 = 581.017m

ROD at cruise = 227.772 ∗ sin 3.325 = 13.211 m/s

√
γmin = tan−1 (2 K CD0 ) = tan−1 (2 ∗ 0.05684 ∗ 0.013686) = 3.19277◦
p

1000 1000
dmax = (2∗
√
0.05684∗0.013686)
= 0.0557821 = 17926.879 m

Range and Endurance

Range
2
√
CL
q
2
√ √
Range = C ∗ CD ∗ ρ∗S ∗ ( W1 − W2 ), where,

C is the Specific Fuel Consumption at cruise.

√
W1 is the Initial weight. (in N)
√
W2 is the Final weight (weight without 80% of the fuel). (in N)

CDcruise = 0.03798427

CDcompressible = 0.059839
0.051∗9.81
C= 3600 N/N − s

W1 = 54154.48 ∗ 9.81 = 531255.4488 N

59
W2 = 40913.4576 ∗ 9.81 = 401361.019 N

ρcruise = 0.292
2
√
0.6538
q
2
√ √
Range = 0.051∗9.81 ∗ 0.03798 ∗ 0.292∗94.18 ∗ ( 531255.4488 − 401361.019)
3600

Range = 7894157.5299 m = 7894.1575 km

Endurance
CL
Endurance (E) = 1
C ∗ CD ∗ ln W
W2 =
1 1
0.051∗9.81 ∗ 0.6538
0.059839 ∗ ln 531255.4488
401361.019
3600

Endurance (E) = 22057.518 seconds = 6.12 hours

Take-off Performance

Figure 10.4: Take-off Performance

Ground Run
W
T − D − (µ R) = F = ma = g ∗ a, where R = W − L
F F g T −D−(µ R)
a= m = W = W
g

V dV
dS = a
R S1 R V1 V dV
S1 = 0 dS = 0 a
W
R V1 V dV W
R V1 V dV W V2
S1 = g 0 T −D−(µ (W −L)) = g 0 T −D−(µ (W −L)) = g ∗ 2∗(T −D−(µ (W −L)))
2∗W 2∗531255.4488
CL = ρ∗S∗V12
= 1.225∗94.18∗80.0672 = 1.4366

V1 is the Take-off velocity calculated for Take-off drag estimation.

CD0take−of f = 0.014772813

CD = 0.014772813 + (0.05684 ∗ 1.43662 ) = 0.13207

60
D = 21 ∗ ρ ∗ V 2 ∗ S ∗ CD = 0.5 ∗ 1.225 ∗ (80.067)2 ∗ 94.18 ∗ 0.13207 = 48842.821 N

L = 12 ∗ ρ ∗ V 2 ∗ S ∗ CL = 0.5 ∗ 1.225 ∗ (80.067)2 ∗ 94.18 ∗ 1.4366 = 531260.778 N

Tcruise = 17951 N (f rom W eight estimation chapter)

For 2 engines, Tcruise = 35902 N

35902
Tsea = ( 0.292 1.2 = 200642.3137 N
1.225 )

F or µg (co-efficient of friction), the value is taken as 0.025 for concrete runway.

T − D − (µ(W − L)) = 200642.3137 − 48842.821 − (0.025 ∗ (531255.4488 −

531260.778))

T − D − (µ(W − L)) = 151799.62593 N

531255.4488 (80.067)2
S1 = 9.81 ∗ 2∗(151799.62593) = 1160.8 m

Time taken for Ground Run

Rt Rt Rt
t1 = 0 1 dt = 0 1 dVa = Wg 0 1 T −D−(µ
V dV
(W −L)) =
W V
g T −D−(µ (W −L))
531255.4488 80.067
t1 = 9.81 200642.3137 = 28.5638 seconds

Transition Distance

V2 = 1.05 ∗ V1 = 1.05 ∗ 80.067 = 84.07035 m/s

V1 +V2
Um = 2 = 82.0685 m/s
2∗W 2∗531255.4488
CL = ρ∗S∗Um2 = 1.225∗94.18∗82.06852 = 1.3673

CD = 0.014772813 + (0.05684 ∗ 1.36732 ) = 0.121

D = 12 ∗ ρ ∗ Um
2
∗ S ∗ CD = 0.5 ∗ 1.225 ∗ (82.0685)2 ∗ 94.18 ∗ 0.121 = 47024.1808 N
W V22 −V12 531255.4488 84.070352 −80.0672
S2 = 2g T −D = 2∗9.81 200642.3137−47024.1808 = 115.8225 m

