Aircraft Flight Mechanics: Andrew Benson

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Aircraft Flight Mechanics

Andrew Benson
California State University Northridge Culminating Experience AE 480

Abstract
Flight Charictoristics are complex and ever changing with time. Determiniates for these characteristics are things such as atmospheric eects, Thrust eectiveness, Aerodynamics and Aircraft sizing. Once determined a value is then known for such parameters as ight length and aircraft agility helping better understand the capabilities and usefulness of the aircraft at hand. By knowing these ight parameters aircrafts can be better t to their application, accounting for every aspect of what its investor would like it to accomplish.

December 16, 2012

Contents
1 Introduction to Flight 1.1 Cayley . . . . . . . . 1.2 Wright Brothers . . 1.3 Evolution of ight . 1.4 Aircraft Design . . . 5 5 6 7 8

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2 Flight Environment 9 2.1 Atmospheric Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.2 Altitude Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 3 Thrust Modeling 3.1 Eects of Thrust . . 3.2 Thrust to Drag . . . 3.3 Thrust vs Elevation 3.4 Thrust at Altitude . 3.5 Thrust at Speed . . 12 12 12 14 14 15 16 16 17 17 18 18 19 20 20 20 21 21

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4 Flight Charictoristics 4.1 Air Speed . . . . . . . 4.2 Atmosphere Constants 4.3 True and Indicated Air 4.4 Stall Velocity . . . . . 4.5 True Air Speed . . . . 4.6 Air speed Eects . . .

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5 Aerodynamic Modeling 5.1 Lift . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Eects of Angle of Attack 5.3 Eects of Drag . . . . . . 5.4 Eects on Eciency . . .

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6 Flight Enviorment 24 6.1 Flight Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 1

CONTENTS

7 Takeo 26 7.1 Runway Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 7.2 Runway Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 8 Flight Range 28 8.1 Improving Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 8.2 Range Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 9 Elevation Change 30 9.1 Climb Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 9.2 Elevation Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 10 Holding Pattern 33 10.1 Holding Pattern Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 10.2 Maneuverability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 11 Landing 35 11.1 Runway Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 12 Aircraft Modeling 12.1 Aircraft Modeling . 12.2 Atmosphere . . . . 12.3 Air Speed . . . . . 12.4 Aerodynamics . . . 12.5 Flight Envelope . . 12.6 Climb . . . . . . . 12.7 Range . . . . . . . 12.8 Ground Maneuvers 36 36 36 36 36 37 37 37 37 38 38 38 38 39 39 39 39 40 40 41 42 43 44 46 47 48 49

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13 Appendix 13.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2 Homework Questions . . . . . 13.2.1 Atmospheric model . . 13.2.2 Thrust Eects . . . . 13.2.3 Aerodynamics . . . . . 13.2.4 Flight Envelope . . . . 13.2.5 Range . . . . . . . . . 13.2.6 Rate of Climb . . . . . 13.2.7 Take o & Landing . 13.3 Raw Data . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3.1 Atmospheric Model . 13.3.2 Thrust Eectsl . . . . 13.3.3 Aerodynamics . . . . . 13.3.4 Flight Envelope . . . . 13.3.5 Range . . . . . . . . . 13.3.6 Rate Of Climb . . . . 13.3.7 Take O and Landing

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List of Figures
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 3.1 3.3 4.1 4.2 4.3 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 6.1 7.1 7.2 8.1 9.1 Caleys Aircraft Model . Caleys Whirling Arm . Caleys Glider . . . . . . Wright Brothers Glider Wright Flyer 1 . . . . . Evolution of ight . . . Boeing 747 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5 6 6 6 7 8 10 10 11 11

Temperature with respect to Altitude Temperature with respect to Altitude Pressure with respect to Altitude . . . Density with respect to Altitude . . .

Thrust to Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Thrust at speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Air Speed Dial [3] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Fuel Weight Consumption [5] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 True Air Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Lift Lift Lift Lift Coecient at Altitude . . . . . coecient by wing parameters coecient with respect to drag coecient to Wing Eciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 21 22 23

Flight Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 T.O Key (Figure 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Take o Runway Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Aircraft Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Rate of climb characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

10.1 Turn Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 11.1 Landing Runway Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Nomenclature
Symbol NT rop NStrat TSea G R PSea e ro T TS TAS W h s V VStall QM ax tv C XDot x CL CD E D/W T/W AR n Denition Air Constant Troposphere Air Constant Stratosphere Temperature Sea Level Gravity Gas Constant Pressure Sea Level Gamma Pi Oswalls Eciency Mean Eective Radius Thrust Density Thrust Sea Level True Air Speed Angle of Attack Weight Sweepback Angle Wetted Area Velocity Stall Velocity Max Lift Area Tank Vollume Thrust Specic Fuel Consumption Bank angle Max Turn Velocity Runway Length Lift Coecient Drag Coecient Wing Eciency Drag to Weight Thrust to Weight Aspect Ratio Loading Factor Value 1.235 0.974 273.15 9.81 287.1 101325 1.4 3.14 0.85 6357000 Units K/M K/M Kelvin M/s2 J/kg k N/M 2 N/M 2 M lbf Kg/M 3 lbf M/S Deg lbf deg M2 M/S 2 M/S m2 Gallons lb/hr Deg M/S M -

Chapter 1

Introduction to Flight
1.1 Cayley

Flight mechanics is the study of the forces that act on an aircraft in ight, and the way the aircraft reacts. Sir George Cayley was one of the rst to understand this concept by turning our focus from lighter than air travel to heaver than air crafts equalized with a force balance. Cayley was born in 1773 and is regarded as the father of aviation. As the rst to have a major breakthrough in heavier than air ight by rst determining the four things needed for sustained ight. These were the forces of weight, lift, drag and thrust and the relationships they had on one another. Yet another breakthrough was his understanding of separating these forces as he was the rst man to build an aircraft that generated thrust and propulsion using two separate elements. Many before him were simulating birds to the eect of generating lift and thrust with one motion to no avail. In 1779 Cayley had put together a conguration that mimics modern airplanes. His design included a fuselage, wings and a tail section with room for one passenger. He used this model to express how forces acted upon the aircraft and how the wings would provide lift.Cayley had established the basic principles and conguration of modern aircraft 100 years before the wright brothers ew from Kittyhawlk. In 1804 Caley would invent yet another device useful for determining aerodynamic eects. A wing structure was built using a whirling arm by witch he could rotate various rudimentary airfoil shapes at rel5

Figure 1.1: Caleys Aircraft Model atively high speed and measure the lifting force. This was the rst scientic test of airfoils but was later improved upon because of its rotating eects turbulent air was interacting the airfoil giving a higher lift result that in practice of ight.

Figure 1.2: Caleys Whirling Arm

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO FLIGHT

Caley put his testing to practice by building full size gliders in 1849. He marked the rst person to take ight by placing the then year old son of one of his servants in the gliders carriage and began it down a large grass hill. This glider achieved a short ight as it gained speed down the hill followed by its inevitable return to earth. This accomplishment renowned Caley as the father of aircraft design.

