Practical Guide 4th Edition Carol Simpson

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©
Copyright
for Schools
A Practical Guide, Fourth Edition
Carol Simpson
P ro fe ssio n a l D e v e lo p me n t R e so u rc e s fo r
K -1 2 Lib ra ry Me d ia a n d Te c h n o lo g y S p e c ia lists.
Copyright for Schools:
A Practical Guide
4th Edition
Carol Simpson
Professional Development Resources for

K-12 Library Media and Technology Specialists
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Simpson, Carol, 1949-

Copyright for schools : a practical guide / Carol Simpson.—4th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-58683-192-5 (pbk.)
1. Fair use (Copyright)—United States—Popular works. 2.
Copyright—United States—Popular works. I. Title.
KF3020.Z9S57 2005
346.7304'82—dc22
2005005430
Published by Linworth Publishing, Inc.

480 East Wilson Bridge road, Suite L
Worthington, Ohio 43085
Copyright ©2005 by Linworth Publishing, Inc.
All rights reserved. Reproduction of this book in whole or in parts is prohibited without permission of the publisher.
ISBN 1-58683-192-5
5 4 3 2 1
2 Copyright for Schools: A Practical Guide. 4th Edition

Table of Contents
Table of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Introduction to the 4th Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Chapter 1: The Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Origin in the U.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
What it is now . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Rights of a copyright holder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Limitation on right of distribution: first sale doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Public performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
What is “public” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Public display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Digital transmission of sound recordings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Moral rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
How does one get a copyright? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
What can’t be protected by copyright? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Check thoroughly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Work for hire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Duration of copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Recent laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Net Theft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Visual Artists Rights Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
DMCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Digital Performance Right in Sound Recordings Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
TEACH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Penalties for infringement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
State copyright laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Related laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Contract law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Privacy statutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Trademark law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Why is any of this significant for schools? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
How is a school prosecuted? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
What if there is no trial? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Why worry, why bother? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Works cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
Table of Contents 3
Chapter 2: Public Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
What is it? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
How does something get into the public domain? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
How long does public domain last? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
What can you do with public domain materials? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
How do you find public domain materials? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
What is the difference between “copyright free” and “royalty free”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
How can I use royalty free materials? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Related cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Chapter 3: Fair Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

What is it? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Difference between fair use and guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Examples of fair use analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Factor 1: Purpose and character of use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Part 1: Nonprofit educational use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Part 2: Criticism, commentary, news reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Factor 2: Nature of copyrighted work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Part 1: Factual or creative? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Part 2: Published or not published? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Factor 3: Amount of work used? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Essence of work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Factor 4: Effect of use on market for or value of work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
Commercial use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
Misrepresentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
What would happen if everyone were to... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
Various types of guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
To whom does it apply? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
General public vs. schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Schools vs. libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Works cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Chapter 4: Print Materials in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

What typical activities are covered? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Photocopying—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
Phonorecords—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
Graphics—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
Murals—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
Scanning—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
What rights are affected? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
What guidelines affect print materials? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
Kastenmeier report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

Details of report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Single copies for teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Multiple copies for classroom use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
Brevity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
Spontaneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
Cumulative effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
Examples of acceptable multiple copying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Examples of unacceptable multiple copying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Copies for handicapped students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Print permission issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Consumable materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Periodicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Scanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
Resources for understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Fair use of print materials glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Related cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Works cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
Chapter 5: Audiovisual Materials in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69

Movies—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
TV/cable/satellite—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Web—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
Sound recordings–issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
What rights are affected? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Public performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Public display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Digital transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
What guidelines affect AV materials? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
5 yes/no questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Umbrella licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Home use only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Examples of analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Off-air taping guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
“Air” vs. cable vs. satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Taping in anticipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
Public performance rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
Examples of acceptable performances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Examples of unacceptable performances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Archiving audiovisual works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
Closed captioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
Video distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
Digital video servers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Table of Contents 5
Sound recordings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
The MP3 dilemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
Related cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
Works cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
Chapter 6: Music Materials in Schools (Print and Recorded) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97

Reproduction of sheet music—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
Performances of sheet music—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
Reproduction of recorded music—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
Performances of recorded music—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
Adaptation of sheet music—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99
What guidelines affect music? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99
Print music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
Recorded music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
What rules/laws are different about recordings? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
Music in performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
Performance rights organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
Permissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Resources for understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Related cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Works cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Chapter 7: Multimedia in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105

What typical activities are covered? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Student multimedia projects—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Teacher multimedia projects—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
What rights are affected? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Public performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Public display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Digital transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
What guidelines affect multimedia? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Multimedia guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Special definitions for multimedia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Multimedia—covered or not? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Retention and access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Secure network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
Insecure network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
Quantity limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
How many copies? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
Other restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
Attribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
Multimedia tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
Works cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113

Chapter 8: Distance Learning in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
History of distance learning and copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
TEACH Act guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
Policy makers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
Information technology staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
Instructors/developers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
Chapter 9: Internet in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119

Printing pages—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
Bookmarks—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
Links—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
Copying pages to local servers—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
Redistributing pages—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
Email—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
Chat and IM—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
Public display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
Digital transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
The difference between an AUP and copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
Special rules for Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
Registered agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
Why is this important? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
What guidelines affect Internet? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Special considerations for different Internet services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
E-mail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
Newsgroup and discussion list information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
Use of web page information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
Chat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128
Copying internet code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128
Works cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
Chapter 10: Computer Software in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131

Multiple installs—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
Networking—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
Checking out software—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
Clip art—issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
Types of infringement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
Table of Contents 7
Public display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
Special rules that affect computer software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
License vs. copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
Legitimate copying vs. piracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
Software for free? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
Lending software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
Single-user programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
The software police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
Copyright infringement vs. plagiarism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
Software management tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
Works cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
Chapter 11: School Library Exemptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143

Library exemptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
Preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144
Interlibrary loan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144
Rule of five . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
Periodicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
Other print materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
Examples and explanations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
Photocopying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
Unattended copiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
Copying orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
Copies for vertical file or item repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
Facsimile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
Reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
Copies for interlibrary loan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
What to do when you can’t meet CONTU requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
Electronic reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
Works cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154
Chapter 12: Permissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155

Copyright vs. contract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
Permissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
Student and parent permissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
Works cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
Chapter 13: Managing Copyright in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163

Issues of managing copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
Managing things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
Managing people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166
Important recommendations in copyright management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167

Chapter 14: Copyright and Administrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
Suggestions for administrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
Chapter 15: Copyright Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173

Why have one? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
What should a policy contain? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
Works cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
Chapter 16: Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177

Appendix A – Copyright compliance agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
Appendix B – Copyright do’s and don’ts for schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
Appendix C – Copyright for kids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
Appendix D – Useful sources of information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
Appendix E – Copyright warning notices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
Appendix F – Sample copyright policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188
Appendix G – Release form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
Appendix H – Copyright and plagiarism guidelines for students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190
Appendix I – Significant copyright law section references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191
Appendix J – Bibliography of selected works on copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192
Appendix K – Important Internet links for copyright information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
Appendix L – Sources of audiovisual works with public performance rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
Appendix M –Database of copyright actions against schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209
Appendix N – Copyright questions and answers: a reproducible brochure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209
Appendix O – Copyright infringement reporting form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
Table of Contents 9
Table of Figures
5.1 Copyright verification form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
5.2 Audiovisual copyright analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
5.3 Off-air video log sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
5.4 Off-air video log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
5.5 Off-air recording verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
5.6 Sample purchase order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
5.7 Video release form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
5.8 Sample duplication log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
5.9 Audiotape duplication log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
7.1 Sample documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
11.1 Sample CONTU card system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
12.1 Request for permission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
12.2 Sample request for permission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161

Acknowledgements
The creation and revision of a book of this sort requires the background assistance of many, many
people. I am assisted daily by teaching assistants, colleagues, editorial assistants and editors,
attorneys, librarians (of all types), friends, and family. Remove even one of those of my support
network and this book never sees print.
I have special words of appreciation for three people who reviewed this manuscript in
development: Steve Gillen, Esq., of Cincinnati, OH; Dr. Sara Wolf, Auburn University; and Dr.
Judi Repman, Georgia Southern University. Their comments were always helpful. I also thank the
many, many people who email copyright questions, from whom the sample questions in this book
are drawn.
My interest in copyright is leading me on a new path, and I can count the many friends I
have made on this adventure for that epiphany. To the librarians and teachers and administrators
who have invited me to share my thoughts on copyright and schools, I humbly thank you for your
confidence. To my publisher, Marlene Woo-Lun, who puts up with an author who refuses to sign a
contract because she doesn’t want a deadline, I apologize. To my mother and daughter, who wonder
where their mom and daughter has disappeared, I may emerge. To my elder son, who knows exactly
where I am four nights a week for four years, I will see you in class. And to my husband, who is
doing without home cooked meals, doing his own laundry, and cleaning house for four years while
I indulge my fascination for copyright, I love you.
For David: 1979-2003.
Acknowledgements 11
Introduction to the 4th Edition
Why did you pick up this volume? This isn’t light reading, though it may be an excellent soporific if
you need to get some sleep. Copyright, to many, is deadly dull and grossly frightening at the same
time. Many are convinced that a copyright violation cannot ever happen in their schools, and they
will loudly proclaim the fact as they photocopy sheets from a workbook or pop the Disney tape into
the VCR during rainy day recess.
The fact is that copyright is an everyday dilemma, and one that can only be solved by
significant education. I enjoy doing copyright workshops; I feel they are some of my best teaching.
This book is an attempt to share what I do in a workshop, but without the funny faces, silly voices,
and other human-interest types of stories that I toss in. I even omitted the jokes. Sorry, but they just
come across as odd when reduced to print.
This edition of Copyright for Schools updates aspects of the law that affect schools. In
addition, I have continued “Copyright catechism.” The dictionary defines the term “catechism” as
learning through questions and answers. I’ve included representative questions about facets of copyright
that I have answered in my Copyright Question of the Month columns from the journal Library Media
Connection, and others that I am asked during presentations to educators and librarians. These aren’t
answers to specific, real-life quandaries and certainly don’t substitute for competent legal advice, but
these hypotheticals can guide you as you wrestle with your own copyright conundrums.
As I’ve stated in previous editions of this book, I am not an attorney. I’ve been researching
and writing about copyright laws and schools for about 18 years now. I started researching my
obligations under the law in response to a technological installation. I was astounded at the
requirements that I had never learned but which put me and my faculty and administrators at risk.
Fortunately, I had a supportive principal and an ethical faculty. All this isn’t to say we were always
“copyright clean” but we had a building expectation of compliance, we regularly trained our staff,
and we monitored our materials and uses with an intent to comply with the various laws. Since that
time I have continued to read, question, and try to understand. My quest led me to the only place
possible to get all the information in the right way—law school. Attending law school gives you a new
perspective and appreciation for the law, and its interpretation, and how different courts will view
similar sets of facts in totally opposite ways.
This monograph presents the safest position—that level of practice considered to be within
legal limits by the most conservative application of the law. Certainly you might choose to stretch
the recommendations, and you might never be challenged. In some instances, the recommended
practices might even be considered ultraconservative. The National Commission on New
Technological Uses of Copyrighted Works (a.k.a. CONTU) Guidelines, for instance, if followed to
the letter, might deny some user an arguably legitimate interlibrary loan. Some interpretations must
necessarily be a judgment call, and they will be so noted.
Don’t feel so frightened of copyright that you fail to employ every available opportunity to
provide resources to your students, teachers, and colleagues. But the further afield you go from
conservative interpretation, the stronger your rationale and your documentation should be. You will
need both, if challenged. Don’t confuse rationale with rationalization (in the Webster’s New
Collegiate Dictionary sense of “to attribute one’s actions to rational and creditable motives, without
adequate analysis of true motives”). Infringers frequently rationalize their acts in regard to copyright.
Such explanations will not stand up to legal scrutiny.