Time taken for Transition

2∗S2 2∗115.8225
t2 = V1 +V2 = 80.067+84.07035 = 1.41128 seconds

Steady Climb distance

2∗W 2∗531255.4488
CL = ρ∗S∗V22
= 1.225∗94.18∗84.070352 = 1.303

61
CD = 0.014772813 + (0.05684 ∗ 1.3032 ) = 0.1112

D = 21 ∗ ρ ∗ V22 ∗ S ∗ CD = 0.5 ∗ 1.225 ∗ (84.07035)2 ∗ 94.18 ∗ 0.1112 = 45367.21 N

−D
θc = sin−1 T W = sin−1 200642.3137−45367.21
531255.4488 = 16.99447◦
H 15.24
S3 = tanθc = tan16.9944 = 49.86522 m

Time taken for Steady Climb

H H 15.24
t3 = ROC = V2 sinθc = 84.07035∗sin 16.99447 = 0.6202 seconds

Total Take-off Distance (S)

S = S1 + S2 + S3 = 1160.8 + 115.8225 + 49.86522 = 1326.48772 m

Total Take-off Time (t)

t = t1 + t2 + t3 = 28.56 + 1.41128 + 0.6202 = 30.59 seconds

Landing Performance

Figure 10.5: Landing Performance

Note: Royal Aeronautical Society Data Sheets (known as ESDU) have given a sim-

ple method which amounts to assuming a constant deceleration and calculating the

distance from VA and come to halt.

2
−Vland
Sland = 2a

a = −1.2 m/s2 for simple braking system

a = −1.52 m/s2 for average braking system

a = −1.83 m/s2 for modern braking system

62
a = −2.13 − 3 m/s2 for airplane with modern braking system and modern braking

system and reverse thrust.

−75.752
Sland = 2∗−1.8 = 1567.776 m

Vland = 75.75m/s, from Drag polar estimation chapter.

Sland 1567.776
Time taken = Vland = 75.75 = 20.69 seconds

Turning Performance

Figure 10.6: Turn Performance

L
n= W, CLcruise = 0.6538

CLcompressible = 1.0299

L = 12 ∗ ρ ∗ V 2 ∗ S ∗ CL = 0.5 ∗ 0.292 ∗ (227.778)2 ∗ 94.18 ∗ 1.0299 = 734734.022 N

Assuming during turning performance, the weight is 90% of initial weight.

Load f actor (n) = 734734.022

0.9∗531255.4488 = 1.536 => ϕ = cos−1 ( 1.536
1
) = 49.37◦
2 2
Vcruise 227.778
Radius (R) = √
g∗ n2 −1
= √
9.81∗ 1.5362 −1
= 4536.2557 m
√ √
g∗ n2 −1 9.81∗ 1.5362 −1
Angular V elocity (ω) = Vcruise = 227.778 = 0.0502127 rad/s
2∗π∗R 2∗π∗4536.2557
Time taken to complete the circle (T) = Vcruise = 227.778

T ime = 125.131 seconds = 2.0855 minutes

Maximum possible load factor for a sustained level turn is constrained by the max-

imum thrust available.

63
 1/2 ρ∗V 2
T 1/2∗ρ∗V 2 ∗CD0 0.5
nmax = [ K (W/S) ∗ ( W − W/S )]
2
1/2∗0.292∗227.7782 ∗0.013686 0.5
nmax = [ 0.056841/2 0.292∗227.778
((54154.48∗9.81)/94.18) ∗ (0.32 − (54154.48∗9.81)/94.18 )]

nmax = 2.669 => ϕ = cos−1 ( 2.67

1
) = 68◦

There is another constraint on Load factor by Co-efficient of Lift.

nmax = 0.5∗ρ∗V 2 ∗S∗ CLWmax = 0.5∗0.292∗227.7782 ∗94.18∗ (54154.48∗9.81)

1.3
= 1.7457

ϕmax = cos−1 ( 1.7457

1
) = 55.0517◦

Pull-up maneuver

Figure 10.7: Pull-up maneuver

2
Vcruise 227.7782
Radius (R) = g∗(n−1) = 9.81∗(1.536−1) = 9867.105 m
g∗(n−1) 9.81∗(1.536−1)
Angular velocity (ω) = Vcruise = 227.778 = 0.02308 rad/s