Figure 1.4: Wright Brothers Glider From this success the brothers went on to build the wight yer 1 with a gas fueled engine on board for propulsion. This aircraft took o with a ramp lauch similar to the glider but experienced a stall when the pilot began to climb Figure 1.3: Caleys Glider to quickly resulting in the rst ever pilot error. With minor repairs made Orville piloted the plane under similar circumstances into the Four years later in 1853 Cayley built a tri- air covering 852 ft in 59 seconds. plane glider that carried a coahman 900 ft across Brompton Dale in the north of England before crashing back to earth. It was the rst recorded ight by an adult in an aircraft.

1.2

Wright Brothers

After Cayley the next major step in avionics was the wilbur and orville wright. The wright brothers brought many new ideas to the production of an aircraft such as wing wrapping and the twisting of the wings to provide control in the air. These features while rudimentary were the bigging of light weight aircraft structures and what are now called alerons. On October 1900 the wright brothers proved the concept of wing wrapping at kittyhawlk by beginning down a sand hill and achieving ight with the 17ft wingspan glider.

Figure 1.5: Wright Flyer 1

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO FLIGHT

1.3

Evolution of ight

There have been many advancements since kittyhawlk in 1900 allowing aircrafts to become more reliable and y faster and higher than ever. Over the next one hundred years ight has greatly improved from a cloth wrapped wooden plane to jet powered performance aircrafts.

Figure 1.6: Evolution of ight This rapid improvement over the years has been motivated for faster and higher ight leaving o with where we are today in the performance era of aircraft, where aircrafts can now haul heavy loads or perform complex maneuverer. This per suite was aided by the development of aircraft modeling, improving upon cayleys whirly arm among many other aspects nding ourselves in the modern age with composites and jet engines. To successfully push the envelope of ight performance though the years an accurate ight model had to be constructed to properly design an aircraft for its desired task. Parameters such as altitude density, temperature, lifting eects and drag eects have been expanded over the years resulting in a denitive set of parameters to model an aircraft after. The eects of this modeling will eect such things as lifting capacity, turning radius at elevation and thrust needed. These parameters will have direct correlation to the distance an aircraft can y along with payload capacity and fuel needed.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO FLIGHT

1.4

Aircraft Design

To follow in the footsteps of Cayley and the Wrights before and design an aircraft, parameters must be layed out. Unlike Cayley whos goal was to lift a single man o the ground for a short amount of time, the task that will be discussed further will be a jet transport aircraft with the goal of transporting 70 passengers and their baggage over vast distances. By understanding the eects of this jet transport class aircraft all other types of ight can be molded by simply swapping the following parameters.

Figure 1.7: Boeing 747

Symbol W s QM ax tv C CL CD0 W/S T/WSL AR

Denition Weight Wetted Area Max Lift Area Tank Vollume Thrust Specic Fuel Consumption Lift Coecient Parasitic Drag Wing Loading Thrust to Weight Aspect Ratio

Value 317515 28886 650 50000 1.5 1.2 0.016 110 .32 6

Units Kg f t2 m2 Gallons lb/hr -

The given parameters will remain constant though the rest of the text. These inputs dene an aircraft of the stature of a Boeing 747 in relationship to size and weight.

To properly construct an aircrafts parameters however you must rst understand the environment in witch it ies. The eects of ight such as lift, thrust and speed are ever changing as you traverse though the atmosphere.

Chapter 2

Flight Environment
2.1 Atmospheric Layers
The Tropopause region is an intermediary layer from the Troposphere and the Stratosphere and is denoted by its unchanging temperature as altitude is gained.Unlike the Troposphere this layer is Isothermal for this reason being governed by equations 2.5 though 2.7. At the upper end of this layer resides the Jet stream and this is where most aircrafts will reside.
g0 P2 = e RT (Z2 Z1 ) P1

Each layer of the earths atmosphere is measured for purposes of simplicity using a geopotential altitude. This altitude is calculated with the assumption that the force of gravity is held constant as you ascend though the atmosphere. Although this is not the case explained by Newtons law of gravitation, this assumption greatly reduces unnecessary complexity only being o less than one hundredth of a percent at 35 KM. All the altitude calculations thusly will be measured in geopotential height and can be converted using equation 1. Zgeometric = r0 r0 Zgeopotential Zgeopotential (2.1)

(2.6)

2 P2 = 1 P1

(2.7)

The Troposphere is the lowest region going up to about 11 miles above sea level at latitude 45 north. This layer holds most of the clouds and weather denoted by its decreasing temperature as you gain altitude. This relationship dictates it as polytripic, being dictated by equations 2 though 5. T2 g0 n 1 = [1 ( )(Z2 Z1 )] T1 RT1 n P2 T2 n = [ ] n1 P1 T1 = a= P1 RT1 RT

The Stratosphere occurs from 11-31 miles where only the highest clouds reach such as cirrus, cirrostratus, and cirrocumulus. This is where the ozone layer resides absorbing U.V light from the sun. This layer is denoted by its increasing temperature with altitude making it polytropic, similarly being dictated by equations 2.2 though 2.5.

The Mesosphere ranges from 31 -50 miles above the earth and is also a range that decreases (2.2) in temperature as altitude is gained. This atmospheric layer is described using equations 2.2 though 2.5. (2.3) The Mesospause separates the layer of the (2.4) ionosphere and the mesosphere and like the Tropopause is denoted by its unchanging tem(2.5) perature with altitude. Also like the Tropopause 9

CHAPTER 2. FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT

10

this layer is controlled by equations 2.5 though 2.7. The Ionosphere contains many ions and free electrons created by excited photons from the sun. The ionosphere is where the Aurora Borealis occurs from between 50 and 400 miles. This layer is a part of the Thermosphere witch encompasses the Ionosphere and Exosphere in characterizing them as increasing in temperature as altitude is gained. This polytropic region follows the rules of equations 2.2 though 2.5. The Exosphere is the outer most layer extending roughly to 800 miles. There is no hard boundary but a melding with the extent of space as the density of molecules becomes small enough to not be considered uid ow anymore but Figure 2.1: Temperature with respect to Altiquantized molecules. This layer is as mentioned tude before a part of the Thermosphere causing temperature to increase as altitude is gained makeing it similarly follow equations 2.2 though 2.5. n=1.235 (Polytropic) n=0.974(Isothermal)

2.2

Altitude Characteristics

The characteristics of temperature, pressure and density were plotted as a function of altitude in geopotential space to show the importance of designing an aircraft with these layers in mind. Each layer can clearly be seen in the plotted area up to 35 km were aircrafts typically y under normal conditions relieving their unique characteristics and allowing us to design for its Figure 2.2: Temperature with respect to Altieects. tude When temperature is plotted as a function of altitude an isothermal region is very clearly shown from 11000 to 15000 m separating the troposphere and the stratosphere were the temperature with respect to altitude inverts and begins to heat instead of cool as shown in gure 2.1. In conclusion these thermal boundary layers dictate the areal performance of objects such as planes passing though them. Having a standard and universal measure of these characteristics allows us to properly design for the application at hand. Understanding the characteris-

CHAPTER 2. FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT

11

tics of each of these levels is crucial in deciding which layer would be best for a particular aircraft to y in such as the knowledge of ying in the tropopause, outside of most weather and under the jet stream were density, pressure and temperature are all much more predicable than other layers.