Above all, stand fast. The easiest road is not always the right and proper way. For many
reasons, our government and the governments of dozens of countries around the world have
protected authors and enabled educators to utilize intellectual property for research and teaching.
The interests of one group influence and restrict the rights of the other. The balance is fragile. As
educators and librarians, we want to provide whatever our patrons desire. As teachers and citizens,
we have an obligation to model ethical and lawful behavior for our students. Make no excuses.
The information presented in this volume is not intended to substitute for qualified legal
advice, but rather as a way to help you determine if you need to consult an attorney for detailed
guidance on a given situation. If you have any doubt that your activities are within the law, first read
the law itself. It is available online from many sites. The suggestions and guidelines contained within
this book can help you decide if you are erring on the side of conservatism, or if you might be
straying to the hazardous side of the street. If in doubt, consult an attorney—preferably one who
specializes in intellectual property (commonly listed as copyrights, trademarks, and patents or some
combination of those terms). Because copyright and intellectual property are not required courses in
law school, often specialists in educational law are unaware of the multitude of layers of copyright
protection. I know of several instances in which school district attorneys gave advice that was
inaccurate based on even the most liberal interpretation of copyright law. Many copyright attorneys
will consult with you for an hour, providing authoritative legal advice, for the sum of a couple of
hundred dollars. When dealing with your professional livelihood, two or three hundred dollars is a
small sum to pay for a good night’s sleep and it can provide enough dependable backup for a firm
stand against those who would have you participate in questionable activities. All these rules and
regulations may seem to be too complicated to be worth the trouble. After all, you haven’t been
caught so far, right? Cease and desist letters are on the rise, and reported cases of schools violating
copyright from computer software piracy (Los Angeles Unified School District) to photocopying
workbooks (Beaumont, TX, Independent School District) are only the beginning of the story.
Perhaps a parable will put the whole copyright problem into perspective.
Two second graders are fighting over a ruler. One child is on each end of the ruler,
pulling alternately.
“It’s mine!” one yells, pulling the ruler.
“No, it’s mine!” yells the other, pulling harder in the opposite direction.
The teacher steps in, claiming the disputed ruler. She determines to whom the ruler
belongs, turns over the item, and sends him on his way. Taking the other child in tow, she scolds
him sternly.
“You don’t take what isn’t yours without asking first!”
You don’t take what isn’t yours without asking first.
That’s all copyright is about.
— Carol Simpson
January, 2005
Introduction 13
Chapter 1
The Law
I t has a name: Title 17, United States Code, Public Law 94-553, 90 Stat. 2541, as amended.
Kind of dry sounding, isn’t it? Who would guess that this could be one of the most obtuse,
complex and arguably the most hated law affecting schools today? But that is it: US copyright law.
If you are reading this book, you have somehow been affected by the law. Either you want
to use someone else’s material, and you were stopped/cautioned by a colleague or superior, or you
are reading about it for a class you are taking, or perhaps you have been assigned duties dealing with
copyright protected materials and you want to protect yourself and your institution. Regardless of
the reason, you need to know something about copyright law and you need to know it quickly.
Quickly may be more than you can expect, but getting to know the law is a matter of a few key
concepts. Once you have those in mind, they apply fairly regularly to just about any situation you
might encounter.
History
Copyright dates back several centuries, to English common law. Tradition holds that the Statute of
Anne is the first true copyright “law,” though there had been attempts prior to that date to control
copying of materials. Even chaining books to shelves and restricting the copying to trained monks in
monasteries was a form of copyright enforcement.
Origin in the U.S.

As early as the beginning of the 18th century, publishers and authors in England had a legal right
to control reproduction of their works. The United States based its original copyright law on the
English version as well as providing protection through wording in the U.S. Constitution:
“ . . . securing for limited times to authors . . . the exclusive right to their . . . writings . . .”
(Article I, Section 8). While many school people may be surprised, Washington actually signed the
first U.S. copyright law in 1789. Most people believe that copyright is a much more recent invention.
The U.S. law has been rewritten several times over the ensuing years. The last major revision
occurred in 1976, with minor modifications in the years since.
Chapter One: The Law 15

What it is now
Copyright has changed over the years. From the first U.S. copyright law signed by George
Washington in 1789, to the current iteration passed in 1976 and tweaked almost annually since,
copyright has had a significant impact on the U.S. But knowing what happened before is only
useful in obtuse cases dealing with old material. For most school employees, 99.999% of their
copyright questions can be addressed by the current law. So what you need to know is: What does a
copyright owner own, and what must I exercise caution in using?
Rights of a copyright holder

The six rights that a copyright owner owns are the rights of: reproduction, adaptation, distribution,
public performance, public display, and digital transmission of sound recordings. Knowing what a
copyright owner owns is key to understanding how to interpret most copyright situations. Starting
initially as simply a right to copy (hence the term “copyright”) or print, the rights of the copyright
holder in the United States have gradually expanded to be six rights accorded to the original creator.
Should someone infringe, or violate, a copyright, a single infringement may violate all six rights at the
same time, but copyright is violated if even one of the six exclusive rights is abridged.
What the creator does with the rights given in a copyright is his own business. Rights are
similar to property rights in that the owner may rent, lease, lend or sell outright any or all of the
rights in the work. The rights may be sold as a bundle, or can be meted out, either as an exclusive or
non-exclusive basis. For example, if you purchase a video program with public performance rights, it is
unlikely that you would be the only person who has purchased those performance rights. It would
be likely that the copyright owner has offered a public performance license to many people, besides you.
It is also possible that the right(s) sold/licensed are not for an infinite period of time. It is
not unusual for an author to sell the rights to a book to a publishing company. However, in the
contract of sale there may be a clause that states the rights to the work revert to the author if the
book does not remain in print for a specified number of years. Why is that significant to schools?
It’s not uncommon for a teacher to have a favorite book of short stories or a spelling workbook, or
other teaching tool, which is many years old. The work will likely be out of print. Nevertheless, the
teacher would like to use several sections of the work in class. Because the use will be repeated from
term to term, the teacher would need to get permission to use the materials or pay a royalty since
the plans she has for the material exceed the permitted educational limits. The choice of permission
or royalty belongs to the copyright owner. However, the publishing company may be out of
business, and there appears to be no one from whom to get permission or to whom to pay a royalty.
In such a case, it would be worth investigating the author(s) of the work as the copyright may have
reverted to the author when the work went out of print.
In discussing the various rights, starting on page 17, consider that this is a baseline
discussion of what the copyright owner owns, and does not take into consideration any possible
exemptions found in the law or in associated guidelines. In addition, rights may be modified with
permission or license. With a license granted to do any of the actions prohibited in the discussions
of the rights, the end user can do whatever they have gotten permission, or paid a license, to do.

Reproduction
The right of reproduction is the fundamental right of copyright, and was the initial impetus for the
law. Reproduction in all formats is controlled by the copyright owner or his assigns/agents. The law
specifically mentions various formats when identifying this right by indicating that non-print
reproduction (“phonorecords”) is also a right reserved to the copyright holder.
An important fact to remember is that copies need not be exact to be considered
reproductions. If you were to make a drawing of Mickey Mouse on a piece of paper, and if such
drawing were recognizable as Mickey Mouse, for the purposes of this portion of the law, the
drawing would be of Mickey Mouse. Just because a few details (colors, words, notes) have been
changed doesn’t mean that the use is beyond the restrictions of this right. Making a change in
format such as recording a book or digitizing a photo could also be considered to be making a copy
or an adaptation or derivative work. Don’t assume that the word “copy” only means photocopy. The
law was written in this form long before photocopiers were in common use. In the case Hearn v. Meyer
(664 F. Supp. 832) the court ruled that manual copying was as much an infringement as
photocopying. More details on this aspect will be seen in the chapter on Fair Use.
Adaptation
Adaptation is changing a work in some way, or creating a derivative work based on the original.
Derivative works are new works created from older, possibly protected works. JK Rowling gets paid
a lot of money to write books, but she gets paid a lot more when those books are adapted into
screenplays and produced as movies or plays. Some authors are very protective of this right, while
others take the phrase “imitation is the most sincere form of flattery” to heart. Taking a popular
song and writing new words is adaptation. Turning a picture book into a play for the second grade
to perform for the PTA is adaptation. Taking the characters of a book and extending the story is
adaptation. Scanning a print work into a digital copy is both reproduction (making a copy) and
adaptation (changing the format). The same thing happens when a student modifies the work of an
artist to create a new piece of art, or a teacher converts a cartoon into digital format for a
PowerPoint™ presentation. All of these instances create derivative works. Not all of these uses may be
illegal, depending on the surrounding circumstances, but on the surface all these activities
potentially infringe on the author’s right of adaptation and should be examined by the user.
Other common derivatives are indexes, translations, concordances, abridgements, and
recordings of musical works. Some derivative works, however, are entitled to copyright protection
themselves (at least on the added value portions of the work and especially when the original work
has fallen into the public domain) so one must not assume that all derivatives are under the control of
the original copyright owner.
Distribution
When a teacher creates copies of a graphic in a book, the right of reproduction comes into play.
When the teacher passes out those copies to her class, the action is affected by the right of
distribution. Distribution can occur in many ways. Mailing home newsletters is distribution.
Loaning books from the library is distribution. Sending video around the building using the video
distribution system is distribution. Putting computer software on the campus network is
distribution. Forwarding an e-mail is distribution. Putting student work on the Web is distribution
to the world.

Limitation on right of distribution:
Q:Some librarians have been told first sale doctrine
they should no longer subscribe to
the reproducible magazines for the If the right of distribution were absolute, you couldn’t give a book to
teachers in their schools because of your niece for Christmas, nor could you have a yard sale. Cutting up
the caveats they contain. One says, a calendar with lovely photos would not be possible, nor would
“Permission is granted to the original weeding a library of obsolete materials. In fact, loaning books from
subscriber to reproduce pages for the library would be a violation of the author’s right of distribution
individual classroom use only and as well. So how can we do all of those things and still stay within the
not for resale or distribution. law? We rely on a nifty piece of legal doctrine known colloquially as
Reproductions for an entire school or the “right of first sale.”
school system is prohibited.” Before we can understand the first sale doctrine, however,
Another has even worse wording: we must understand what one owns when one owns a book, for
“All material in this journal ... may be example. When you purchase a book at the local bookstore, you have
photocopied for instructional use by purchased paper, ink, binding, and a license to read the words until
the original subscriber and for the it wears out. You have not purchased the words themselves, nor the
non-commercial purpose of expression of the ideas discussed within. First sale doctrine explains
educational or scientific that the right of distribution ceases with an item’s first sale, meaning
advancement. It may not be that you can do whatever you wish, physically, with the book. You
photocopied for instructional use by can wrap it up and give it to your niece; you can rip out the pages
second parties other than the original and wallpaper your study; you can try to get a decent price for the
subscriber without prior permission.” book at a yard sale; you can donate it to the Friends of the Library
This sounds like they don’t want a book sale; you can even toss that book into the dumpster if you are
library to make the issues available so inclined. You own that one physical (as opposed to intellectual)
to teachers and others for legitimate copy of that book, and the copyright owner can do nothing at all to
educational purposes. Does this fall stop whatever private use you make of that physical copy. The
under the Right of First Sale rule? copyright owner can attempt to stop you from using that work to
make commercial advantage if, for example, you were to carefully
A: No. The right of first sale remove the plates in a book of photography and frame them to sell
in an art gallery. Such use is not private, and could potentially
doesn't apply here because you
aren’t disposing of the original, you interfere with the copyright owner’s own commercial use of his work.
are just proposing to copy it. But I A group of recording artists challenged the first sale doctrine
do have in my possession a letter several years ago when they tried to boycott used CD stores. They
from one of those magazines claimed that the stores were making money on their previously sold
clarifying their position. They state works, without paying royalties. The protest died, however, when it
that it is perfectly OK for the library was pointed out that they had received their sales royalties the first
to subscribe, and for INDIVIDUAL time the CD was sold, and they no longer held any control over
teachers to make class copies of those copies. A case that was controversial and troubling for
activities. What they object to is an librarians was decided in 1997. The court held that a library could
entire grade level making copies, or be found guilty of infringement via distribution. The LDS Church
an entire school. They say that as had purchased a single set of research materials, and made copies
long as the individual teacher is which it distributed to its branch libraries. The branch libraries
making the decision and making the allowed researchers to use those materials only within the confines of
copies (or requesting the copies be the branch library.
made on her behalf) the use is fair. I
would interpret the second statement
in that vein as well.