Pull-down maneuver

Figure 10.8: Pull-down maneuver

2
Vcruise 227.7782
Radius (R) = g∗(n+1) = 9.81∗(1.536+1) = 2085.4764 m
g∗(n+1) 9.81∗(1.536+1)
Angular velocity (ω) = Vcruise = 227.778 = 0.10922 rad/s

64
 11 Stability Analysis

Stability analysis involves assessing the aircraft’s ability to maintain its desired

flight path and recover from disturbances. There are two primary types of stability:

static stability and dynamic stability.

Static stability is the tendancy of the system to comeback to its equilibrium position

after a small disturbance on its own. Dynamic stability is the tendancy of the system

to comeback to its equilibrium position after a small disturbance on its own in a

finite amount of time.[2] [9][5]

Static Longitudinal Stability

0.6538−0
The lift-curve slope for wing (airfoil - NACA 64(3)-618) is aw = 1.77−(−4.15)

aW = 0.11044/deg. The lift-curve slope for Horizontal and Vertical tail (since
0.5629−0
same airfoil - NACA 0009 is used) is at = 5−0 => at = 0.11258/deg

Stick-Fixed

The Static Longitudinal Stability equation is: ( ∂C

∂CL ≤ 0 - Aircraft is stable)
M

∂CM ∂CM ∂CM ∂CM

∂CL = ∂CL wing + ∂CL f uselage + ∂CL Horizontal tail

Wing
xC.G −xAC
( ∂C
∂CL )wing =
M
c̄
∂CM 0.3c̄−0.25c̄
∂CL wing = c̄ = 0.05

Fuselage
Sref ∗(k2 −k1 )
( ∂C
∂CL )f uselage =
M
aw ∗28.7∗Sw
π D2 π∗2.6392
Sref = 4 = 4 = 5.4697 m2 ,

65
Correction f actor f rom graph (k2 − k1 ) = 0.92
∂CM 5.4697∗0.92
∂CL f uselage = 0.11044∗28.7∗94.18 = 0.01685

Figure 11.1: Graph for Correction factor

Horizontal Tail

( ∂C
∂CL )Horizontal tail = −ηht ∗ V̄ht ∗
M at
aw [1 − ∂ϵ
∂α ]

ηht = 0.9, V̄ht = 0.6, at = 0.11258/deg

∂ϵ 2∗aw 2∗0.11044∗57.3
∂α = π∗AR = π∗7 = 0.5755
∂CM 0.11258
∂CL Horizontal tail = −0.9 ∗ 0.6 ∗ 0.11044 [1 − 0.5755] = −0.2366588

Total Aircraft

( ∂C
∂CL )totalf ixed = 0.05 + 0.01685 − 0.2366588 = −0.1668
M

Stick fixed Neutral point

N0 xac
c̄ = c̄ − ( ∂C ∂CM
∂CL )f uselage + ( ∂CL )Horizontal tail
M

N0
c̄ = 0.25 − 0.01685 + 0.2366588 = 0.4698

N0 = 0.4698c̄

Stick Fixed Static Margin

Static M argin = −( ∂C
∂CL )f ixed = 0.1668c̄
M

Zero lifting Pitching moment

∂CM
C M = C M0 + ∂CL CL

66
0 = CM0 + (−0.1668 ∗ 0.6538) => CM0 = 0.10905

Tail Setting angle

αt = αw + iw − ϵ + it
114.6∗CL
ϵ= π∗AR = 114.6∗0.6538
π∗7 = 3.407◦
ϵ−ϵ0 3.407−ϵ0
∂ϵ
∂α = α−α0 = 1.77−0 => ϵ0 = 3.407 − (0.5755 ∗ 1.77) = 2.388◦
CLcruise
iw = ( aw )
0.6538
+ α0 − (0.4 ∗ W ing twist) => iw = ( 0.11044 ) − 4.3 = 1.62◦

(Since we assume no twist)

CM0 = ηht ∗ V̄ht ∗ at ∗ (iw − it + ϵ0 )

0.10905 = 0.9 ∗ 0.6 ∗ 0.11258 ∗ (1.62 + 2.388 − it ) => it = 2.214◦

The C.G of airplane lies behind the Wing. Thus the tail setting angle has to be

considered as positive incidence. In order to make the aircraft stable.