Figure 2.3: Pressure with respect to Altitude

Figure 2.4: Density with respect to Altitude

Chapter 3

Thrust Modeling
3.1 Eects of Thrust

The relationship of an aircrafts ight characteristics is vital to be understood by aircraft developers to calculate the range of altitude and tp T el T velocities of their aircraft. The eect of thrust = ( ).7 ( )1 (%T ) (3.2) W W sl sl tp and drag eect the ceiling altitude an aircraft can y and also the velocity an aircraft can y at at a given throttle. Investigating separately the velocity characteristics at altitude and the velocity range as a function of altitude showed the limitations of an airTo nd the velocity capable the crossing point craft. A Boeing 747 as follows is analyzed to between the two curves can be referenced to two determine these very characteristics. velocities, a high and low speed. By observing gure 1 it can be proven that ight velocity is dependent on percent thrust applied. 3.2 Thrust to Drag By increasing thrust percent the total thrust per In a pursuit to nd a way to nd the performance weight increases moving the intersection further velocity of an aircraft at altitude the drag and along the velocity scale. This relationship point thrust must be analyzed. To plot this relation- can be described as the point when the thrust ship the two curves of thrust and weight were produced from the aircraft equals the drag applotted along a velocity scale. To equalize the plied to the aircraft reaching a state of equilibeectiveness of these terms with respect to any rium. aircraft the thrust and drag can be divided by the The characteristics of the drag to weight curve is weight of the aircraft to create a non-dimensional shown to be parabolic like because of the overterm proportioning any size aircraft. This rela- powering skin friction drag at low speeds transitioning into heavy aero drag at high speeds with tionship for Drag can be seen in equation 1. a null zone in-between. The signicance of the curve not reaching the X axis shows that if your w 2C 2s throttle percent falls to a min value above zero D el V Do = + (3.1) w the aircraft will not be able to y. The point W 2 AREel V 2 s just before you leave this curve is where the high Similarly an equation for Thrust can be de- and low velocities meet, were the max thrust efciency occurs at the lowest drag. rived as follows in equation 2. 12

CHAPTER 3. THRUST MODELING

13

Figure 3.1: Thrust to Drag

CHAPTER 3. THRUST MODELING

14

3.3

Thrust vs Elevation

3.4

Thrust at Altitude

Thrust performance can be simply related to the altitude you are ying. At higher altitudes equation 1 will indicate a decrease in density causing the air to be thinner. This thinning eect will allow much less mas transfer as the fuel being jettisoned from the rear of the plane will have less molecules to press against creating a forward propulsion. This relationship can be categorized as Talt alt na =[ ] Tsl sl (3.3)

Similarly an expression for TSFC can be found by observing the relationship between Thrust and Thrust specic fuel consumption and measuring the dierence in the imperial constants. TSFC can be characterized by T sf calt alt nb =[ ] T sf csl sl (3.4)

The value of thrust/thrustsl demonstrates a dimensionless value of percent thrust as compared with that available at sea level. Similarly TSFC/TSFCsl is a percent value as well. The plot of this with respect to altitude is as follows As shown the thrust available decreases exponentially as a function of altitude signifying at 65,000 ft an aircraft has 15% of the thrust previously available at sea level. Alike the thrust TSFC also decreases exponentially, however it is a very low slope curve. It can be seen that at 65,000 ft an aircraft will not only have 15% of its initial thrust but will use 40% more fuel mass to accomplish his maneuver. These two lines were plotted on the same chart to explain the relationship between loss of thrust and increase in fuel consumption denoted by TSFC. It is very obvious to see from the chart why compensating the aircraft with extra fuel for a said mission and also to expect acrobatic performance with respect to thrust to be limited at altitude accounting for possible problems.

Coecients na and nb can are found imperially and are as follows Coecient na nb Troposphere 0.7 0.2 Stratosphere 1.0 .01

Table 3.1: imperial coecients [1] A relationship can be made not only to thrust as a function of elevation but as velocity at a constant elevation as well. The fundamental theory here being the faster you are moving the less thrust you will be producing due to aerodynamic eects of the air being moved out of the way were the high momentum fuel has a lesser eect. The relationship between thrust at altitude and thrust at sea level can be shown as a function of velocity in the following manner. Talt = 1 103 V + 106 V 2 Tsl (3.5)

CHAPTER 3. THRUST MODELING

15

3.5

Thrust at Speed

Thrust is not only a function of altitude but a funtion of speed. By plotting the aircrafts velocity vs thrust/thrustsl we can determine the percent loss of thrust on top of what was found in the previous section.

Figure 3.3: Thrust at speed Notice how the Y axis is broken to show the dierence more evidently. The plot shows a similar trend as thrust at elevation where as you travel faster your available thrust falls to the magnitude of 25% loss at mach 1. The more interesting fact about this plot is the eect of changing velocity as the aircrafts speed increases. It is clear to see that you loose less thrust at 5,000 ft at about 5% more. The interesting fact is how the trend line then recedes back down at 10,000 ft. This eect is because of Trusts dependence on mach velocity which is a function of speed of sound which is a function of temperature which begins to increase at 10,000 ft causing the trend lines downward back toward the sea level curve.

Chapter 4

Flight Charictoristics
4.1 Air Speed

The characteristics of the atmosphere are ever changing as you ascend from the earth. These changing characteristics will have a direct eect to aircraft performance similarly and must be accounted for by the pilot, and design team to understand what his interments are truly telling them. As an example gure 1 a pilot can adjust the indicated air speed with reference to the true air speed. In this study we will look into the eects of how the thrust and thrust specic fuel consumption (TSFC) change as you ascend up to 6500 ft. Similarly the eect of thrust will be studies as you accelerate an aircraft at a constant elevation to pinpoint the performance capabilities of the aircraft under various conditions. Lastly true air speed will be measured as a function of elevation along with stall speed of the aircraft. True air speed is dened by the the speed of the aircraft relative to the airmass in which it is ying [4]. While indicated air speed is dened as the airspeed read directly from the airspeed indicator on an aircraft, driven by the pitot-static system. IAS is directly related to calibrated airspeed (CAS), which is the IAS corrected for instrument and installation errors [4]. The dierence between these two can be directly related to the density of the atmosphere which will eect the measurement of the pitot-static tube measurement for IAS. Thrust specic fuel consumption is directly related to the thrust available on the aircraft and

Figure 4.1: Air Speed Dial [3] the amount of fuel needed to carry out its mission. This component can be thought of in terms of pounds of fuel per pound of thrust produced. This not only eects the amount of fuel needed but the total weight of the aircraft with this weight added eecting all other characteristics of the aircraft. This eect can be seen in gure 2 as a function of both speed an elevation.

16

CHAPTER 4. FLIGHT CHARICTORISTICS

17

Parameter Gravity Specic heat Reference Temp Sea level Temp Seal level Density

Symbol go To Po

Value 9.807 1.4 273.15 101325 1.225

Units m/s2 K Pa kg/m3

Table 4.1: imperial coecients [1] With this understanding we can further divulge into the performance of ight in the standard atmosphere. Further analysis of the standard atmosphere and detailed graphics can be found in AE 480 HW1.

Figure 4.2: Fuel Weight Consumption [5] Categorizing these performance characteristics are vital in understanding the capabilities of an aircraft. This change in performance is driven by the change in density, temperature, and other components as you ascend though the atmosphere. If not properly accounted for a pilot can nd himself ying faster or slower than desired with respect to ground speed or to not have the desired thrust he nds necessary under the circumstances.