The distributed materials were later found to be illegal copies, and the
library was held to be liable for distribution of the illegal materials
even though the copies were never removed from the library
Q: A magazine article
encouraged students to
(Hotaling v. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, 118 F.3d 199 use discarded books by
(4th Cir. 1997)). The ruling stated: “When a public library adds a using them to create
work to its collection, lists the work in its index or catalog system, covers and new artwork.
and makes the work available to the borrowing or browsing public, it Some of the books almost
has completed all the steps necessary for distribution to the public. At didn’t even look like books
that point, members of the public can visit the library and use the when the students were
work.” (Hotaling, 1997, p. 203) Such a ruling makes libraries, in finished! However, what
particular, concerned that the materials they hold are legal and legitimate. about the copyright issue
of changing the format of
an existing work?
Public performance
The right to perform a work publicly is reserved to a copyright owner.
A: Actually, the students
in this project weren’t
“Performance” indicates a work of film, video, dance, theatre, music,
changing the format of the
etc. A work need not be performed in its entirety to be considered
work. They were using the
“performed.” In fact, a recent posting on the CNI-Copyright e-mail
book itself as a building
list discussed the amount of a work that must be used to be considered
block of a work of art.
significant. One lawyer replied that if the work is recognizable,
Because of the first sale
enough has been performed to be considered “significant.” Naturally,
doctrine, the physical copy
disagreements over that amount would abound, which is why such
of the book belongs to the
definitions are hoped for in court rulings.
first person who buys it.
Without the first sale
doctrine, libraries wouldn’t
What is “public”? be able to loan books to
Key to understanding both public performance and public display is patrons! The copyright
comprehension of the legal definition of the term “public.” The law owner has no further
defines a public performance as: to perform or display it at a place open to control over the physical
the public or at any place where a substantial number of persons outside property of that book. The
of a normal circle of a family and its social acquaintances is gathered; or to book owner can give the
transmit or otherwise communicate a performance or display of the work book away, loan it, sell it,
to a place specified by [the previous] clause or to the public, by means of destroy it, or rip it apart.
any device or process, whether the members of the public capable of The copyright owner still
receiving the performance or display receive it in the same place or in owns the intellectual
separate places and at the same time or at different times. content of the work, but
What you do in the privacy of your own home, in the company the paper, ink and binding
of your family and your intimate friends, is not considered “public” belong to another. In this
for the purposes of our discussions of copyright. So, when discussing case, the students were
a performance of a film, for example, if you were to have the showing using the physical book to
in your home, with your spouse and your children present, such a create new artwork, not
showing would not be considered a public performance and the using the intellectual
showing would not be controlled by the copyright owner. Inviting the content of the book (the
next-door neighbor, his wife, and their two children over to your part that is protected by
home to see the same film would also likely not be considered “public.” copyright).
However, the farther you reach beyond an intimate group such as
this, the more “public” you become. If you invite your entire church

school class and their spouses over for a party, and you show The Passion of the Christ, you may be
skating on very thin ice regarding the public performance right. Certainly a public school classroom
is considered “public.” No matter that we may want our students to view the school as “home” and
“family-like,” the fact remains that the school is a public place. Gatherings such as a Boy Scout or
PTA meeting would be considered public. In fact, an important federal court ruling known as Redd
Horne set the standard for private and public when the court ruled that a performance of a video in a
private, closed viewing room in a commercial video store was, in fact, a public performance.
Performances in public places are controlled by the copyright owner under the right of public
performance.
Public display
Like the right of public performance, the right of public display controls works displayed in public
places. Displays outside the home are controlled by the copyright owner. A display is of something
static, such as a painting, photograph, or sculpture. It could also apply to literature if the work were
exposed to public viewing, such as on the Internet. Section 109 (c) of the law allows legally acquired
copies of artwork to be displayed where that work is located; so you can hang a poster you have
purchased, or you can display the books that the library owns, but you can’t scan those into a Web
page and display them around the world. This limited exception to public display does not carry
over into public performances of things like movies, videos, sound recordings, or music, etc.
Digital transmission of sound recordings

The newest of the copyright owner’s rights, the right of digital transmission of sound recording,
came into being with the enactment of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act. The right is a
reaction to the loss of control over sound recordings when they are in digital formats. Users would
listen to Internet radio stations that streamed pristine digital recordings, and while listening they
would capture the audio files. As you know, each digital copy is just as perfect as the original. Users
could burn their own CDs of their favorite songs rather than going to the music store to purchase
copies. As a result, earnings in the music industry began to decline. Users were getting the music
without paying any fees whatsoever.
As a result, based on the number of listeners, Internet radio stations are required to pay
hefty royalties to record companies (the copyright owners) through rights brokering organizations.
Such fees are not new. Analog (AM and FM) radio stations have paid licensing fees for many years.
However, the mandatory fees imposed on digital transmission were many times higher than those
paid by analog stations, primarily because of the ability to copy perfect quality transmissions.
Record companies felt that they should get their share of the profits one way or another. This new
right allows them to do just that.
Moral rights
A new group of rights was granted by Congress in 1990 called “moral rights.” These rights apply to
certain types of visual artwork (painting, sculpture, etc.) that are produced in limited quantities (fewer
than 200). In such cases the author can require that his/her name remain with the object. In
addition, the artists have some power to prevent their artworks from being defaced or destroyed. In
one case a sculptor successfully sued a municipality when a large sculpture, installed on city
property, was destroyed without his permission. Moral rights would be significant for a school if the

school had students paint a mural, or other artwork. The students
would own the copyright in the work, and could demand that their
names be displayed with the work. In addition, if the work was
Q: Why would I want
to go to the trouble to
damaged or destroyed, intentionally or unintentionally, the students register my creation?
would have grounds to sue the school for a violation of moral rights.
Painting over the work, remodeling the building, or even allowing
other students to deface the work with graffiti could be taken as
A: While registration
is not required to achieve
potential causes for action. Censoring copies of a work, such as putting a copyright, it is needed
pants on the naked boy in Maurice Sendak’s In the Night Kitchen would before a suit is filed.
not fall under this aspect of copyright since that copy is not the original
artwork. It would, however, be an act of censorship, but that is a topic
for another discussion.
Q: Do students own the

How does one get a copyright? copyright on the works
In the years up to 1976, authors had to proactively register their works they create?
in order to achieve copyright protection. There were certain requirements
for a copyright notice, paperwork to be filed with the copyright office, A: Yes. Original student
a limited amount of time in which one had to file for the copyright, a works are protected by
determination if the work had been published prior to registration, and copyright just as any other
appropriate fees to be paid. If any of the points were not accomplished creative work. Because
in exactly the prescribed manner, the copyright registration was null most public school students
and void, and the work then fell into the public domain. are minors, however, parents
With the enactment of the 1976 copyright law, a work became or legal guardians must
protected as soon as it was “fixed in tangible form.” The term “tangible grant permission in writing
form” means that the work is retrievable—that it isn’t ephemeral. for schools to use student
A work may be fixed by being: work in publications,
• written on paper exhibits, and other public
uses. Displays inside the
• painted on canvas
classroom don’t require
• saved to disk the extensive permission.
• recorded on tape
• exposed on film
• or any other method that creates a permanent record of the creation
Any creative work that is recorded in such a manner is automatically granted the protection
of copyright for the author/creator. Other types of creation, such as skywriting, or extemporaneous
performances that are not recorded, cannot be protected by copyright. In order to get the protection of
copyright, no notice is required, nor is registration essential.
These changes came about as a result of the United States signing the Berne Convention in
1988, a worldwide treaty that provided agreement among nations for each to protect the copyrights of
the others under a country’s own laws. This agreement made copyright enforcement easier because
one only needed to know the copyright laws of one’s own country rather than those of hundreds of
nations. For example, if you were to write a book and publish it in the United States, you would
only have to make appropriate registration here in the U.S. France, Germany, and Egypt (among
many others) would protect your work under their laws as if the work had been registered in all of
those countries. This agreement also makes copyright compliance easier from a user’s point of view
in that we only have to know the copyright laws of one country—our own. The U.S. protects the

copyrights of all the Berne signatories under the laws of the U.S. In most instances, we needn’t learn the
copyright rules of France, Germany, and Egypt or any of the other countries signing the treaty.
HOWEVER, if one wishes to be able to sue for damages should the copyright be infringed,
“timely” registration of the copyright is required. The necessary information on registration of a
copyright is available from the Copyright Office in Washington, DC (www.copyright.gov).
Registration requires submission of a number of copies of the work to the Copyright
Office, along with a completed form and the necessary fee. The fee varies from time to time and
from type of work registered, but typically it is about $30 per work. Works can be registered as a
“collection,” so someone who writes short stories or haiku can rest assured that they won’t go broke
registering each small item.
What can’t be protected by copyright?

An important concept in copyright law is that facts are not protectable. Facts are owned by all
mankind, and no one person owns, for example, the multiplication tables, or the list of the 10
longest rivers in the world. However, if someone were to write a narrative about either of those two
factual representations, as long as there was a modicum of creativity involved, the expression of
those facts would be protected by copyright to the extent that the expression was creative.
Works that have not been fixed in a tangible medium of expression, such as dance that has not
been codified or recorded, or an improvisational speech that has not been transcribed or recorded,
cannot be protected by copyright. Recent upheaval about university note-taking services such as
cramster.com have emphasized that course lecture notes are protected by copyright because they are
fixed, but the actual delivery of the lecture (unless the notes are read verbatim) is not protected.
Professors who tape-record their lectures or who have them stenographically recorded may own the
copyright on those lectures.
Titles, short phrases, names, common symbols or designs (like a stop
Q: We’d like to print sign), slight variations on type styles, lettering or coloring, or lists of ingredients
cannot be protected by copyright. Ideas, procedures, methods, and discoveries are
and sell a recipe book
for a fundraiser. What not protectable, but descriptions or illustrations of these items may be protected by
copyright implications copyright. Works containing only non-protected material with no original
are there? authorship, such as plain calendars, lists of common facts, charts of measures, etc.
are not protected.
A: Recipes consisting Works created by the U.S. Government may not be protected by
copyright. This prohibition involves works created by members of Congress
of lists of ingredients
and simple assembly within their congressional duties, or employees of federal agencies as part of
instructions may be freely their job responsibilities. Some federally funded projects written by non-
reproduced as they are not federal employees may have copyright protection, so it is always wise to
protectable by copyright. investigate the copyright status of any work before making free use of it. The
In fact, similar recipes in works of state and local governmental agencies may or may not be protected
published cookbooks may by copyright.
be used. The copyright on
most cookbooks is primarily
a “compilation copyright”—
a copyright on the selection
and arrangement of the
items, not on the items
themselves.

Check thoroughly Did you know?
Works that are not creative cannot be protected by copyright. In 1991, the All transactions transferring
Supreme Court held that a traditional alphabetical telephone directory did ownership or any exclusive
not contain enough original, non-factual materials to be considered right in copyrights must be
eligible for copyright protection (Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Telephone done in writing. Verbal
Service Co., Inc., 499 U.S. 340 (1991)). agreements and simple
statements such as “I claim
no copyright in this work”
Work for hire are not binding unless they
are signed. Nonexclusive
Now, I will tell you that I have lied to you. While it is true that a licenses need not be written.
copyright vests at the moment of creation, it doesn’t always go to the
creator. Take, for example, a classroom teacher who teaches fourth
grade science. For her class, she creates a series of science worksheets. The worksheets are particularly
effective, so the teacher would like to compile the worksheets into a book that she will offer to a
publisher. The only catch to this plan is that the teacher’s district owns the copyright in the
worksheets, barring any contract or agreement that would restrict that arrangement. The reason this
is true is that the worksheets were created as part of the teacher’s job. This concept is known as
“work for hire.” Just about anything that a teacher does within the context of his or her job could be
claimed as the intellectual property of the school. A common question is to inquire if doing the work
at home or on weekends or vacation makes any difference in the work for hire rules. Actually, no, it
makes no difference. If the work was done “within the scope of employment” it matters little where
or when the work was done. If the work was for fourth grade science, in this example, the school
could make a very good case that the work belonged to them. However, if you are teaching fourth
grade science, but write a college physics textbook in your spare time at home, the school would be
hard pressed to convince a court that this work was part of your work as a fourth grade science
teacher.
Since a teacher doesn’t own the copyright in the work made for hire, he has the same
limitations on materials he created as the average teacher-on-the-street. If the teacher changes districts,
he should ask the district he is leaving if he may have permission to continue to use and/or adapt those
materials. Get that permission in writing.
An idea to create something isn’t sufficient to achieve a copyright since ideas themselves are not
protectable, but the actual creation of the work is. So if you came up with an idea for some exam
review materials or flash cards, but other district employees actually write the items themselves, you
would likely not have a claim on the copyright in those items. If there are other contributors to the
work, such that no one person is responsible, you would have difficulty claiming ownership of the
copyright even if the initial idea were yours. If this work were mounted within an online site, for
example, Web designers, instructional designers, etc. can all be considered partial “authors,” and if
they are district employees, there would be a strong case that the district is the owner of the work.
A clause in teacher contracts regarding copyright ownership can forestall later
disagreements. On the other hand, contract work may or may not be work for hire, depending on
the contract written. Specific types of work such as parts of a collective work (e.g. book chapters),
part of a film or other audiovisual work, a test, an instructional text, a translation, etc. (though not a
sound recording) can be considered works for hire but only if there is a written contract so stating.
So, a teacher who works over the summer under a supplemental, piece work contract to produce a
curriculum guide might, in fact, own the copyright to the guide produced. The school would want to
have a written agreement, signed by all parties, to assure that the copyright of the resulting product
belongs, in fact, to the school. Some schools have encountered problems with this facet of copyright law
when dealing with volunteers (adult or student) who work on school Web pages. Forewarned is forearmed.