Stick-Free
CHαt
( ∂C
∂CL )f reetotal =
M ∂CM
∂CL wing + ∂CM
∂CL f uselage − ηht ∗ V̄ht ∗ at
aw [1 − ∂ϵ
∂α ][1 −τ CHδe ]
CHαt
( ∂C
∂CL )Horizontal tail−f ree = −ηht ∗ V̄ht ∗
M at
aw [1 − ∂ϵ
∂α ][1 −τ CHδe ]

Assuming that Elevator effectiveness (τ ) = 0.4 and CHαt = −0.002 and

CHδe = −0.005, we can calculate as follows:

−0.002
( ∂C
∂CL )Horizontal tail−f ree = −0.9 ∗ 0.6 ∗
M 0.11258
0.11044 ∗ [1 − 0.5755][1 − 0.4 −0.005 ]

( ∂C
∂CL )Horizontal tail−f ree = −0.19628
M

( ∂C
∂CL )f reetotal = 0.06685 − 0.19628 = −0.129434
M

Stick free Neutral point

N0′ xac
c̄ = c̄ − ( ∂C ∂CM
∂CL )f uselage + ( ∂CL )Horizontal tailf ree
M

N0′
c̄ = 0.25 − 0.01685 + 0.129434 = 0.362584 => N0′ = 0.362584c̄

Stick Free Static Margin

Static M argin′ = −( ∂C
∂CL )f ree = 0.129434c̄
M

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Elevator Control Power
∂CM
∂δe or CMδe = −ηht ∗ V̄ht ∗ at ∗ τ = −0.9 ∗ 0.6 ∗ 0.11258 ∗ 0.4

CMδe = −0.024317/deg

Elevator deflection
CM0 0.10905
δe0 = CMδe = −(−0.024317) )

δe0 = 4.48◦

Stick Force Gradient

dF
dV = −G ∗ Se ∗ ce ∗ ηht ∗ ρ ∗ V [CH0 + CHαt (α − iw + it ) + CHδe ∗ δe0 ]

Considering G=1, Se as 35% of SHT , ce as 25% of M AC of HT and

0.6538
α= 0.11044 = 5.92 and ρ cruise = 0.292, we can calculate as follows:
dF
dV = −1 ∗ 5.65215 ∗ 1.075 ∗ 0.9 ∗ 0.292 ∗ 227.778 ∗ [0 − 0.002 ∗ (5.92 − 1.62 +

2.214) + (−0.005 ∗ 4.48)]

dF
dV = 12.8856 N s/m
dF
The dV should be positive. Airworthiness suggested that the minimum value of

stick force gradient is 8.72 Ns/m and maximum value is 267.3 Ns/m. For sustained

application, it should not exceed 44.60 Ns/m.

CM vs α Graph

CM = CMac + CL xC.Gc̄−xac − ηht ∗ V̄ht ∗ at ∗ (α − iw + it − ϵ)

CM = 0.04 + (0.6538 ∗ 0.05) − 0.9 ∗ 0.6 ∗ 0.11258 ∗ (α − 1.62 + 2.214 − 3.407)

CM = −0.09832 − 0.060793α

The graph is plotted for the Angle of attack ranging from 0◦ to 20◦ .

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 Figure 11.2: α vs CM

For varying Elevator deflection

CM = CMac + CL xC.Gc̄−xac − ηht ∗ V̄ht ∗ at ∗ (α − iw + it − ϵ) − (ηht ∗ V̄ht ∗ at ∗ τ δe )

CM = 0.04+(0.6538∗0.05)−0.9∗0.6∗0.11258∗(α−1.62+2.214−3.407+0.4 δe )

CM = −0.09832 − 0.060793α − 0.024317δe

The graph is plotted for the Angle of attack ranging from 0◦ to 20◦ . For the elevator

deflection ranging from −25◦ to 25◦ .