4.3

True and Speed

Indicated

Air

True and indicated air speed by the way they are measured. IAS is measured from a pitot-static tube mounted on the aircraft and is seceptable to alterations as a function of density. Similarly enough the atmospheric density changes as you ascend in an aircraft causing the IAS to dier from TAS as you ascend though the atmosphere. according to Bernoullis equation for incompressible ow, true air speed can be calculated by 2Po alt

4.2

Atmosphere Constants
T AS =

(4.3) To understand the characteristics of ight the characteristics of the standard atmosphere must By substituting in the value a we can solve for be well understood. Up to the elevation of 65,000 the TAS as a function of pressure wich is what feet we can relate the density of the air as is being measure on board an aircraft by = P1 RT1 (4.1) P

a=

(4.4)

where T can be related as T AS = T2 g0 n 1 = [1 ( )(Z2 Z1 )] T1 RT1 n (4.2)

2a2 Pt ( 1) Ps

(4.5)

As Bernoullis equation assumed incompressible ow of air this equation can only be used up where n = 1.235. Constant values for the stan- to a mach number of 0.3. To allow for the expandard atmosphere used are as follows. sion past mach 1 a tweak is made to the data

CHAPTER 4. FLIGHT CHARICTORISTICS

18

to imperially match the recorded data. The folAs seen from the plot IAS and TAS very lowing equation is as follows and encompass TAS greatly as you accent into the atmosphere. IAS for all IAS speeds including past mach 1. can be shown to be a larger value than its TAS counterpart increasing logarithmically. The blue line indicates a constant IAS of 250 MPH while 2a2 Pt 1 the indicated air speed will climb upwards of T AS = (( ) 1) (4.6) 1 Ps 1000 MPH at 65,000 ft. This dierence of 750 MPH or 300% is extremely signicant if planing a time specic mission or distance by time cal4.4 Stall Velocity culation. A further fact of this plot reveals that Stall velocity is similarly related to the dier- the eect of altitude to TAS is greater at faster ence between IAS and TAS. As you travel in a speeds. For instance the curve representing 0.85 heaver than air aircraft you must produce a su- Mach number diers from its IAS value by 400%. cient amount of lift to compensate the weight of the aircraft. The lift needed is set as a function of altitude as when the air gets less dense there is less molecules to provide uplift to the surface area of the wing. We can determine this speed by starting with the lift force of an aircraft. 1 Flif t = Waircraf t = V 2 Cl S (4.7) 2 By solving for the velocity at a specied max C value we can calculate the stall speed. Vstall = (w) 2 s clmax (4.8)

4.5

True Air Speed

The following plot is a relationship between the true air speed and indicated air speed at 250 mph and at 0.85 mach number. The third curve will be stall speed with respect to IAS to show its eect in relationship to aircraft velocity.

CHAPTER 4. FLIGHT CHARICTORISTICS

19

Figure 4.3: True Air Speed Speed of sound is plotted on the same chart to express the dierence between IAS and TAS. For instance a aircraft with a wing loading of 90 lb/ft3 and clmax of 1.2 when traveling at an IAS of 250 mph a pilot will stay above the stall speed as he approaches 65,000 ft however if he is ying with TAS interments at 250 mph he will quickly stall around 20,000 ft because of the change in density at that altitude. Similarly important is the relationship between TAS and IAS. It was noted that while IAS remains constant as a aircraft ascends though the atmosphere the TAS will rise nearly 200% depending on the altitude reached and the IAS value. This eect is crucial to understand in terms of stall speed as to not accidentally fall below when you believe you are staying at the same TAS as you gain altitude. It is also important to time ights accordingly and not to time your rout at 200 mph when in reality the aircraft is traveling in excess of 700 mph. This concept is vital for pilots to understand and be able to utilize both values to adjust their ight accordingly. The performance of an aircraft is very complex as many parts are dependence on each other making tabular data and plotted curves essential to understanding the characteristics of a aircraft as it accelerates and ascends though the atmosphere.

4.6

Air speed Eects

In conclusion we have found a relationship between thrust and TAS as a function of elevation. Observing thrust as a function of elevation is crucial to relating the needed power of an aircraft durring design while the diminishing TSFC values indicated more fuel would need to be brought on board for a ight higher in elevation because it would not be as eective. Thrust was also evaluated at dierent speeds indicating that a aircraft traveling faster will have less thrust available causing eects in top speed or performance characteristics. All together the eect of thrust is a very dynamic characteristic and since thrust is a vital component to an aircraft it needs to be understood and tabulated thusly.

Chapter 5

Aerodynamic Modeling
5.1 Lift

The relationship between lift and ight characteristics are sensitively eective on many variables including altitude, wing size and shape and angle of attack among others. These eects due to lift can be broken down into three categories of importance for a pilot or designer being the eect on lift compared to angle of attack, drag coecient and eciency.

Figure 5.1: Lift Coecient at Altitude

5.2

Eects of Angle of Attack


As shown in gure 2 the simple eect of altitude can change the dynamics between CL and angle of attack. By ascending though the atmosphere the Boeings wings begin to be less eective as when 10,000 ft is reached the angle of attack must be increased to 1 degree to create zero lifting force where at sea level a 0 angle was needed. Similarly by staying at a cruising altitude and varying the sizing of the wings you will see the trend in gure 3. Figure 3 demonstrates what common scene hints at which is how the larger the aspect ratio of a wing their eectiveness at creating lift will be greater with a lesser angle of attack due to the added frontal wind loaded surface. By combining both of these results on CL vs it can be observed how the linear relationship can be shifted vertically via changing the cruising altitude of your aircraft, or to rotate each line about the origin by changing the aspect ratio of

An aircraft with the max lifting coecient of a Boeing 747 is charted for its relationship between the angle of attach of its wings and the lift coecient created. This overall performance will be eected by the size and shape of the wings as well as the elevation and speed of the aircraft. All presumptions can be found in the appendix [1] to ll equation 1.

CL =

2L AR + 1 + 2S AR V 1 + [1 + ( 2cos )2 ] 2

(5.1)

By sweeping the Aspect ratio of the aircrafts wings from 3 to 6 it is possible to see the relationship between wing sizing and ight characteristics as shown in gure 2 and 3.