Duration of copyright
Copyright, as of the publication date of this book, lasts for the life of the author, plus 70 years. If
there are two or more authors, the work is protected for the life of the longest lived author, plus 70
years. For works of corporate authorship (such as a film where there are dozens of contributors, or a
committee report or other internal document of an organization), works for hire and pseudonymous
works, copyright protection extends for 95 years from the date a work is published or 120 years
from the date it was created, whichever is shorter. For works published by a group (the National
Education Association or the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, for
example) or works of diffuse authorship such as a film (there is a producer, director, actors, editors,
musicians, set designers, wardrobe, make up, etc. who all contribute to the final product) the
duration of copyright is 95 years from the date of creation of the work. Works published before
1923 are currently in the public domain in the United States. Those created prior to 1923 but never
published may still be protected. Those created between 1923 and 1978
have varying periods of copyright protection. The time of creation (or
Q: I wrote a detailed registration) determines if, and how long, a work is protected. Laura
instructional unit for Gasaway, librarian and law professor, has a Web page that explains when
teaching a novel. This works pass out of the protection of copyright at:
unit was used in my ninth http://www.unc.edu/~unclng/public-d.htm.
grade English class, but The durations identified above pertain to works created after October 27,
I wrote it entirely on my 1998 when the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act went into
own time and at home. effect. A work created today will not be in the public domain within our
Do I own the copyright in lifetimes if the effective term of protection is not shortened. In fact, under
this unit? this law the work will not be out of copyright protection before almost
every human currently alive on the planet has died. Considering the
A: The answer is Constitutional wording of “to preserve for a limited time…,” life plus
“maybe.” If this unit was seventy years certainly seems like forever.
created independently of A Supreme Court ruling on the constitutionality of the law was
your teaching duties, and prompted by a lawsuit filed by publisher Eric Eldred. Publisher Eldred
you just happened to use contended that the term of copyright no longer met the “limited time”
it at a later date, you could requirement now that the term had been extended for 20 years. The
make a good case that the Supreme Court ruled that as long as there is a finite time imposed by the
copyright is yours. law, the law meets the constitutional requirement (Eldred v. Ashcroft). Other
However, if the unit was cases are being prepared to fine tune the challenge, so more deliberation on
created expressly for your this topic is possible in the future.
ninth grade class, the district How do you know if a work is protected? If a work was created in
would have a good case the United States after January 1, 1978 you know that the work was
for ownership of the unit. automatically protected by copyright at the moment it was “fixed” or
Since “within the scope of written down, saved to disk, painted on canvas, etc. After 1989, there need
employment”: doesn’t be no “C-in-a-circle” mark (©) or other notification of copyright, and the
specify hours and days, author need not have registered his work with the Copyright Office in
and since most teachers order to own a life-plus-70 years copyright on the work. For works created
do grading, etc. at home, prior to January 1, 1978, a notice of copyright and registration with the
the school could assert Copyright Office were required to obtain valid copyright protection. Those
this was within the scope works published without such notice were considered to be in the public
of your employment. Agree domain—without formal copyright protection. For various other periods of
in advance who owns time back to 1923, different rules and durations of copyright protection
these types of projects. were in effect. See Laura Gasaway’s chart for more detailed information. For
unpublished works (such as private letters and diaries, manuscripts, family

photos, etc.), however, notice and registration are not required, and
the works retain their copyright protection for many years.
The process for registering a copyright is set out by type of
Q: I want to use a book
but it is out of print and
material. All require a $30 registration fee, plus some copy of the material the publisher is out of
being registered. The requirements for the various types of registrable business. Is the book now
materials can be found online at http://www.loc.gov/copyright/circs/. free to reproduce?
Since notice of copyright can be an important factor in
determining responsibility for willful infringement, the Digital
Millennium Copyright Act included strict new regulations regarding
A: Out of print is not
the same as out of copyright
removal of what the Act calls “copyright management information.” (or public domain). If the
Such information can include the actual copyright notice affixed, but work is (or might be) still
also might include the names of the author and copyright holder, protected by copyright
performers, writers, title, etc. Removal of copyright information will based on its original date
be especially important in cases of school and library photocopying. of publication (after 1922),
Under previous iterations of the law, a simple notice of possible someone may own the
copyright was sufficient to protect from complicity in copy copyright. Use the
infringements. Most libraries used a basic ALA-approved stamp Copyright Office files to
stating “NOTICE: This material may be protected by Copyright Law locate the current owner
(Title 17 U.S. Code).” Under DMCA this warning would no longer for permission. Some
be sufficient. If a work’s copyright notice can be found, the entire publishing contracts allow
notice must be included (either photocopied or hand written) with out of print books to revert
the copies. If no copyright notice can be found on the work, the to the author. Try contacting
former stamp would be sufficient. the author(s) as well.
Recent laws
Copyright hasn’t stayed static since the passage of the 1976 revision.
Q: Could you give me
a simplified version of just
In virtually every session of Congress, someone introduces (and often
what the international
passes) a bill that tweaks copyright law in some fashion. Recent
copyright law says? I’m in
changes have brought significant changes to how copyright is
an international school in
administered and interpreted. Supreme Court and other federal court
the UAE and the amount
rulings have created de facto law under which some or all of the
of copying from texts here
country have to live. (United States District and Circuit Court rulings
has really surprised me.
are only binding for the area of the country the court covers. Only
U.S. Supreme Court rulings are binding for the entire United States.)
The United States also signs treaties that impact copyright
A: There is no such
thing as “international”
practice. Most require matching legislation to make U.S. law dovetail
copyright law. Each country
with the requirements of the treaty. One of the most important recent
has its own laws. If the
copyright treaties is the Berne Convention,. Under Berne, the countries
country signed the Berne
agreed to protect the works of other signatory countries under the
Convention, they protect
laws of the other countries who signed the agreement. For example, a
the intellectual property of
French work being used in the United States would be protected
other countries under their
under the laws of the United States. This practice simplifies matters in
own laws. You need to find
that we in the U.S. only need to know U.S. law to know how we can
out what UAE copyright law
use materials from other countries. Some of the more important
is, and if they signed
copyright-related laws passed since 1976 include:
Berne. Then you will know
where you stand.

Net Theft
The “No Electronic Theft” Act, signed into law on December 16, 1997, closed a loophole in earlier
criminal law that allowed those who intentionally shared copyrighted computer software via the
Internet to be exempt from criminal prosecution if the suspect made no profit on the exchange.
Reproduction of copies worth, in total, over $1000 brings the act into play. Trading software with a
total value of more than $1000 also is covered under this law. NET Theft first declared that
reproduction and distribution may be by electronic as well as physical means (UCLA, 1998; United
States Department of Justice, 1998). “Computer software” in this law includes MP3 files, so those
who trade illegal digital audio files over the Internet could fall into the criminal category established
in this Act.
Visual Artists Rights Act

Passed in 1990, the Visual Artists Rights Act puts artists in control of their works in more ways than
standard copyright allows. It is significant for those who create derivative works, because the artist has
complete control over attribution of his work, even when the physical work has been sold. It is also
significant if you have art, even student produced art, in your school.
The artist has the right to both claim authorship in his work when such attribution has
been denied, as well as deny authorship when work has been misattributed or the artist’s own work
has been changed to the point that the artist feels attribution would be harmful to his reputation. In
addition, the artist has the right to prevent the intentional modification of a work, or the destruction
of a work of “recognized stature.”
Rights granted by VARA exist until the close of the calendar year in which the artist dies,
and are not transferable to anyone. Even if the artist sells the physical art and/or the copyright in the
art, the artist retains the rights granted by VARA. The rights apply to paintings, drawings, prints,
photographs, or sculpture, created as unique items or in limited editions of 200 or fewer copies.
Certain types of art are specifically excluded from the grant of rights under this act (Hoffman, 2002).
DMCA
Signed into law in October, 1998, the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) was opposed
from its inception. Library, scientific, and academic groups have long found the provisions of the act
to be overbroad and far-reaching.
Basically, the DMCA updated copyright law to account for the Internet and digital
technologies. Key provisions included:
• you may not “break” copy protection on software (computer or DVD) (known as the
“anti-circumvention” section).
• libraries and schools may crack software or to access purchased/licensed software that is
not working properly, or to view the list of blocked Web sites in an Internet filter ONLY.
• schools that provide Internet access can be protected from copyright infringement
claims if they register an employee as the district’s agent with the copyright office and
follow a set of procedures in the event of a claim.
• you must pay a statutory fee to “webcast” sound recordings.
• the Register of Copyrights was ordered to undertake an overview of digital distance
learning provisions and prepare a report of recommendations to Congress (UCLA,
2001). Note: this was accomplished and the resulting report developed into the
TEACH Act.

• include the complete copyright notice of the original on copies of protected materials
(Lutzker, 1999).
• a computer technician may make a RAM or backup copy of computer software while
doing computer hardware repair.
• libraries and archives can make up to three digital copies of works for preservation
purposes (this assumes the works are out of print and in danger of destruction from
age or condition), but the works may not be used or distributed outside the premises
of the library or archives.
• establishes statutory fees for digital transmission of sound recordings and making the
ephemeral copies that are necessary for such transmission (Band, 2001).
• libraries may migrate works held on obsolete media to current technologies, but the
transfers may be made only if you can’t buy the same work in a non-obsolete format
(Harper, 2001). “Obsolete” means that the hardware to perform or display the work
must no longer be available for purchase in the marketplace. Eight track tapes and
Beta format videotapes are obsolete. VHS videotapes and phonograph records are not.
(Note that this permission is given to libraries but not to schools or other organizations.
A school library can claim both the library and educational exemptions of the law,
but only for those items held in the library.)
As you can see, the DMCA created extensive changes in copyright practice as far as digital
materials are concerned. Libraries and other groups were not pleased about many of the provisions
reported here, and still seek modification of the law.
Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act

The Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act (CTEA) went into effect after it was signed by
President Clinton in October, 1998. The Act extended the copyright of all items under copyright as
of the date of the implementation of the Act. Because of the impact of this Act, no published works
will enter the public domain until January 1, 2019, at which time all works published in 1923 will
enter the public domain. Before the implementation of this Act, the term of copyright was life of
the author plus 50 years. The Act extended the term of copyright to life of the author plus 70 years,
or 95 years of date of creation for corporate works, films, etc. The bill was heavily promoted by the
Disney companies because Mickey Mouse would have entered the public domain (through the
expiration of the copyright in Steamboat Willie) on January 1, 2003.
The Act was heavily opposed by librarians and publishers of public domain works, and
publisher Eric Eldred chose to challenge the Act by requesting an injunction. In January 2003, the
U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the Act was constitutional, paving the way for its implementation.
(Eldred v. Ashcroft, 537 U.S. 186, 2003).
Digital Performance Right in Sound Recordings Act

This Act, passed in 1995, granted the sixth right to copyright holders. The right limits the digital
transmission performance of a sound recording. Digital transmission would include Internet
transmissions and certain digital satellite transmissions.
TEACH
The Technology, Education And Copyright Harmonization Act (TEACH Act) established the rules
under which copyright protected materials could be used in online education. The Act is the result
of a requirement of the DMCA under which the Register of Copyright conducted hearings around

the country to determine what legislative action was needed to facilitate the use of copyright protected
materials in distance learning. Under the 1976 iteration of copyright law, “transmission” of a copyright
protected work was prohibited, therefore rendering online transmission of copyrighted works illegal
without explicit permission even when a face to face showing of the same work for educational use
would meet the fair use exemptions. The TEACH Act established a set of criteria that, if followed
by schools, would allow the use of limited amounts of copyright protected materials when used in
qualifying educational situations.
Penalties for infringement

Should a person choose to ignore the law, the penalty for copyright infringement is not a minor
inconvenience. Damages can be actual (true financial damages suffered) or statutory (set by law),
depending on how the suit is filed and whether the copyright to the infringed work was registered
before the infringement commenced. Statutory fines range from $750 to $30,000 per infringement,
with each individual work or event constituting a separate act of work infringed. A limited exception
permits truly unwary infringers (also called innocent infringers) to have their fines reduced to as little
as $200 per work infringed, but such reduction in penalty is at the discretion of the court. To qualify
for such an exception, an infringer would have to present a strong case that they truly believed (with
reasonable justification) that their use of the work was not infringing. The presence of a copyright
notice would, for example, be an excellent reason to believe that an infringement was intentional. If
the court decides the infringement was knowledgeable and intentional, statutory damages can run as
high as $150,000 per instance. Legal fees and court costs can escalate the true cost of losing a
copyright infringement case, since an infringer may be required to pay the copyright holder’s attorney
fees and court costs as well as the statutory penalties. Of course, there is no cost that can be put on lost
sleep and worry. Most copyright suits are civil matters, but in 1992 the penalty for criminal
infringement of computer software copyright (commonly called “piracy”) was raised to felony status,
with fines up to $250,000! To become a criminal offense, 10 illegal copies with a total value of
$2,500+ worth of software are all that is required. For complete information about potential penalties
and liabilities, see Chapter 5 of U.S. Copyright law at: http://www.loc.gov/copyright/title17/
chapter05.pdf. As of April, 2005, taping a film in a theatre and distributing all types of non-print
works being prepared for commercial distribution were also criminalized via the Artists’ Rights and
Theft Prevention Act. See Brad Templeton’s “Ten Big Myths about Copyright Explained” for more
surprising information about copyright at: http://www.templetons.com/brad/copymyths.html.
Some examples of different types of infringement would be:
Innocent infringement — A teacher reads in a journal that an item has fallen into public
domain and makes copies. In truth, the journal confused two items
of similar title.
Standard infringement — A librarian makes copies of an article for a class many months in
advance without making any attempt to contact the copyright
holder and obtain permission.
Willful infringement — A principal asks permission to reproduce copies of a journal article
for the faculty and is denied. He makes the copies anyway without
a reasonable basis to believe he didn’t need permission.
When a court finds that a copyright has been infringed, it may take one of several courses of action.
An injunction prohibits the infringer from making any further use or copies of the work infringed.
This penalty is used primarily in cases of large-scale use or copying for profit. The court might also