Figure 11.3: Angle of attack vs CM w.r.t varying elevator deflection

69
Elevator deflection vs CL graph
CL
δe = δe0 − CMδe ∗ ( ∂C
∂CL )f ixed = 4.48 −
M CL
−0.024317 (−0.1668) = 4.48 − (6.8594 CL )

Figure 11.4: CL vs Elevator Def lection graph

Most Forward C.G location

∂C
CLmax ∗( ∂CM )f ixed max
δemax = δe0 − CMδe
L

δe0 −δemax
( ∂C
∂CL )f ixed max =
M
CLmax ∗ CMδe

The maximum Elevator deflection is 25◦ .

CLmax = 1.3 (from Chapter 3: Selection of aerofoil)

(Static M argin)max = − ∂C
∂CL = 0.551434
M

N0 −XCG
0.551434 = c̄

(XCG )max = (0.551434 − 0.4698)c̄

(XCG )max = 0.081634c̄

Static Directional Stability

Rudder-Fixed

The Static Directional Stability equation is: ( ∂C

∂β > 0 (or)
N ∂CN
∂ψ < 0 - Aircraft is

stable)

70
∂CN ∂CN ∂CN ∂CN
∂β = ∂β wing + ∂β f uselage + ∂β V ertical tail + ∆ 1 C Nβ + ∆ 2 C Nβ

Wing
2λ
CDcruise ∗ȳ∗sin 57.3
( ∂C
∂β )wing or (CNβ )wing =
N
b

CDcruise = CD0cruise +KCLcruise 2 = 0.01368776+(0.05684∗0.65382 ) = 0.03798427

ȳ
Usually b = 14 , λ (Quarter-chord sweep angle) = 20.22°
0.03798427∗sin 40.44
( ∂C
∂β )wing or (CNβ )wing =
N
4
57.3
= 0.0001074973/deg

Fuselage
0.96 kβ Ss Lf h1 0.5 w2 0.5
(CNβ )f uselage = − 57.3 ( Sw )( d )( h2 ) ( w1 )

Considering the fractions ( hh21 )( ww21 ) as 1, since we are considering height and width

as same at the quarter-dimension and Three-quarter dimension.

Lf
d is 10. Ss = Lf ∗ d = 26.39 ∗ 2.639 = 69.64321 m2 Sw = 94.18 m2 .

kf is the correction factor and the value is taken as 0.01 from the graph.

(CNβ )f uselage = − 0.96 0.01 69.64

57.3 ( 94.18 ) ∗ 10 = −0.0012389/deg

Figure 11.5: Graph for Correction factor of Directional stability

71
Vertical Tail
∂σ
(CNβ )V T = avt V̄vt ηvt [1 + ∂β ]
∂σ Svt Zvt
ηvt [1 + ∂β ] = 0.724 + (3.06 ∗ S∗(1+cos λc/4 ) ) + (0.4 D ) + (0.0009 ∗ AR)
∂σ 7.2348 1.3515
ηvt [1 + ∂β ] = 0.724 + (3.06 ∗ 94.18∗(1+cos 20.22) ) + (0.4 2.639 ) + (0.0009 ∗ 7) =

1.0564199

avt = 0.11258, V̄vt = 0.04

(CNβ )V T = 0.11258 ∗ 0.04 ∗ 1.0564199 = 0.00475727/deg

Total aircraft

Interference effect correction factor ∆1 CNβ = 0.0002

Position of the wing factor ∆2 CNβ = 0.0001

(CNβ )T otal = 0.000107499738 − 0.0012389 + 0.00475727 + 0.0002 + 0.0001

(CNβ )T otal = 0.0038958676/deg

Rudder-Free
∂αv
τ or ∂δr = 0.4, Chαv = −0.0003 Chδr = −0.0006
∂σ 1.0564199
∂β = 0.9 − 1 = 0.17379988
C ∂σ
((CNβ )V T )f ree = avt V̄vt ηvt [1 − (τ Chhαv ) + ∂β ]
δr

−0.0003
((CNβ )V T )f ree = 0.11258 ∗ 0.04 ∗ 0.9 ∗ [1 − (0.4 ∗ −0.0006 ) + 0.17379988] =

0.003946694/deg

Total aircraft

((CNβ )T otal )f ree = 0.000107499738 − 0.0012389 + 0.003946694 + 0.0002 + 0.0001