20

CHAPTER 5. AERODYNAMIC MODELING

21

Figure 5.2: Lift coecient by wing parameters the wings. By altering these ight characteristics It can be seen that CD increases exponentially a family of curves can be observed to encompass as C increases by result of increasing the anL any ight performance the designer would like. gle of attack of the wings. This performance hindrance is due to the increase in frontal area shown by the wing section. Similar to section 1.1 5.3 Eects of Drag the potency of drag to the lift of the aircraft The relationship between lift and drag is syn- is increased as the aspect ratio is increased due onymous with aircraft design. The extent of this to a larger frontal drag area of the wings. can be shown in equation 2 where an aircrafts The eect of drag is important in deciding on an drag coecient is not only dependent on the co- aspect ratio in a aircrafts design stages. As seen ecient of lift but by its square. This makes earlier the aspect ratio can greatly improve lift it doubly important to understand what extent characteristics but will increase drag faster than drag will inhibit aircraft performance. beneting performance creating a situation for design optimization depending on ight charac1 2 2 CD = V [CDo + (KCL )] (5.2) teristics desired. In this case of a 747 a more 2 sluggish aircraft with a lower aspect ratio is The eect of lift and drag for a Boeing 747 desired for its benets in lower drag intern lower with constants found in the appendix [2] are fuel costs to transport goods. charted in gure 3 by measuring the drag per lift generated as the wings travel from 90 degrees downwards vertical to its inverse upwards shown 5.4 Eects on Eciency in gure 4. Out of the given eects lift force has on an aircraft the eect on eciency is most important to a designer. Eciency is dened by the lift over the drag force causing an ecient lifting condi-

CHAPTER 5. AERODYNAMIC MODELING

22

Figure 5.3: Lift coecient with respect to drag tion to induce less drag than that of an alternate condition and equated as in equation 3. CL E= 2 CDo + KCL (5.3) Emax = 1 4KCDo (5.4)

A maximum theoretical eciency can also be calculated using equations 4 and 5. The loading conditions of the same Boeing 747 have been modeled to simulate a wing span of three separate aspect ratios as discussed previously. As shown in gure 5 the eciency of the wing is relatively high at low lift values such as cruising conditions, however decrease exponential with lift on the aircraft until reaching an asymptote at one describing when the lift force is equal to the drag force. This situation is understood by observing the angle at a 90 degree pitch making a at plate into the wind causing all of the lift force by the orientation of the origin following the aircraft being created only by drag pushing horizontal to the horizon.

CLEmax =

CDo K

(5.5)

Figure 5 shows clearly the eect of the aspect ratio of the wings as when increased the wings become less ecient for their given lift force. This can be directly correlated to section 1.2 were it was found how larger aspect radioed wings will induce greater drag per uplift force because of their enlarged frontal area. By the same reasoning a larger aspect ratio wing will not have the required surface area to provide lift to negate the drag eects of the frontal area.

CHAPTER 5. AERODYNAMIC MODELING

23

Figure 5.4: Lift coecient to Wing Eciency The graphical comparison of lift coef. and efciency can be compared to the theoretical max value of drag and lift were the max wing ecacy can be found not at zero lift coecient but at a small number ranging around 0.02. This shows how the ecacy curve does not asymptoticly approach innite ecacy but has a max value maxing out shortly after falling below a lift coecient of 2. The lifting characteristics of a Boeing 747 have allot more eect on the aircraft than simple lift but also eect the drag, performance and even fuel consumption. By observing the eects on lift with variables such as angle of attach and drag the importance of a properly designed wing section becomes evident. The trade o between the ight performance benit of a high AR wing and the drawback of the low eciency of that same wing are key factors to consider when designing for a particular application.

Chapter 6

Flight Enviorment
6.1 Flight Envelope

A ight envelope graphic equates the aerobatic region in which an aircraft can operate. The following ight envelope is a representation of a Boeing 747 ascending to its max altitude at 250 knots (TAS) also traveling at 0.8 mach. The effects that will dene the ight envelope the aircraft can y in are Stall speed, max structural velocity and a combination of high and low velocities that describe the possible velocities as a function of engine thrust. The importance of stall speed to entrap an aircrafts performance is to remain above and produce enough lift to remain in ight shown in equation 3. Vstall = 2w s CLmax (6.1)

V2 =

T S

CDo

[1

4KCDo ] T ( W )2

(6.4)

The purpose of Max structural velocity is to boundary the velocity were the structural components of the aircraft will fail denoted by equation 4. 2qmax (6.2) Furthermore the eects of min and max velocities place a boundary on the performance capabilities of the engine at a given thrust percent shown in equations 5 and 6. Vqmax =
T S

V1 =

CDo

[1 +

4KCDo ] T ( W )2

(6.3)

As shown in gure 2 the ight envelope is encompassed by the stall speed on the low velocity end, the thrust limitations on the upper altitudes nearing the tropopause nally only limited at the high velocity end by the thrust limitations and the structural integrity of the fuselage and wings. This regions highlighted in orange demonstrates the limitations of a Boeing 747 in ight. The characteristics of the stall speed can be seen to curve to the right as altitude increases indicating a higher velocity stall. This is the cause of a thinner atmosphere producing less lift on the wings therefore requiring a higher velocity to stay aloft. Similarly qmax or structural limit is dependent on the density of the air impacting the aircrafts structure causing the eect to lessen as you increase in altitude. The signicance of the intersection points between the ight speed of the aircraft and the ight envelope boundary in understanding the max elevation at which an aircraft can y at a given IAS. This crossing point also references a max TAS possible at the max altitude of the aircraft.

24

CHAPTER 6. FLIGHT ENVIORMENT

25

Figure 6.1: Flight Envelope To determine the absolute ceiling of the aircraft a horizontal line can be drawn tangent to the curve of V2 simulating a signal IAS at which the aircraft can achieve its max altitude. This point is signicant in understanding the theoretical performance when designing an aircraft. Flight ceiling can be import to meet FAA guidelines, Vision range or even aerobatic needs. The given characteristics of a Boeing 747 have been determined to perform well within desired cursing speeds and altitudes and remain within current FAA regulations. The aircraft can sustain ight comfortably at a velocity quick enough to provide its customers with quick transportation while allowing a comfortable margin between cursing speed and Vqmax .

Chapter 7

Takeo
7.1
length or runway needed to take o a wide array of jet transport aircraft from two dierent elevaEach airport is built for a specic class of air- tions. The key demonstrates rst the elevation crafts. The size of these aircraft dictate the re- of the airport followed by the T/W ratio. quired runway length needed to become aloft and is directly proportional to the weight of the air- What the plot demonstrates is the increase of craft as well as the thrust available. Equation runway needed the more weight is applied to the 1 expresses the the need for runway length as a lifting surface of an aircraft. The second thing function of the dimensionless weight of the air- to see is the increased distance needed as the thrust is decreased in the aircraft. Lastly it is craft. shown that more runway is needed at higher elW evation airports for a similar aircraft. 1.44( S ) XT.O = (7.1) T g( W )CLmax runway The nal result shows a range of runway lengths from 700ft to 5,500 ft ranging from the lightweight large thrust to heavy underpowered 7.2 Runway Modeling aircraft. By using equation 1, runway distances can be calculated for an array of aircraft types. Distances were taken for aircraft of increasing weight to size as well as thrust available related to the weight of the aircraft. This gave a range of aircraft that cover most transport jet categories. To account for the variation in altitude between airports a sample was taken for both sea level and 5,000 ft MSL.

Runway Length

Figure 7.1: T.O Key (Figure 2) The plot shown in gure 2 demonstrates the 26

CHAPTER 7. TAKEOFF

27

Figure 7.2: Take o Runway Characteristics In conclusion the eects of wing loading as well as thust ratio have been discussed in their eect on take o and landing distance. It was shown that the higher the wing loading the larger the distance required to both take o and land. Similarly the less thrust available caused the need for a longer take o runway. Lastly It was shown that elevation change had a key roll in runway length as the higher above sea level an airport lies, the longer the runway must be to take o or land on.