impound or destroy infringing copies. Of course monetary damages are generally sought, and those
damages may be actual or statutory. Actual damages are usually requested only in large-scale piracy
cases, since the copyright holder must prove lost profits. However, if a school were to do something
egregious such as making mass copies of workbooks, lost profits might be more appropriate than the
legally established fines. Statutory damages are the type most often requested in suits against schools
and school personnel, and since the costs are applied per item copied they can mount up quickly.
Court costs may be assessed to the loser of a copyright action. Attorneys’ fees of the prevailing party
may also be charged to the loser of an infringement suit, but a prevailing plaintiff will only get the
fees if the copyrighted work in dispute has been registered with the Copyright Office within the
time frame prescribed by law. A prevailing defendant can get fees and costs whether or not the
copyright was filed in a timely manner. The court must make the determination of fees.
Is there an easily accessible record of suits against schools that one may consult? No. While
it is true that court decisions are generally public records, the vast majority (maybe 99.9%) of
copyright infringement actions are settled out of court. Out of court settlements are between the
parties involved, especially when there are no criminal actions involved. The parties may choose to
keep the negotiations private, in which case neither party will talk about the events. For that reason,
it is difficult to determine how much a school is typically fined for copyright violations. One hears
of schools who have been required to purchase legal copies of all software found to be installed
illegally, or to purchase a license to show entertainment videos when those had been shown without
public performance rights. Other situations may involve punitive fines for illegal reproduction of
workbooks or other print materials.
If someone in the district or building violates copyright, that person pays the fine, right?
Well, not exactly. Copyright watchdog groups report the results of infringement actions, both as
spoils of victory and warnings to potential infringers. Most of the reported cases indicate that the
classroom teacher or librarian is only the beginning in naming liable parties. Many suits go right up
the chain of command, from librarian, to principal, to curriculum director, to superintendent, to
the board of education under the assumption that these parties are aware of and responsible for the
actions of their employees. The copyright owner looks for the “deep pockets” in most instances, but
when suing schools the copyright owner is more likely to be making a statement or setting a
precedent. They want to make an impact on all educators who will hear of the suit.
Two supplemental forms of liability enter the picture at this point. School employees can be
considered contributory infringers if they assisted or helped the infringer to do the infringing act or
if they were in a position to control the use of the copyrighted work. An example of such a situation
would be a librarian who loaned two videocassette recorders and a set of patch cords with
knowledge that they would be used to copy a copyrighted video. The librarian helped the infringer
to perform the act by providing equipment to aid the infringement. Why would someone want two
VCRs and patch cords except to copy a video? The new dual deck VCRs or DVD-R machines
present a problem. While a VCR DVD player is convenient to check out because it can handle
every technology, if the machine can copy media from one format to the other, you are presenting
an infringement technology when you check it out. In addition, the librarian may have provided the
program that will be copied with knowledge that the tape will be infringed. If the librarian is in a
position to refuse the loan, but makes the loan anyway while knowing that an infringement will
occur, she can be considered a contributory infringer.
Employers would be vicarious infringers if they had reason to know an employee was
violating copyright and had the power to stop the infringement but took no action. An example of
vicarious infringement would be a principal who had been notified that an infringement was taking
place but who took no action to stop the theft. Both vicarious and contributory infringers are just as
liable as the person who actually made the copies or used the material.

Liability
The teacher’s liability— Teachers control many copyrighted works: books, workbooks, video,
computer software. Misusing the copyright protected materials puts
the teacher at the center of a copyright controversy. The teacher may
or may not need assistance to violate copyright, but for the most part
the teacher will be the beginning of a chain of copyright liability.
The technician’s liability— Technicians exert control of many aspects of technology. During
the course of their jobs, they are aware of certain file transactions,
programs installed, and other activities of the network
environment. If a technician knows that students (or teachers) are
trafficking in illegal materials of any kind, but take no action to
stop the activity, they may be found to be complicit.
The librarian’s liability— We’ve all heard of “chain of command.” Liability works in much the
same way. If infringing copies are made on library-owned equipment,
it’s a good bet that the librarian who loaned the equipment could be
involved in the infringement action. A case could be made that the
librarian knew (or should have known) that the event would be an
infringing action. Only with the support of a strong copyright policy,
good record keeping, and thorough staff training would the librarian
(and administrators) be able to prove that the infringer was acting as
an individual.
The principal’s liability— The principal is the instructional and administrative leader in the
school. As such, the principal must be aware of curriculum, student
issues, staffing and personnel responsibilities, extra curricular
activities, equipment and resources, and dozens of other issues
affecting the building. With such a vast array of knowledge it’s
understandable that when a copyright infringement occurs in a
school, the copyright owner will assume that the principal had at
least passing knowledge of the event or control over those persons
committing the infringement. In either case, the principal could be
at minimum a vicarious or contributory infringer. Such a
possibility raises the likelihood that the principal will be named in
any potential infringement action against the school.
As you can see, the technician, librarian, and administrator are at some risk from the illegal
activities of others. To that end, it is worthwhile to establish and maintain clear and thorough copyright
records, and to inform school personnel and patrons of their obligations under the copyright law.
Administrators, once schooled on copyright, would probably appreciate notification when
violations are observed. This isn’t to say that the librarian, teacher, or computer technician becomes
the “copyright police.” On the contrary, these staff members aren’t charged with enforcing the
copyright law. That falls to the FBI and the Justice Department. But the librarian and the
technician are doing the students and staff of the school and the district a disservice to ignore a
potentially damaging and embarrassing legal situation. Apprising a principal of a legal violation is
akin to notifying her of a fire code violation so it may be corrected before the fire inspector arrives
for inspection. Forewarned is forearmed.

State copyright laws
Until 1978, both the state and the federal governments could prosecute most copyright
infringement cases. When the 17 U.S.C. § 301 came into effect, anything within the scope of
copyright became part of the federal jurisdiction. The legislative history of this section states: “(a)s
long as a work fits within one of the general subject matter categories (of federal statutory
copyrights), the bill prevents the states from protecting it even if it fails to achieve federal statutory
copyright because it is too minimal or lacking in originality to qualify, or because it has fallen into
the public domain.” States do retain some laws to protect sales of sound recordings (most of which
are not covered in federal copyright protection, although the underlying printed music is) and
videos under piracy statutes (USDOJ, 1997).
Related laws
Copyright law doesn’t exist in a vacuum. Other types of laws may be factored into any analysis of a
situation involving copyright. Those other aspects of the law may include state contract laws, state
and federal privacy laws, and federal trademark law, among others.
Contract law
Contract law is the big gun when it comes to trumping an issue of copyright. U.S. copyright law
provides certain rights and obligations on the part of copyright owners and those who would use
copyrighted materials, but any of those may be swept away by a valid contract. Contract law is, of itself,
quite complex; however, it is important to understand that one may sign away virtually all fair use rights
given under copyright law just by signing a license (a form of contract) that abrogates those rights.
Privacy statutes
There are a few federal privacy statutes; most deal with how the government can use and control
information that it keeps on citizens. There are dozens of state laws that protect privacy. Laws in
states such as California and New York, where many celebrities live, tend to be more restrictive of
personal information than in states with fewer notable persons. Whereas copyright may protect a
photograph, privacy laws protect a person’s likeness and image. So while a photo of Marilyn
Monroe, for example, may be in the public domain, the privacy statutes of California might prevent
anyone from using that photograph (and hence her likeness) for commercial advantage without the
permission of Monroe’s estate (EPIC, 2004).
Trademark law
Akin to copyright, but dealing with identifiable items related to business, short phrases, symbols, logos,
etc., trademarks are their own universe of intellectual property. Administered by the United States
Patent and Trademark Office, these marks may be maintained perpetually. As long as the trademark
owner uses the mark actively and defends it from falling into common use as a generic term (such as
what happened to the trade name of “Aspirin”) the mark may be reserved for the trademark owner.
Trademarks, just like copyrights, may be sold, traded, etc. Service marks, identifying services rather
than products, are also part of the body of trademarks (Legal Information Institute, 2004).

Why is any of this significant for schools?
A school may find itself in copyright hot water in any of several ways. Most common is to receive a
cease and desist letter. Such a letter may be sent from a company or its attorneys, and generally
states that the company is aware that you have violated copyright in some manner. The letter usually
goes on to state what you are alleged to have done, and what demands the company is making for
reparation.
It is not a good idea to ignore such a letter. In most cases the letter will demand some
response from you by a given date. If the company does not receive a response to their allegations by
that date, further legal action may be taken. If you feel that the allegations are unfounded, you
should take this opportunity to present your side of the case to the company or other representative
of the copyright holder. But don’t take such a step without advising your administrators so they can
be prepared for possible legal action. They may also prefer to involve the school’s legal counsel in
any discussions with a potential litigant. One word of caution: copyright courses are not required in
most law schools. Your school’s counsel may have taken many courses in education law, but none at
all in copyright. Urge a consultation with a copyright specialist if you are uncomfortable with the
advice your counsel is giving.
Another way schools may find themselves in trouble might be when a representative of a
copyright holder directly contacts someone in the school who is believed to be a wrongdoer. This
author was paid a visit by a software company representative who alleged that the library in which
the author was working used illegal copies of a popular computer program. When appropriately
licensed copies were produced, the company representative politely left. If one can easily resolve the
potential conflict with a little cooperation and open discourse, that should be the appropriate tack.
The last way a school might find itself in trouble is to have an attorney or process server
appear at the school. They may be accompanied by or be represented by the FBI and/or federal
marshals. Situations such as this require immediate attention of your administration and legal
counsel. As a rule, such incidents do not occur without cause, and there is generally sufficient
evidence that the plaintiff has convinced a federal judge that there is likelihood of wrongdoing on
the part of your building or district and that evidence will likely be concealed or destroyed if not
seized. This is the most serious of cases.
How is a school prosecuted?

Schools may be sued for real or actual damages, or they may be sued for the fines set forth within
the law. For a school to be sued for real or actual damages, the amount of material used and the
possible loss in value (tangible or intangible) to the copyright holder would likely exceed the
damages set forth in the law (statutory damages). Attorney’s fees and court costs get added to the
fine amount. Because most cases of use in schools don’t involve amounts over $30,000, few cases
demand actual damages. Cases where schools systematically duplicate workbooks without paying
royalties, or have vast amounts of illegal computer software are two types of copyright actions in
which actual damages would be more beneficial to the copyright holder.

What if there is no trial?
The vast majority of copyright cases (both involving schools and others) are settled out of court.
While such a settlement is always a relief to the school, the rest of us are disappointed because a
definitive court ruling helps to define the boundaries of copyright. Copyright is an ever-changing
landscape, with shifting borders. A court ruling helps attorneys and consumers to understand what
can be considered appropriate behavior regarding copyright protected materials.
Out of court settlements aren’t necessarily inexpensive, however. A recent case against Los
Angeles USD was settled out of court for $300,000 in fines plus attorney’s fees (Business, 1999;
Blair, 1998). In addition, the school was required to purchase at retail value all the computer
software that had been installed illegally. The total cost for the incident amounted to about $5
million! So while an out of court settlement may reduce stress simply to have it behind, the option
may not be a good one in terms of finances. A good attorney who specializes in intellectual property
is the best person to consult in such a situation. He or she can analyze the situation and determine
if the likelihood of winning a court case might make out of court settlement a poor idea.
Why worry, why bother?

So your school doesn’t comply with copyright. What difference does it make? Do you feel that no
one will ever know in most cases, and no one will even care? Perhaps you have heard that schools are
such “small potatoes” that big producers and publishers don’t really care because a school doesn’t
have deep enough pockets for anyone to get a big settlement. You may have even heard that schools
are exempt from copyright suits.
Don’t believe it! Schools encounter copyright actions on a daily basis. Most are quickly
resolved in a professional manner, and no public record exists. These types of actions are the type for
which one can do no research. The author maintains a database of copyright infringement actions
against schools at: http://www.school-library.org. There you can see a sampling of a variety of
copyright actions told in the voices of those close to the situations. If you know of a copyright
action, from a cease and desist letter to a full-blown lawsuit, please add it to the database of cases so
we can all share in the information of what is actionable, and how other school districts dealt with
the situation.
Copyright compliance is as much an ethical issue as a legal one. Does one take something
that belongs to another and appropriate it? Of course not! One also would not walk into the
crowded lunch line in the cafeteria and take a dessert without paying for it. “Taking something that
doesn’t belong to me?” the teacher declares indignantly. “I would never do such a thing, especially
with students watching!” But the same person might stand in front of a class and instruct, “See how
we can right click on this graphic and save it to our disk to use however we desire?” Under these
facts, taking the work of others appears to be only inappropriate in certain circumstances.
Copyright law is federal law. Perhaps you live a long way from the District of Columbia,
and you don’t think anyone there will know what is going on in your small district. The law is a
pain to keep up with, and there are few clear cut rules, so you might just as well pretend it doesn’t
exist. However, your district probably has a policy regarding copyright compliance. If you feel that
Washington it too far away to be a threat, what about your local school board? The penalty for
violating a school board policy can be loss of a job. If Washington doesn’t frighten you, perhaps the
fear of being caught violating board policy would. The fact remains; the law is still the law, even if
we don’t like it. Those who don’t like the law should work to change it, not just ignore it.