((CNβ )T otal )f ree = 0.0031152938/deg

Rudder Control Power

∂CN
∂δr = −avt V̄vt ηvt τ = −0.11258 ∗ 0.04 ∗ 0.9 ∗ 0.4 = −0.001621152/deg

72
Rudder Deflection for One engine operation

NT + NR = 0

NT = 102000 ∗ 3.5 = 357000N − m

NR = − ∂C 1 2
∂δr ∗ δr ∗ 2 ∗ ρ ∗ V ∗ S ∗ b
N

= −0.001621125 ∗ δr ∗ 0.5 ∗ 1.225 ∗ 94.18 ∗ 12.835 ∗ 227.7782

= −61848.457 ∗ δr

δr = 357000
61848.457 = 5.77217◦

Pedal free static directional stability

∂δr C ∂σ
∂β = − Chhαv [1 + ∂β ] = −0.5 ∗ 1.17379988 = −0.58689994
δr

Pedal Force Gradient

d P.F CHδr
dβ = G ∗ q ∗ Sr ∗ cr ∗ ηvt ∗ Cnδr ∗ (Cnβ )f ree

Let us assume Sr = 0.4 ∗ Svt , cr = 0.25 ∗ (CM AC )vt , CHδr = 0.005/deg, Cnδr =

0.004/deg
d P.F
dβ = 1∗0.5∗0.292∗227.7782 ∗0.4∗7.238∗0.25∗2.4084∗0.9∗ 0.005
0.004 ∗0.00311529
d P.F
dβ = 46.257599 N/m

Adverse Yaw
−CL P b
(CN )adverse yaw = 8 2V
P b P b
2V = 0.07 for bomber/civil aircraft and 2V = 0.09 for fighter aircraft.
−0.6538
(CN )adverse yaw = 8 ∗ 0.07 = −0.005718125

Crosswind Calculation
∂CN ∂CN
∂β ∗β+ ∂δr ∗ δr = 0
∂CN
∂β ∗ β = − ∂C ◦
∂δr ∗ δr (Considering the Maximum deflection of Rudder is 25 )
N

0.0038958676 ∗ β = −(−0.001621152) ∗ 25◦ => β = 10.40303◦

73
 v
tan β = Vtake−of f
v
tan 10.40303 = 80.067

Cross wind (v) = 14.699 m/s

Static Lateral Stability

The Static Lateral Stability equation is:
∂Cl ∂Cl ∂Cl ∂Cl
∂β = ∂β wing + ∂β f uselage + ∂β V ertical tail + ∆Clβ

(An airplane with Clβ < 0 is said to be laterally stable.)

Wing

The contributions of wing are due to Dihedral angle and Wing Sweep.
ȳ
( ∂Cl ∂CL
∂β )dihedral = − ∂α Γ b = −0.11044 ∗ 2 ∗ 0.25 = −0.05522/deg
ȳ
( ∂C
∂β )sweep = −CL
l
b
2λ
sin 57.3 = −0.6538 ∗ 0.25 ∗ sin 40.44 = −0.06375647/deg

Fuselage

It is mainly due to the interference effect. For Mid-wing aircraft, ( ∂C

∂β ) = 0.
l

Wing tip shape also contributes to the lateral stability. ∆Clβ = −0.0002

Vertical Tail

( ∂C
∂β )V T = −ηvt
l Svt Zvt
Sb ( ∂C 7.2348 1.3515
∂α )V T = −0.9∗ 94.18 25.67 ∗0.11258 = −0.0004097904/deg
L

Total Aircraft

( ∂C
∂β )T otal = −0.05522 − 0.06375647 − 0.0002 − 0.0004097904
l

( ∂C
∂β )T otal = −0.11958626/deg
l

74
 12 V-n diagram

V-n diagram is a flight envelope diagram. It is a way of showing the limits of

an aircraft’s performance. A manoeuvre or gust of wind may temporarily force an

aircraft outside its safe flight envelope and thereby cause structural damage endan-

gering flight safety.

Here, V-n diagram is sketched according to FAR 25. Typical positive and negative

load factors range from 3-4 and -1 to -2 for transport aircraft. Hence, the positive

maximum load factor is assumed to be 3.5 and negative load factor to be -1.75.