Chapter 8

Flight Range
8.1 Improving Range
To abide by safety regulations and to maximize the range of an aircraft ights are currently own under stepped ight. This ight path is the third and nal plot of range in gure 1 demonstrating a elevation change of 2,000 ft at every interval of ight to maintain safety of cross trac while allowing for a cruise climb like condition.
f 2Emax V W1 E1 1 R= T an ( ) Wf C 2Emax (1 KCl E1

Determining the Range of a Boeing 747 is shown in two ways. The rst as theorized by Breguet and the second a modern day calculation derived from strict F.A.A. guidelines.These equations root from equation 1 however dier subtly from one another but result in a very dierent outcome. R= V E dW C W (8.1)

W1

(8.3)

The Breguet equation makes the assumption of a constant wing eciency of the aircraft to simplify calculation inatvertantly modeling a system of a cruise climb condition. Equation 2 shows the relationship between range and aircraft conditions, also expressed graphically in gure 1. The Breguet equation is still utilized today not for its ight path but because it represents the path of maximum fuel ecacy. By ying in a cruise climb condition an aircraft under the same conditions and fuel load as a constant elevation ight is able to go further. R= Wf V E1 Ln(1 ) C W1 (8.2)

8.2

Range Modeling

Although the Breguet equation demonstrates the max range path the F.A.A for safety has limited planes to ying in 2,000 ft planes. This changes the wing eciency as you travel and burn fuel causing the eect of range to be determined by equation 2 and similarly plotted in gure 1.

To determine the range of a 747 parameters must be known of the aircraft. These parameters include Wing loading, Aspect ratio, weight among other characteristics to achieve a proper model. Each of these three range equations can be plotted to show the 2D ight path of the aircraft under three conditions. A graphic representation rather than a numerical output of range will show the benet in range vs the elevation change burden. Figure 1 demonstrates the eect of the cruise climb mentioned earlier in that it has extended the range of the aircraft. The rst deduction for this plot is to notice the magnitude dierence in that a full fuel tank can travel nearly 800 miles further if the pilot chooses to step his ight path as opposed to ying at a steady altitude. Also to be noticed is how the stepped ight path diers slightly from that of the Breguet equation ight.

28

CHAPTER 8. FLIGHT RANGE

29

Figure 8.1: Aircraft Range This is found when you pass the tropopause were the atmosphere changes characteristics via temperature and density. Since the stepped altitude ight is recalculated for atmospheric conditions at every step this equation accounts for these changes in aircraft performance where the steped ight assumes the starting elevation of 31,000 ft for its nal calculation causing the parameters not to reect the change in atmosphere as it passes the natural barriers of the tropopause. The compinsation for these characteristics also show to give a stepped ight a 800 mile range advantage over that of its steady ight counterpart. The eects of these three modes of ight were shown to dier much in terms of ight range with steped ight shown to result in the longest range and a steady altitude ight for the shortest with respect to a 747 full of fuel under the same conditions.

The climb ight path is in between the two previously mentioned but is mostly modeled for its likeness to stepped ight with a much simpler calculation. The error to many is negligible and incorporated into their factor of safety.

Chapter 9

Elevation Change
9.1 Climb Rate
the origin of gure 1 and passing though the tangent of the respected curve to result in the largest angle between that line and the x axis. The place were this line intersects the rate of climb curve is the velocity and rate of climb of the steepest attack angle at a given elevation.

The climb rate of an aircraft can be calculated as a function of many things including altitude, angle of attack and velocity. The two options of climb being observed here are what rate of climb will result from the steepest climb and from the fastest climb between elevations. 2 w cos(c ) 4 k The equation for the rate of climb of an airs Vc = (9.3) cD0 craft traveling at various velocities is shown below. equation 1 creates an inverse parabola curve shown in gure 1 displaying the climb rate charTo look at the opposite end of the spectrum acteristics as a function of velocity and elevation. a point on the generic rate of climb graph can From this curve the characteristics for steepest be found for the quickest climb between two aland fastest climb can be determined. titudes. Equation 4 shows how to calculate he angle of this ight path which will result in an angle less than the steepest ight but greater than W 2 R T QCD0 S cos (c ) =[ ( W +K )]V (9.1) zero. C W Q S To determine at which angle the aircraft can y to accomplish the steepest climb steepest can be calculated from equation 2. T Cos(c ) c = sin 1(( )max ) W Emax

f astestclimb = sin 1(

T 3cos(c ) (1 ) (9.4) T W 6 2 E 2 W

(9.2)

To move from the generic rate of climb curve to the steepest climb equation 3 shows the relationship between the angle of attack and the non dimensional weight to surface area parameter. Other characteristics such as atmosphere density attribute to the amount of lift needed to keep the aircraft aloft. This function can also be represented graphically by drawing a line from

Finally in determining the velocity of a ight path though the quickst climb rate is shown in equation 5. Graphically this equation represents the upper crest of the climb curve. This point in the curve represents were the rate of climb is at its most before it begins to fall again resulting in the quickest vertical climb rate.
T s

Vf astestclimb =

3CD0

(9.5)

30

CHAPTER 9. ELEVATION CHANGE

31

9.2

Elevation Change

Rate of climb curves were calculated for elevations of 10,000 , 20,000 and 30,000 ft. The fastest climb rate and the steepest climb rate are then extracted and tabulated to gain knolege about the performance of the aircraft at the given elevations From the previous equation and the parameters of the aircraft data for the Velocity and angle of the steepest climb can be calculated though all three elevations as shown in table 2. Also included in table 2 is the velocity and angle of the fastest climb rate. There are two thetas in each section of the table for the purpose of iteration as the equation for nding theta is not homogeneous.

steepest rate of climb. at 30,000 ft the plots for both steepest and quickest climb rates are shown were the angle between the line and the x axis is the angle of attack. As it shows the vertical distance were the steepest climb line crosses is well below the point at which the quickest intercepts at the top of the parabola. This distance only becomes more dramatic as you decrease in elevation for instance a 250 ft/s dierence between the steepest climb and the fastest climb at 10,000 ft. Also a key feature to this plot is the increase in angle needed to accomplish quickest ight as you decent though the atmosphere. The main purpose for this is the increase density giving more lift to the wings at a higher attack angle.