Works cited
Band, Jonathan. (2001). The Digital Millennium Copyright Act. Washington, DC:
Association of Research Libraries. Retrieved June 19, 2004 from
http://www.arl.org/info/frn/copy/band.html.
Blair, Julie. (1998). Pirated software could prove costly to L.A. District. Education Week.
Retrieved June 14, 2004 from http://www.edweek.org/ew/vol-17/43soft.h17.
Business Software Alliance. (24 February 1999). Five Southern California Organizations
Settle Software Copyright Claims. Retrieved January 5, 2004 from
http://www.bsa.org/usa/press/newsreleases/Five-Southern-California-Organizations-
Settle-Software-Copyright-Claims.cfm.
Eldred v. Ashcroft, 537 U.S. 186, (2003).
Electronic Privacy Information Center. (2004). EPIC Archive – Privacy.
Retrieved August 3, 2004 from http://www.epic.org/privacy/.
Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Telephone Service Co., Inc., 499 U.S. 340 (1991).
Harper, Georgia (2001)
Hearn v. Meyer, 664 F. Supp. 832
Hoffman, I. (2002). The visual artists rights act. Retrieved June 18, 2004 from
http://www.ivanhoffman.com/vara.html.
Hotaling v. Church of Jesus of Latter-Day Saints, 118 F. 3d 199 (4th Cir. 1997).
Legal Information Institute. (2004). LII: Law About …Trademark.
Retrieved August 3, 2004 from http://www.law.cornell.edu/topics/trademark.html.
Lutzker, Arnold. (1999). Memorandum. Retrieved June 18, 2004 from
http://www.arl.org/info/frn/copy/notice.html.
UCLA Online Institute for Cyberspace Law and Policy. (1998). The ‘No Electronic Theft’ Act.
Retrieved June 18, 2004 from http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/iclp/hr2265.html.
UCLA Online Institute for Cyberspace Law and Policy. (2001). The Digital Millennium
Copyright Act. Retrieved June 18, 2004 from http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/iclp/dmca1.htm.
United States Department of Justice. (1997). Criminal Resource Manual 1844 Copyright
Law—Preemption of State Law. Retrieved August 3, 2004 from
http://www.usdoj.gov/usao/eousa/foia_reading_room/usam/title9/crm01844.htm.
United States Department of Justice. (1998). The ‘No Electronic Theft’ Act.
Retrieved June 18, 2004 from http://www.cybercrime.gov/netsum.htm.

Chapter 2
Public Domain
What is it?
A work not protected by copyright is considered to be in the public domain. A work can be missing
copyright protection in any of several ways.
How does something get into the public domain?

A work can become part of the public domain (PD) through different means. The work may not be
eligible for copyright protection at all. It might not be “creative,” or it might not be created by a
person. Other factors come into play when considering copyrightability as well.
A work must be considered “creative” in order to qualify for copyright protection. For that
reason, facts are not eligible for the protection of copyright. For example, a simple list of the 10
longest rivers in the world is factual, and not eligible for the protection of copyright. However, if
you were to write an essay about the 10 longest rivers, and describe their surroundings, and their
ecology, and talk about the important economic benefits each provides for its watershed, the
expression of the facts regarding the rivers is creative and protectable. However, anyone is free to
make use of the factual material included within the essay. The most important court case to discuss
this concept is know as the Feist decision, decided by the U.S. Supreme Court (see section on
Related cases at the end of this chapter.)
A work created by a gorilla or an elephant, for example, can be highly creative, but because
it was not created by a human the work does not qualify for copyright protection. To be protected,
the work must be created by a human being. In this day of computer-generated text, questions may
arise about works created by computers.
Works created by U.S. Federal government employees during the course of their duties are
not eligible for copyright protection. Speeches of the U.S. President, acts of Congress, booklets
prepared for various federal agencies, U.S. Government Web pages, all would be free from copyright
protection. Use caution in gathering material from government sites, however, as they may have
used licensed art (such as from Microsoft Office) or other materials in their works. Also, it is a
common misconception to think that because federal government documents are in the public
domain, that all governmental entities also place their materials in the public domain. This is not
the case, and should be investigated on a case by case, agency by agency basis. Some school districts
and state agencies claim no copyright in their curriculum guides, policies, etc. Others protect and
defend their documents strongly. When in doubt, ask.
Chapter Two: Public Domain 35

Works, created during the period when a specific type of copyright notice was required, fell
into the public domain if the notice was defective. For example, a copyright notice had to have the
c-in-a-circle mark, or the word “copyright” to be considered valid. If your typewriter didn’t have a
copyright symbol and you typed a letter c between parentheses instead, your notice was considered
to be defective and your copyright invalid. In such cases, the work immediately fell into the public
domain if the work was published with the defective notice.
Works whose term of copyright has run the full course are no longer eligible for copyright
protection. This class of works would include all those published before January 1, 1923.
Shakespeare’ plays, for example, aren’t protected by copyright in their original form as they were
published before 1923. If notes, commentary, or background information have been added to the
play, however, those portions of the works may be covered by copyright (provided they were written
after 1923), as would be contemporary illustrations. Reprints of old novels or classic fiction may
have new copyrights based on new illustration, or new introductory matter. Some unpublished
works—previously protected under common law copyright but now released under new
legislation—started entering the public domain in 2003 if their 70 years-after-death period had
lapsed. Watch for diaries, photographs, manuscripts, etc. to appear in the future as the life + 70
terms run their course.
Works whose copyrights were not renewed, if they were covered during a period when
copyright renewal was required, lost their copyright protection when the copyright was not renewed.
Many silent films were not renewed after talking pictures became popular, so they are now in the
public domain. Some other materials post-1923 are also now in the public domain as a result of
non-renewal. The non-renewal may have been a slip-up on the part of the copyright owner or his
agent, but the results are the same. One must research to find which ones are not protected.
Some materials are dedicated to the public domain by their authors. The Creative
Commons (www.creativecommons.org) is a good example of such works. Scholars contribute their
works to this archive of public domain materials, in the hope that they will benefit scholarship and
society as a whole.
Caveat: Just because a work has no notice of copyright does not mean that the work is in the public
domain. Since 1989, the fact that a work has no copyright notice should not be taken to mean that
the work is not protected by copyright. In fact, because the World Wide Web was created after
1978, most things you see on the WWW are protected by copyright unless they were created by
some entity forbidden to hold copyrights (such as U.S. government agencies) or are a verbatim
reprint of some public domain work such as old (pre-1923) literature. Some scholars also state on
their Web pages that works published there are in the public domain.
How long does public domain last?

Since “public domain” means that a work is not covered by copyright, the rules regarding the length
of copyright coverage do not apply. Currently, once a work has lost its copyright protection and has
passed into the public domain, copyright protection cannot be regained on that work. Therefore,
the public domain lasts, in effect, forever. There is an exception in Section 104 (a) that covers a
particular class of unpublished works by foreign authors, but that exception will seldom apply in a
K-12 school situation.

What can you do with public domain
materials? Q: Is the Bible
considered public
Public domain materials have no copyright restrictions. If a work is in domain? If it is copyright
the public domain, it may be reproduced, adapted, distributed, protected, who would own
performed, displayed, and transmitted. However, it is essential to the copyright?
understand that only the ORIGINAL public domain work has these
options. Subsequent modifications and adaptations may gain for their
adaptors or creators a copyright on the additions or changes. For
A: The answer depends
on the version. The King
example, the original works of Beethoven are long in the public James version is in the
domain. However, no high school orchestras perform the public domain—at least in
ORIGINAL works of Beethoven. In the first place, Beethoven wrote the original translation.
for instruments that are no longer used. In the second place (and New translations may still
even more relevant) the original scores are far too difficult for most be protected. Check the
high school orchestras. To play these works, someone has adapted the copyright date of the
works into versions that are less complex and less difficult without version you are using.
losing the original melody and tone of the piece. While the original Anything copyrighted
parts of the piece are still in the public domain, anything new that is before 1923 is public
added or modified in the derivative work may be protected. domain. (Watch out for
“enhanced” versions,
though. The Bible text
How do you find public domain materials? itself may be public domain,
Public domain materials are everywhere! There are even publishers who but the notes, etc. may still
specialize in public domain materials. Educational publishers use many be protected.)
public domain materials because there are no costs to use them, and the
publishers can edit the materials as they choose. English textbooks, for
example, use materials by Shakespeare, Keats, etc. because they are free, as well as notable.
There are several sources to locate public domain materials. Not all the sources are free
to use, though the public domain materials they help you locate are free to use, once you locate
them in the original versions. Some of the best, such as Public Domain Report
(www.pubdomain.com/index2.htm), are subscription Web sites. But they do offer samples of
music, art, children’s literature, drama, film, and literature. All have been scrupulously researched as
to PD status. The company has a public domain sheet music service, as well. Remember, you can
arrange, translate, modify, publish, etc. any of the public domain materials they provide, so the cost is
negligible if you use the service to any degree.
It is possible to do your own searches for public domain status, but that really means not
finding anything in the copyright office database, plus having definitive information about actual
publication date so you are certain that the version you are working with is the original. Be
cautious, especially if you plan to sell or adapt material for public performance, that you are certain
the version you are using is in the public domain.
What is the difference between “copyright free” and “royalty free”?

A work that is “copyright free” is in the public domain. There are no restrictions on its use. It may
be copied, adapted, distributed, publicly performed or displayed, and transmitted digitally if it is a
sound recording. A work that is “royalty free” may still be protected by copyright (and usually is),
but the copyright owner has elected to forgo collection of royalties for certain uses of the material.
Chapter Two: Public Domain 37

How can I use royalty free materials?
Royalty free materials are usually governed by license. The license will explain in detail how the
collection of materials can be used in your case. Typically, you can use the royalty free art, or music,
in standard broadcast situations or productions/publications without additional payment. The most
usual prohibition on use of royalty free material is to employ the items in another collection of
similar items. For example, many collections of clip art are royalty free, but they are not copyright
free. The artist or copyright owner does claim a copyright on the works, but the owner does not
elect to charge a per use fee on the art as long as the person using the art abides by license
restrictions. Upon reading the software license for the clip art, one discovers that use of the art in
publication, Web pages, derivative works, etc. may be permitted, but it is expressly prohibited to use
the work in another collection of clip art. Such a common prohibition might cause problems for
teachers or librarians who are in the habit of collecting art from various free Web sites or clip art
collections, and gathering them together by theme for their students to have a one-stop-shopping
location for project art. The teacher might put up a page of elephant clip art, for example, if her
third graders were doing multimedia projects on elephants. By putting the royalty free art into a clip
art collection for her class, she has violated the license and the copyright of the art.
Related cases
Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Telephone Service Co., 499 U.S. 340 (1991)
In this case, a publishing company was collecting listings of names, addresses, and telephone
numbers to publish in a private telephone directory. The telephone company objected, contending
that the work was their creative property. The Court held that collections of facts, by themselves, are
not copyrightable, and that some modicum of creativity is required. A simple alphabetical arrangement
of names and telephone numbers was insufficient to qualify as “original.”