Aircraft Data
Aircraft Gross weight (W0 ) = 530713.904 N

Cruise Mach number (Mcruise ) = 0.772

Wing planform area (Sw ) = 94.18 m2

Aspect ratio (AR) = 7

CLmax+ve = 1.3

CLmax−ve = 1

Limit Maneuver Envelope

Different V-n diagrams appear for every possible altitude because n is proportional

to ρ and V 2 . To eliminate this problem, we manage to draw the V-n diagram only

for MSL by using equivalent airspeed in the calculations as against the true airspeed

which the pitot-static tube normally determines.Therefore, the abscissa of the enve-

lope is replaced by EAS (Equivalent Airspeed) of an aircraft.

75
 q q
2∗W0 2∗530713.904
Positive stalling speed, Vstall+ve = ρ∗Sw ∗CLmax+ve = 1.225∗94.18∗1.3 = 84.12 m/s
q
2∗W0
Negative stalling speed (Inverted Flight speed), Vstall−ve = ρ∗Sw ∗CLmax−ve
q
2∗530713.904
Vstall−ve = 1.225∗94.18∗1 = 95.91 m/s

Corner speeds
√ √
VA = Vnmax+ve = nmax+ve ∗ Vstall+ve = 3.5 ∗ 84.12 = 157.374 m/s
r q
2∗W0 ∗nmax−ve
VB = Vnmax−ve = ρ∗Sw ∗CL = 2∗530713.904∗1.75
1.225∗94.18∗1.3 = 111.28 m/s
max+ve

Cruise Velocity, VC = 227.778 m/s

Dive speed, VD = 1.2 ∗ VC = 273.3366 m/s

0.5∗ρ∗V 2 ∗S∗CL
Since, n = W = τ V 2 , where τ is constant, such that n = τ V 2 is a

parabola. Hence, for parabolic regimes in envelope,

0.5∗1.225∗V 2 ∗94.18∗1.3
Upright flight, n = 530713.904 = 1.41 ∗ 10−4 V 2
0.5∗1.225∗V 2 ∗94.18∗1
Inverted flight, n = 530713.904 = 1.086 ∗ 10−4 V 2

Figure 12.1: Limit Maneuver Envelope tabulation

Gust Maneuver Envelope

FAR 25 Gust and Turbulence Loads

FAR 14.25.341 says Gust Velocity: VG ≤ 44f t/s EAS at 15000 ft altitude from

76
MSL. VG ≤ 20.86f t/s EAS at 60000 ft altitude from MSL.

Solving by linear interpolation for cruising altitude of 12400 m (40682.415ft),

VG = 30.799 ft/s = 9.386 m/s.

2 π AR
Lift Curve Slope of the wing, a0 = q
2θ , where β 2 = 1 − Mcruise
2
4+((AR)2 β2 (1+ tan
β2
))

β 2 is the Prandtl correction for Compressibility effects.

a0 = 7.80/deg
2∗W0 2∗54154.48
Mass ratio, µ = a0 ∗CM AC ∗SW = 7.8∗4.02∗94.18 = 36.676
0.88∗µ 0.88∗36.676
Gust alleviation factor, k = 5.3+µ = 5.3+36.676 = 0.768
a0 ∗k∗VC ∗VG ∗ρ∗Sw 7.8∗0.768∗9.387∗VC ∗1.225∗94.18
Load factor increment due to gust, ∆ngust = 2∗W0 = 2∗54154.48∗9.81

∆ngust = 0.0061058 VC

For VC = 227.778m/s, ∆ngust = 1.39077 m/s

VG a0 ∗k∗VD ∗(VG /2)∗ρ∗Sw
For VD , VG = 2 , ∆ngust = 2∗W0 = 0.0030529 VD

For VD = 273.3336 m/s, ∆ngust = 0.834463 m/s

For VC gust lines, ng = 1 ± 0.0061058 VC

For VD gust lines, ng = 1 ± 0.0030529 VD

Figure 12.2: Gust Maneuver Envelope tabulation

77
Combined V-n diagram

Figure 12.3: V-n diagram (Limit Combined envelope)

Conclusion
Thus with the knowledge acquired through the guidance our professors, we first

got the preliminary estimates of the aircraft. Then using the Aerodynamic aspects,

we could able to design parts of aircraft like Wing, fuselage, Empennage. Then, C.G

position and drag polar along with performance of aircraft is determined . Later,

stability of the aircraft was determined. Hence, we have designed an aircraft for the

given specifications. This project has helped us in understanding various concepts

in the field of aerospace engineering.

78