Table 2 : Climb Parameters To add meaning to the values calculated for velocity and attack angle a plot can be made to depict the characteristics of a jet transport plane in ight. Each elevation will have a rate of climb characteristic vs velocity as dened in the previous section leaving a plot shown in gure 1. The signicance of this plot is to show the distinction between the fastest rate of climb and the

CHAPTER 9. ELEVATION CHANGE

32

Figure 9.1: Rate of climb characteristics

Chapter 10

Holding Pattern
10.1
Lastly a pilot must remain in a comfortable roll angle as to not distribute the payload on board. A roll angle can be calculated given the Holding pattern dynamics are important to re- previous parameters shown in equation 9. main fuel ecacy while holding which means the V Xdot aircraft must travel slowly and smoothly. In or = T an1 (10.4) W der not to fall below the stall speed holding pattern characteristics need to be made to charac10.2 Maneuverability terize the ight speed, load factor, turn angle and radius of turn. Turning charismatics dened in the previous secThe stall speed of a aircraft in a turn goes up tion were calculated from 1000 to 18000 ft. This as a function of the roll of the aircraft. This is will express the turning characteristics of a plane due to the loss of lift developed by the wings not in a holding pattern as it transitions from its bing normal to the lifting plane. The resultant cursing altitude to its landing altitude. of this is a velocity required dened in equation 6. Vturn =
T s

Holding Pattern Characteristics

CD0

(10.1)

Also a very important factor when making a turning maneuver in an aircraft is the stress factor of the wings attached. n represents the load factor of the aircraft which is not to go above 2.5 for jet transport class aircrafts. T )max (10.2) W By remaining within the tolerances of stall speed and loading factor a radius of turn can be calculated by basic dynamics and is as follows in equation 8. n = Emax ( V2 r= g n2 1 (10.3) 33

CHAPTER 10. HOLDING PATTERN

34

Figure 10.1: Turn Characteristics Some key features to notice about this plot is the drastic range of radius from the two extreme elevations. at 1000 ft an aircraft is essentially ten times as adjile and only needing to roll a fraction of the amount to gain the needed maneuver. The performance characteristics of an aircraft outside of its cruising conditions are found to be highly dependent on elevation. The climb rate of an aircraft was found to be drastically dierent between the steepest angle an aircraft can climb to the fastest angle an aircraft can climb which is not completely intuitive. Also noted was the dierence in turn performance from high to low elevations. Specically the amount of roll needed to complete a maneuver drastically decreased as you decreased in elevation.

Chapter 11

Landing
These parameters indicate an aircraft with a similar lifting weight but with a varying engine runway length for a landing must be calculated size. It also expresses the importance of aps on using similar characteristics shown in equation takeo and landing helping increase Cl max. 2. Landing, similar to take o is related via aircraft characteristics shown in equation 2. LandW 1 SL XLand = 118( ) + 400 (11.1) ing lengths are plotted for a variation of wing S CLmax EL loading values as well as the same two elevations With many similarities to equation 1, equapreviously mentioned in Takeo analysis. tion 2 is not eected by the thrust available on the aircraft as the engines will be in idle during The plot in gure 3 shows the eects of wing the landing. There is also a 400 ft rolling dis- loading on an aircraft while landing. The higher tance to come to a complete stop once touched the wing loading value the more runway distance down. This equation is also dependent on ele- is required to land a jet transport plane. Also vation meaning a runway in san fransisco would shown is the eect of altitude in that the higher not be adequate in Detroit. the airport above sea level the longer the runway needs to be. A landing range between 1,700 and Parameters for the take o and landing of the 5,800 ft are similar but larger than the length reaircraft are shown in table 1. quired to take o making landing the governing length needed for an airport.

11.1

Runway Length

Table 1: Input Parameters 35

Figure 11.1: Landing Runway Characteristics

Chapter 12

Aircraft Modeling
12.1 Aircraft Modeling
uated at dierent speeds indicating that a aircraft traveling faster will have less thrust available causing eects in top speed or performance characteristics. All together the eect of thrust is a very dynamic characteristic and since thrust is a vital component to an aircraft it needs to be understood and tabulated thusly. Similarly important is the relationship between TAS and IAS. It was noted that while IAS remains constant as a aircraft ascends though the atmosphere the TAS will rise nearly 200% depending on the altitude reached and the IAS value. This eect is crucial to understand in terms of stall speed as to not accidentally fall below when you believe you are staying at the same TAS as you gain altitude. It is also important to time ights accordingly and not to time your rout at 200 mph when in reality the aircraft is traveling in excess of 700 mph. This concept is vital for pilots to understand and be able to utilize both values to adjust their ight accordingly. The performance of an aircraft is very complex as many parts are dependence on each other making tabular data and plotted curves essential to understanding the characteristics of a aircraft as it accelerates and ascends though the atmosphere.

The design of the aircraft modeled above demonstrates the take-o to landing analysis of a jet transport aircraft. The elements that were focused upon were the atmospheric eects, Air speed, Aerodynamics, Flight envelope, Range and ground maneuvers. By beginning with a set of parameters including size and shape of the aircraft it was determined the limitations of the modeled aircraft in each of these aspects.

12.2

Atmosphere

Because of the atmospheres altering properties it was found that the thrust characteristics of an aircraft will dier with elevation. With the jet transport aircraft given it was determined from chapter 3 that the available thrust of an aircraft will reduce with altitude. A complement to this nding is the eect of a model as you travel faster your avalible thrust drops on the order or 25%.

12.3

Air Speed

It was found that a relationship between thrust and TAS as a function of elevation. Observing thrust as a function of elevation is crucial to relating the needed power of an aircraft dur- 12.4 Aerodynamics ing design while the diminishing TSFC values indicated more fuel would need to be brought on The lifting characteristics of a Boeing 747 have board for a ight higher in elevation because it allot more eect on the aircraft than simple lift would not be as eective. Thrust was also eval- but also eect the drag, performance and even 36

CHAPTER 12. AIRCRAFT MODELING

37

fuel consumption. By observing the eects on lift with variables such as angle of attach and drag the importance of a properly designed wing section becomes evident. The trade o between the ight performance benit of a high AR wing and the drawback of the low eciency of that same wing are key factors to consider when designing for a particular application.

for its likeness to stepped ight with a much simpler calculation. The error to many is negligible and incorporated into their factor of safety.

12.8

Ground Maneuvers

12.5

Flight Envelope

The given characteristics of a Boeing 747 have been determined to perform well within desired cursing speeds and altitudes and remain within current FAA regulations. The aircraft can sustain ight comfortably at a velocity quick enough to provide its customers with quick transportation while allowing a comfortable margin between cursing speed and Vqmax .

In conclusion the eects of wing loading as well as thust ratio have been discussed in their eect on take o and landing distance. It was shown that the higher the wing loading the larger the distance required to both take o and land. Similarly the less thrust available caused the need for a longer take o runway. Lastly It was shown that elevation change had a key roll in runway length as the higher above sea level an airport lies, the longer the runway must be to take o or land on.

12.6

Climb

The performance characteristics of an aircraft outside of its cruising conditions are found to be highly dependent on elevation. The climb rate of an aircraft was found to be drastically dierent between the steepest angle an aircraft can climb to the fastest angle an aircraft can climb which is not completely intuitive. Also noted was the dierence in turn performance from high to low elevations. Specically the amount of roll needed to complete a maneuver drastically decreased as you decreased in elevation.

12.7

Range

The eects of these three modes of ight were shown to dier much in terms of ight range with steped ight shown to result in the longest range and a steady altitude ight for the shortest with respect to a 747 full of fuel under the same conditions. The climb ight path is in between the two previously mentioned but is mostly modeled

Chapter 13

Appendix
13.1 References 13.2
13.2.1
AE 480

Homework Questions
Atmospheric model
HW#1

[1] Dr.Fox, Lecture Notes (Aeronautical Engineering 480 Introduction to Aeronautics) [2] Anderson, John David. Introduction to Flight (seventh Edition).