Chapter 3
Fair Use
T he law—Title 17, United States Code, Public Law 94-553, 90 Stat. 2541, as amended—
gives citizens special exceptions to the strict legal copyright requirements. The
purpose of these limited exceptions to the exclusive rights of copyright holders is so that
knowledge and scholarship might advance. These special exceptions are called “fair use.”
Fair use, as defined in the law, has certain aspects that apply to everyone, and others that
apply only to certain classes of use, such as use in nonprofit schools.
Copyright law provides several instances in which reproduction of copyrighted items is
permissible. These exceptions to Section 106 (the section where the rights are defined) are
considered the “fair use exemptions” and are found in Section 107 of the law. This section is brief
enough to be reprinted here:
Notwithstanding the provisions of sections 106 and 106A, the fair use of a copyrighted
work, including such use by reproduction in copies or phonorecords or by any other means
specified by that section, for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching
(including multiple copies for classroom use), scholarship, or research, is not an infringement of
copyright. In determining whether the use made of a work in any particular case is a fair use the
factors to be considered shall include:
1. The purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial
nature, or is for nonprofit educational purposes;
2. The nature of the copyrighted work;
3. The amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted
work as a whole; and
4. The effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work
(17 USC , §107).
These four factors are also known as the four tests of fair use. Basically what the law is
saying is that Congress intends to protect the rights of the author while still allowing legitimate
educational and research uses of copyrighted materials.
Fair use is the most misunderstood aspect of copyright law, at least as far as schools are concerned.
Chapter Three: Fair Use 39

Common misconceptions about fair use include:
Misconception #1 — Schools can use any copyright protected materials they wish,
because they are schools.
Misconception #2 — Using materials is OK if you don’t make a profit.
Misconception #3 — Promoting someone’s work by distributing copies is
justification for free use.
Misconception #4 — Materials used “for the good of kids” absolves one of
copyright liability.
Fair use is a balancing act. The idea is to balance carefully the need for an author to protect
his right to exploit his work commercially (or privately), and the need for the public to have access
to the fruits of knowledge so we (the public) can advance scientific and creative endeavors. If
authors weren’t able to profit from their creations and discoveries, few would create or research.
However, in exchange for a limited time exclusive right, the author or discoverer must allow limited
use of the work so that others may build on the creation or discovery in an effort to increase human
knowledge. It is a noble effort, and one with which the courts struggle. To preserve as many of the
rights of each side of the equation as possible is a Herculean task.
What is it?
Fair use provisions of the copyright law grant users conditional rights to use or reproduce certain
copyrighted materials as long as the reproduction or use of those materials meets defined guidelines.
Fair use goes hand in glove with the intent of copyright “to promote the progress of Science and
Useful Arts.” As defined in the law, fair use balances the First Amendment free speech right with the
rights of the author to control the use of his copyrighted work.
Fair use is not a right given to educators or any other person. Fair use is a defense applied in
court to a charge of infringement. When a court considers a claim of fair use, it considers both the
rights of the user and the rights of the author. The burden of proving fair use falls to the educator
using the material, so thorough knowledge of copyright law and associated guidelines is essential for
librarians and educators using copyrighted works. As there is seldom a clear-cut fair use situation it
is incumbent upon the educator to know the conditions under which one may claim fair use.
Difference between fair use and guidelines

Essentially there are two kinds of fair use:
1. Fair use as defined in the Copyright Act (statutory fair use). Every person in the
United States can avail themselves of this concept of fair use. The law defines the
factors that you must consider when making a claim of fair use. Four factors are
defined in the law, and the rights of both the creator and the person wishing to use
the material are considered. While the law does not indicate that any of the factors is
to be considered with any more weight than any of the others, in practice courts have
used some of the factors as more significant than others.

2. Fair use as defined by several sets of guidelines designed for
educators and librarians. These guidelines apply only to
educational and library use of materials. Some guidelines are
Q: I’d like to copy an
outline map of my state.
codified within the law itself (AV guidelines, TEACH Act) What copyright
while others are agreed upon by outside organizations implications do I face?
(multimedia guidelines).
For purposes of simplicity, guidelines are easier to learn and A: Simple outline
administer than going through the fair use tests, but if the guidelines diagrams and maps are
don’t permit a projected use, one can always fall back on the “four not eligible for copyright
tests” fair use assessment to determine if a particular use might be fair, protection. You may copy
regardless of the limits suggested by the guidelines. For example, the these types of materials
multimedia guidelines permit teachers and students to use video clips at will. More complex
of 3 minutes or 10% of the whole if used in a multimedia diagrams and maps require
presentation (additional requirements figure in this analysis). If the the same evaluation
teacher or student wants to use a clip that lasts 3 minutes and 15 process as graphics.
seconds, is that use possible? Since this use exceeds the multimedia
guidelines, the educator or student can then apply the four tests of
fair use to determine if the use might be fair under that assessment.
Since educators have two forms of fair use available (statutory fair use and guidelines), assess
a proposed use from both aspects to see if one will allow the use before abandoning the idea or
attempting to license the use. Keeping the maximum fair uses available to educators is essential if
they don’t wish to enter into a period when fair use is abandoned in favor of licensing.
Examples of fair use analysis

Making a fair use assessment based on the factors outlined in the law (statutory fair use) is not a
simple prospect. The law identifies four factors that must be considered in any fair use assessment.
Some of the factors have sub-factors that must also be considered. While the law doesn’t specify that
any one of the factors has a greater weight than any of the others, in actual practice courts have
given more consideration to at least one of
the four. We will discuss the four factors, Fair Use Factors
then go through a sample analysis. Pro and Con
(many variations of weight are possible)
It may be easier to visualize this as
a process of weighing. Imagine a scale, with
a plate on each side. One plate is “us” (the
educators) and the other is “them” (the
copyright owner). Between the two plates
are four weights that freely slide from side
to side, similar to the scales you remember
from the doctor’s office. The first weights
are not much different in size but the last
weight is bigger than the others. You don’t
want to move that one: just as at the
doctor’s office you get very apprehensive
when the nurse moves that large weight at
the back!
The weights are the four factors
that affect a decision on fair use. Following

are commonsense definitions to help you understand how to adjust those weights. Remember, one
must evaluate ALL four factors before deciding which way the scales will tip. And a weight needn’t
be pushed all the way to one end of the scale or the other. Precious little in copyright is black or
white, pro or con, and fair use is no exception. It isn’t necessary to “win” on all four factors to get a
favorable fair use conclusion. In coming to a reasonable conclusion, it is essential to apply the tests
in the way a court would apply them, not as we might wish they would be applied. Gratuitous
justification is the surest way to get oneself and one’s organization in hot water.
Factor 1: Purpose and character of use

This first factor of fair use is probably the easiest one to assess. It is a two-part test, and either half
could result in a determination of a favorable outcome on this test. As with all the tests, apply this
one objectively.
The first test of fair use encourages educational use of materials, but it has been interpreted
to favor “transformative” uses, such as putting a quotation in a term paper.
A recent court case stated that making low-resolution thumbnail-sized copies of images
available elsewhere on the Internet was a “transformative” use. Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corp., 280 F.3d
937 (9th Cir. 2002). Even multiple copies of non-transformative uses can be acceptable in limited
numbers. See the chapter on print materials for more details on multiple print copies. Keep in mind
that, in the absence of specific guidelines, all four tests of fair use will be considered in determining an
appropriate application of the fair use doctrine. Factor 1 is actually fairly insignificant when all four
factors are applied to a given situation.
Part 1: nonprofit educational use

Are you in a nonprofit public or private school, and is the use you are proposing for this entity?
Such a use would get a favorable assessment on this portion of this factor, but even with a positive
result here, one must continue to the other half of this factor plus the other three. For-profit
schools, such as Edison Schools, some charter schools, and some private schools would not receive a
favorable assessment on this portion of factor one. Even if you don’t qualify on this portion of the
test, continue to the rest of the assessments.
Part 2: criticism, commentary, news reporting

Any of these choices can qualify a use on this half of the first factor. For example, if a for-profit
newspaper uses an excerpt from a novel when publishing a book review, this portion of the first
factor can be met. Criticism involves making critical judgments about a work, and usually will have
portions of the work included to make the critic’s points. Commentary involves writing explanations
about a work, and may or may not be critical. News reporting is exactly what it states. While
intended to apply to the news industry, this selection could apply to the school newspaper, school
television reports, etc.
Note that both halves of this factor do NOT need to be satisfied in order for this factor to
move to your side of our metaphorical scale. For example, the local television station can still use a
portion of a movie in a review under this factor (taking into account the rest of the factors, of course)
even though it does not satisfy the first half of this factor regarding nonprofit educational setting.

Factor 2: Nature of copyrighted work
Factor two of the four is a two-pronged question. Neither half eliminates consideration as fair use,
but having both on your side greatly enhances your fair use defense.
Part 1: Factual or creative?

This question wants to know the content of the material being infringed. As we discussed before,
facts cannot receive copyright protection. Therefore, appropriating facts from a copyright protected
work would be less hazardous than taking portions from something creative. Materials that would
lose on this factor would be literature (novels, poems, drama), art, music, etc. Materials that would
tend to draw this factor on your side of an evaluation would be newspaper accounts, almanacs,
maps, and other factual representations of information. An important point to note is that while the
facts themselves are free to use, the expression of those facts is not. For example, an encyclopedia
article is written from and about factual material. The facts contained in the article are free to use,
but the way the author of the encyclopedia article has expressed those facts is not. Also, a work such
as an almanac is composed primarily of facts. The facts themselves are free to use, but the selection
and arrangement of those facts, plus the expression of the facts if presented in narrative or graphic
form, is the basis for the copyright in the almanac.
Part 2: Published or not published?

The second half of this factor asks if the work is published. One might assume that since an
author/creator who has published a work expects it to be seen and used by the public, there would be
slightly more protection given to published works than to unpublished ones. In reality, unpublished
works are more closely protected because the author/creator obviously did not wish the material to
be made public. Unpublished materials would be such things as letters, diaries, family photographs,
e-mails, unpublished manuscripts, etc.
“Published” in copyright parlance may not have the meaning generally attributed to the
word. The 1976 law defines “publication” as: the distribution of copies or phonorecords of a work to the
public by sale or other transfer of ownership, or by rental, lease, or lending. The offering to distribute
copies or phonorecords to a group of persons for purposes of further distribution, public performance, or
public display constitutes publication. A public performance or display of a work does not of itself
constitute publication. Something offered for sale in the marketplace is obviously “published,” even
if no one buys it. However, there is no clear legal assessment if a Web page is published when it is
mounted on the web, or if something distributed to family, friends, or even within an organization
such as your school is officially “published.” (Note that out of print isn’t the same as unpublished.)
Factor 3: Amount of work used?

This factor is a little clearer to understand. The question is basically, how much of the work will you
use? As a matter of practicality, the less you use, the better. If you want to use a short paragraph
from a large Tom Clancy novel as an example of a metaphor, you are probably OK here. However, if
you want to use a haiku, you are going to be using ALL of it. Any time you use all of something,
there are going to be questions about this factor. Any time you use most of something, you will also
get an unfavorable evaluation here as well.

When there are analyses of this factor, the phrase “significant amount” appear frequently.
For example, when asking how much of a musical recording would be considered “significant,” a
copyright attorney explained that if one can tell what song is being used, the amount is
“significant.” That amount could be even a few bars. How much of a work is “significant” is a
judgment call, and one that a court would adjudicate. Common sense would tell you that copying
10 pages from a picture book is a far more significant extract than 10 pages from a novel.
Essence of work
The term “essence of the work” is often tossed about when discussing how much one may use under
the fair use defense. This term is used to explain a short segment of a work that embodies the spirit
of an entire work. A scene of a movie, or a phrase of a song, or a section of a book might all be
considered to represent the “message” or “spirit” of that work. If one uses something that embodies
the entire piece within a small segment, one has—in essence—used the entire work.
This concept may be explained with some examples. If you are aware of the book, Rosie’s
Walk (Aladdin, 1971), you will recall that the entire text of the book is spread across two pages at
the beginning. The rest of the book consists of pictures of Rosie the hen being pursued across the
barnyard by a fox, blithely ignorant that she is on his dinner agenda. The mishaps that befall the fox
in his pursuit of Rosie are featured in the pictures, but there is no text to describe what happens. So
if one were to copy the two textual pages from this 32-page book, you would have copied a small
portion of the book, yet you would have copied the text in its entirety! These two pages would easily
be considered the “essence” of the work.
An important Supreme Court case on this issue involved former U.S. President Gerald R.
Ford. President Ford, after he left office, wrote his autobiography entitled, A Time to Heal (Harper,
1979). His publisher, Harper & Row, negotiated an agreement with Time Magazine to publish an
excerpt from the book at or near the time of publication of the book. The excerpt was to cover the
section of the book in which former President Ford explained why he pardoned former President
Richard Nixon. This was a hot issue of the day, and much sought after information. Somehow, The
Nation magazine managed to get a copy of the unpublished manuscript, from which they published
a 300-word excerpt before the Time article could appear. This excerpt scooped Time’s article.
Harper & Row sued The Nation claiming they had violated the fair use provisions in
copyright law. The U.S. Supreme Court held that The Nation had, indeed, violated the copyright of
the work. They ruled that the 300 words chosen were sufficient to be considered “the essence of the
work” and that the use of unpublished material was significant in the assessment (Harper & Row,
Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enterprises 471 U.S. 539 (1985)).
On the other hand, the Supreme Court held that the band 2 Live Crew could use a
substantial part of the song “Pretty Woman” in a parody of the song, so how much is “too much”
varies from case to case (Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, 510 U.S. 569 (1994)). Excessive copying can
only be determined after taking into account the other three factors and the circumstances as a
whole. Just remember that this is only one of four factors, so the use of a large portion of a work is
not always a completely disqualifying point. This case also cited the “transformative” nature of the
resulting work as significant in the analysis. A transformative work is one that puts the borrowed
material to a new or novel use.
In still another case, a schoolteacher copied 11 pages of a 24-page handout from another
teacher’s copyrighted work on cake decorating. The courts held that the 11 pages was too much of
the copied work to be classified as fair use, as well as the fact that the 11 pages comprised the most
important sections of the work copied. The new work also competed directly with the original since
both were educational for a similar audience (Marcus v. Rowley, 695 F.2d 1171 (9th Cir. 1983)).