Explore the earths atmospheric structure(s) on the web and write a brief description of atmo[3] Raymers Aircraft Design & RDS Site. spheric modeling; include relevant graphic imRaymers Aircraft Design & RDS Site. ages from the web. Include websites explored in N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Dec. 2012. a bibliography at the end of your HW#1 report (see Note below). [4]Aviation History, History of Flight, Create an Excel spreadsheet to determine the Century of Flight. Aviation History, History of Flight, Century of values of temperature, density, pressure and acoustic speed up through the atmosphere to Flight. 32,000 meters ( 100,000 feet), starting at sea level N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Dec. 2012. and assuming a US Standard (geopotential) at[5] Study Partner : None mosphere model. Let n = 1.235 for a polytropic model in the troposphere, use the isothermal model for the lower stratosphere (-56.5C), and let n = 0.974 for the third atmospheric layer. Output a table of values with elevations given in both meters and feet; work in SI units (meters) and convert to feet for the second column of your table. 1000 meter increments will be adequate. Plot T, D and P vs. elevation from sea level to 32 km ( 100,000 ft - geopotential assumption), include the tropopause elevation of 11 km (36089 feet) as a point in your calculations, using data from the spreadsheet you created above. In your plot, let elevation be the y-axis for each of these 3 plots. Add appropriate labels for key points and regions on your plot. 38

CHAPTER 13. APPENDIX

39

13.2.2
AE 480

Thrust Eects
HW#2 (due September 25, 2012)

13.2.4

Flight Envelope

#2-1 Plot Thrust/Thrustsl and Tsfc/Tsfcsl to 65,000 feet (ASL) for a US Standard Atmosphere. #2-2 Plot Thrust/Thruststatic vs. Mach number for 0 M 1.4 at sea level, 5000 feet (ASL), and 10,000 feet (ASL) on one chart. #2-3 Plot the following from Sea Level to the Tropopause (elevation on the vertical axis): (a) True Airspeed for an indicated air speed (IAS) of 250 MPH (b) True airspeed for a constant Mach number = 0.85 (c) Stall speed for a wing loading of 90 lbs/ft2 and a CLmax of 1.2

13.2.3

Aerodynamics

AE 480 HW #3 (due October 02, 2012) #3-1 Plot CL vs. for values of aspect ratio 3, 6, and 10 with a sweepback angle of 35 using the simpler lift curve slope expression presented in the lecture. Presume CLmax is 1.2 and a symmetric airfoil.

AE 480 HW #4 (due October 9, 2012) Note: For transport class jet aircraft, presume that 60 W/S 120 and that T/W 1/Emax with a presumed T/W)sea level rating of 0.35 +/- .10. And Presume appropriate values for any missing parameters. Let W/S and T/W be input parameters for this study. #4.1 Plot D/W and T/W vs. true airspeed at 10,000 ft ASL for a transport class jet aircraft. For T/W, plot results for three (3) throttle settings 60, 75& 90%, as discussed in class; ignore the impact of ight speed on thrust. #4.2 Plot the ight envelope for a jet transport class aircraft that includes curves for: V1 = hi speed equilibrium ight V2 = lo speed equilibrium ight Vstall Vcruise for M inf = .85 Vqmax for qmax = 650 lbf/ft2 V 250 Knots IAS (below 10,000 ft) Ignore the impact of ight speed on T/W in your calculations; use T/W at 85% throttle adjusted for elevation impact (note this approximates nominal cruise T/W.) Presume CLmax 1.2 for stall calculations, i.e. without aps. Dont overlook the fact that the atmospheric property model and the thrust model variation with elevation change at the tropopause. What is your absolute ceiling?

#3-2 Plot the parabolic drag polar, CL vs. CD, for AR of 3, 6 and 10 with sweepback angle = 13.2.5 Range 35. Presume an Oswald eciency factor of 0.85 AE 480 - HW #5 (due October 16, 2012) and a parasitic drag coecient (CDo) of 0.016. #5.1 Compare the range(s) of a turbofan powered jet transport aircraft having a cruise fuel #3-3 Plot aerodynamic eciency (E) vs. CL weight fraction of 0.38, a sea level Tsfc of 0.65 using the same parameters of problem lb fuel/hour/lb thrust, a sea level rated T/W of 0.33, a cruise initial W/S of 110 lbf/ft2, and a #3-2. Compare the results with theoretical CDo = 0.0155, predicted for the three ight proles indicated below. Choose appropriate values Emax and CL@Emax. for any missing parameters (e.g. AR, e).

CHAPTER 13. APPENDIX

40

Presume a cruise Mach of 0.85 with cruise starting at 31,000 feet MSL. When you set up your spreadsheet, create an input eld for all variables/parameters, and all calculated parameters plus a key results eld for nal answers (e.g. range, ight time) required for each scenario. Range ight scenarios: Constant elevation using the arctan expression for range (FAA rules). Breguet range (wishful thinking ops) Stepped altitude ight using the arctan expression for each level ight step; presume 2000 foot steps (currently allowed by FAA rules). Plot elevation vs. range (in statute miles) for all three ight proles on the same chart. Plot W/S and % throttle required vs range, at each altitude step, for the stepped altitude range model. How long (hours) will each ight prole require?

estimate the required take-o runway length for a turbofan powered jet transport aircraft. Let sea level rated T/W be a parameter with values of 0.25, 0.35 and 0.45. Let W/S vary from 40 to 120 lbf/ft2. Assume a CLmax in the neighborhood of 1.2 without aps. Choose appropriate values for any missing parameters required to complete the assignment. Plot estimated take-o runway length in feet (sTO) vs. W/S with T/W as a parameter for both a sea level runway and a runway at 5000 ft MSL (e.g. Denver, CO). Presume a CLmax for take-o (with aps) at 1.5 x CLmax with no aps. #7.2 Estimate Landing Runway Length(s)

Working with the Landing Parameter (LP) model introduced for aircraft conceptual design, estimate the required landing runway length for the turbofan powered jet transport in #7.1 13.2.6 Rate of Climb above, for both a sea level runway and a runway AE 480 - HW #6 at 5000 ft MSL. Note that T/W does not play a For the problem below, select a W/S and T/W role in the landing analysis. Presume a CLmax from the ranges given below and choose appro- for landing equal to 2.5 x CLmax without aps. priate values for all other missing required air- Let W/S vary from 40 to 90 lbf/ft2 for landing. craft parameters; choose values similar to those from HW #5: Plot estimated landing runway length in feet 40 W/S 120 lbf/ft2 (sL) vs. W/S with remaining fuel load as a pa0.25 T/Wsea level 0.45 rameter for both elevations. #6.1 Plot rate of climb as a function of ight speed at sea level, 10,000, 20,000 and 30,000 ft above MSL, applying 100% rated thrust (adjusted for elevation; ignore the ight speed eect a 2-point line from the origin to the point on each R/C curve corresponding to steepest climb. Overlay a curve depicting fastest climb as you go from sea level to 30,000 feet. Express R/C in feet per minute.

13.2.7

Take o & Landing

AE 480 - HW #7 #7.1 Estimate Take-o Runway Length(s) Working with the Take-o Parameter (TOP) model introduced for aircraft conceptual design,

13.3

Raw Data

41

13.3.1

Atmospheric Model

42

13.3.2

Thrust Eectsl

43

13.3.3

Aerodynamics

44

45

13.3.4

Flight Envelope

46

13.3.5

Range

47

13.3.6

Rate Of Climb

48

13.3.7

Take O and Landing

49

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