Schools will want to note that common problems under this
factor include using identifiable portions of songs, using graphics
(because generally the entire graphic is used), and using poetry. Of
Q: I’d like to copy
something from the Web
course, any time one uses all of anything, you should seriously to put on a local server.
consider this factor. Just because you may have an unfavorable Since the Web author
outcome on this single factor doesn’t mean you won’t prevail on the doesn’t charge any money
other three, but it is worth significant deliberation. for the site, I’m not
affecting the market for the
work, right?
Factor 4: Effect of use on market for or
value of work A: Perhaps you are
affecting the value of the
This factor is the “eggplant that ate Chicago” of the four factors. Courts, of work. If, for example, the
late, have given this sole factor more importance than the other three even author receives funding
though the law does not indicate that one of the four factors is more based on “hits” to the Web
significant in a fair use assessment. In essence, if your use would deprive site, by copying the
someone of sales, this factor would come into play. Courts actually consider information and distributing
potential damage, rather than actual damages, when weighing this factor. it, you may impact the
One must also consider that the “value of” fits in here. If your funding by draining hits
use would somehow disparage the original author, or his work, even in away. You, as the person
ways you might not imagine or agree with, this factor can become borrowing material, don’t
significant. Some people like to rationalize by saying that their use of a get to decide whether your
work actually promotes the original work. However, it is not up to you, the use affects the market for
person borrowing the original work, to make that decision. The copyright the work.
owner alone has the right to decide where and when his work will be
publicized. A wise person once advised, “If the copyright owner wants you
to help promote his work, I promise you he will contact you!”
Commercial use
Any commercial use of a work or portion of a work will yield a poor result on this factor (Crews,
Message 23, Oct. 26, 1998). For schools, that would mean any use that transfers money, even if there is
no net profit. For example, if you sell yearbooks, and you have used unlicensed/unpermissioned
copyrighted graphics in the yearbook, this use would be considered “commercial.” The same would
hold true if you are selling CDs of the band concert, or t-shirts with a cartoon on them, or any
other transaction involving copyright protected materials used without license or permission.
Misrepresentation
An important case to understand regarding “loss of value” is the Ticketmaster v. Microsoft case (Ticketmaster v.
Microsoft, United States District Court for the Central District of California, Civil Action Number 97-
3055DPP). In this case, Microsoft had created a link to the Ticketmaster ticket-ordering page, a page deep
within the Ticketmaster Web site. Ticketmaster sold advertising on its home page, but not on the pages deep
within its site. Ticketmaster and Microsoft had negotiated to have a relationship between the two companies
that would be represented by Ticketmaster links within a new Microsoft Web site, but negotiations had
broken down. Microsoft went ahead and made the link to the Ticketmaster ordering page, anyway.
Ticketmaster claimed that Microsoft was using the Ticketmaster trademark and logos without permission,
and implied a relationship that did not exist. Microsoft contended that the use of the link was fair use.

Because Microsoft used frames on the Web site, Web pages belonging to Ticketmaster
appeared to be part of the Microsoft Web site. The correct URLs do not appear in the Location
window when using frames, only the URL of the master site, in this case Microsoft’s Seattle
Sidewalk. Ticketmaster contended that such obscuring of the origin of the Web pages, and the use
of the Ticketmaster trademark and logo were misrepresentations, and not subject to a claim of fair
use (Netlitigation, 1998). This case was eventually settled out of court. The settlement had
Microsoft agreeing to only link to the top page of Ticketmaster’s site, where there was advertising
and other indications of the ownership of the content (Smith, 2000).
The significance of this case for schools lies in the fact that there are often Web pages deep
within online sites that may be useful for schools. However, creating links to such pages may result
in implied relationships and/or misrepresentation of relationships that are offensive to the owners of
the sites to which pages are linked, especially if using framing technology that hides the URL of the
original site. To be sure, it is always safe to ask permission to deep link, but relying on fair use in
this situation can be problematic.
What would happen if everyone were to…

In analyzing a complex copyright situation, a copyright attorney once advised that the court, in
assessing the final factor of fair use, must assess what would happen to the “market for or value of ”
the work as if everyone was to do what you are proposing to do. In other words, the idea that you are
just a small classroom in a rural school in middle America isn’t the issue. The issue is that if
everybody were to repeat this same behavior with the same fair use defense, what effect would that
use have on the market for or value of the work.
Looking at a case from this standpoint makes sense. For example, if an English teacher
duplicated an editorial in today’s newspaper for her class, the use is minimal for that class. But if
every English teacher across the country were to do the same thing, would that affect the market for
the newspaper? Likely not. People would still want to read the comics, check out the want ads, and
get the scores from the ball game last night. The use of making copies of that editorial would not
likely affect the market for the paper.
However, if a second grade teacher made copies of an entire picture book for her class, and
the court extends that view to be what would happen if every teacher were to distribute copies of
the entire picture book to his or her class, you can easily see how the broad reproduction might
affect the market for the book. Why purchase a book when your teacher is going to give you a copy
for free? In addition, there is the issue of the value of the work. The copyright owner may only want
that book printed in hardback because the cost cutting that must occur to get an affordable
paperback copy reduces the quality of the outstanding illustrations—a significant part of the book.
The copyright owner does not want the reputation (or value) of the book to be abridged by
substandard reproduction.
Various types of guidelines

In addition to the statutory fair use tests, various sets of guidelines have developed over the years.
Since the text of the law was too vague to be of much help in deciding if a particular use were
permitted, the U.S. House of Representatives and the Senate held hearings in an effort to determine
an equitable balance between the rights of copyright owners (who may or may not be the actual
creators of the copyrighted works) and those of the general public.

The hearings resulted in a set of guidelines (often referred to as the “Congressional
Guidelines” or the “fair use guidelines” http://www.musiclibraryassoc.org/Copyright/guidebks.htm) that,
while they are not law, are interpreted to be the Congress intent in enacting the law. The courts
have taken this statement of intent into account when deciding cases of copyright infringement. The
House report on Congressional intent was quite explicit on the amount and types of copying that
could be considered fair use. These specific limits will be discussed in the section on print.
In addition to the Congressional guidelines that dealt with primarily print, there are also
guidelines that have emerged from the wording in the law describing fair use of audiovisual
materials. Following those guidelines came regulations on interlibrary loans and resource sharing,
components of an active library program. As technology advanced, presentation packages such as
PowerPoint and Hypercard stretched the limits of fair use. Pressure from educators on producers
finally yielded a set of guidelines to govern the use of copyright protected materials in these types of
presentations. (See Chapter 7 for details).
The Digital Millennium Copyright Act established some guidelines for schools that put
materials on the Web, through the creation of a copyright agent program. Each “online service
provider” (most schools qualify as an OSP) can protect themselves against copyright actions by
establishing a position called the agent. The agent follows certain procedures to monitor copyright
claims for the site, and the sponsoring organization is rewarded with limited immunity from prosecution.
Guidelines took a giant leap forward with the passage of the TEACH Act, codifying
guidelines for using copyrighted materials in distance learning situations. The new advance in course
distribution required a parallel reorganization of fair use permissions to enable online classes to have
similar fair use of materials that face-to-face classes had enjoyed for many years.
Each time technology took a leap forward, fair use guidelines followed behind, trying to
keep up. Unfortunately, when guidelines were created to handle the newer technologies, older
guidelines were not updated to match. Hence, you will find that what is OK in one medium is not
OK in another. This disconnect is a major reason why so many people find understanding and
administering copyright to be so confusing!
To whom does it apply?

As you go through the various guidelines, there are several things to keep in mind. The first will be:
to whom does this apply? As we discussed before, the statutory “four tests” of fair use may be
applied to any citizen at any time. Some of the guidelines that we will discuss in upcoming chapters
may apply only to teachers, or only to librarians, or only to students. When making assessments, it is
very important to remain clear about whom you are talking.
Situation will also be an important consideration. Where, when, and how are these
materials going to be used? What may be fair use in one instance may not be fair use in another. Pay
particular attention to situation when you are looking at the guidelines that will follow.
Remember, it is permissible to “shop” for the fair use evaluation that is most favorable to your
use. If guidelines don’t permit the needed use, you can always fall back to the standard fair use
assessment to see if your additional use can be justified. It is important to always press for the
maximum permitted use, since those rights not used will eventually erode away.

General public vs. schools
Sometimes the restrictions of guidelines will not allow enough of some medium to meet the
teaching need of a student or teacher. For example, the multimedia guidelines allow using up to 30
seconds or 10% of a song in a multimedia presentation, whichever is less. For a typical rock song,
10% is 18 seconds, so the limit is the lower of 18 and 30. However, suppose that a musical phrase
that the teacher wants to use is 20 seconds in length. Does that mean the segment is out because it
exceeds the 18 second limitation? Or does it mean that the teacher must truncate the phrase to be
able to use it? Not necessarily. The teacher can go through the four-test analysis that is available to
all citizens. If the use can pass the four tests, she can use the 20 seconds with confidence.
Schools vs. libraries

As pointed out earlier, everyone has certain fair use rights. Schools get a special set of fair use rights
to help them educate students. Libraries get another set of special guidelines to help them achieve
their civic mission. School libraries get the best of all possible worlds, since they can claim the
school exemptions, the library exemptions, and the fair use exemptions afforded all citizens. The
school library exemptions don’t extend to the parent school, however. Only activities within the
library are acceptable candidates for the library exemptions.
The best part of having the library exemptions may be that if you have a library you
probably have a librarian. School librarians are the only educators who routinely receive an
education on copyright law during their training. Even school administrators seldom get more than
a cursory copyright education. Of course, having an education doesn’t make the librarian the
copyright policeman. The librarian is a resource person who is able to help students, faculty, and
administrators to puzzle out the conundrum that is copyright. Look upon your librarian as the
copyright consultant, not the copyright cop.
Works cited
Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music (92-1292), 510 U.S. 569 (1994).
Crews, Kenneth. 1998. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Online Copyright Tutorial.
Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enterprises, 471 U.S. 539 (1985).
Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corp., 280 F.3d 937 (9th Cir. 2002).
Marcus v. Rowley, 695 F.2d 1171 (9th Cir. 1983).
Netlitigation | Cases | Ticketmaster v. Microsoft. 1998. [Retrieved August 9, 2004 from]
http://www.netlitigation.com/netlitigation/cases/ticketmaster.htm
Smith, Margaret Kubiszyn. 2000. [Retrieved August 9, 2004 from] Gigalaw: Emerging
Legal Guidance on “Deep Linking.” http://www.gigalaw.com/articles/2000-all/
kubiszyn-2000-05b-all.html.
Ticketmaster v. Microsoft, United States District Court for the Central District of
California, Civil Action Number 97-3055DPP.

Chapter 4
Print Materials
in Schools
B ecause the four factors cited in Section 107 were less than clear, representatives of affected
education and publishing groups met to work out much more specific explanations of the
law. The result was endorsed by Congress when it was read into the Congressional Record. These
Congressional Guidelines (1976) <http://www.musiclibraryassoc.org/Copyright/guidebks.htm>,
as they are called, are not law, per se, but they were written to indicate legislative intent and are used
as benchmarks against which copyright infringement is gauged. The guidelines state minimum
standards of fair use; certain other types of copying may be permitted. Exactly what those other
types of copying are and how much is tolerated would vary depending on the judge and jury
hearing the case. Yes, the final arbiter of what is permitted is a court of law. While you might be
convinced that the pages you plan to copy fall under the fair use exemption, the copyright owner
may have entirely different views. The most conservative line is generally safe, whereas straying very
far afield of these guidelines is an open invitation to litigation. One might make an analogy to
driving. Going 31 miles per hour in a 30-mile-per-hour zone probably wouldn’t merit a ticket, but
going 50 miles per hour in the same zone would likely alert even the most laid-back patrolman. In a
school situation, sometimes one is more comfortable giving teachers and students clear directions
and numbers on which to judge appropriate behavior. These Congressional guidelines do just that—
provide specific limits to acceptable behavior.
These guidelines were developed primarily for print materials, because print material was
predominant in 1976 when the guidelines were written. While there are specific limits and restrictions
based on the format of material, there are also some general tests imposed on all educational uses of
copyrighted works. These tests are more concrete and easier to apply to educational and library copying
than are the fair use factors. The additional tests are those of brevity (defined by specific lengths and
numbers of items), spontaneity (see following questions), and cumulative effect.
There should be an affirmative answer to both of the following questions before a claim of fair use
may be made under these guidelines:
1. (or display) is at the instance and inspiration of the individual teacher, and
2. The inspiration and decision to use the work and the moment of its use for
maximum teaching effectiveness are so close in time that it would be unreasonable to
expect a timely reply to a request for permission.
Chapter Four: Print Materials in Schools 49

Essentially these spontaneity questions restrict educators from having materials (or
television programs) copied in anticipation of demand. All requests for duplication, whether
photocopies or off-air taping, must come directly from the teacher involved. In other words, an
administrator, department head, librarian, or other person in a position of authority may not direct
teachers or librarians to copy materials under the fair use exemption. In addition, a teacher’s
superior may not dictate to the teacher that copyright protected materials must be copied. A
supervisor may suggest specific materials, but it is the responsibility of the individual teacher to
decide to make the copies. This requirement is often called a “bottom up” copying scheme as
opposed to a “top down” order.
What typical activities are covered?

The photocopy machine is probably the biggest danger spot in the school from the standpoint of
print copying. Teachers photocopy materials at an astounding rate, and they do not always have the
authority to make multiple copies of the items they are copying. While the print guidelines are very
specific about how much and how many times something may be copied, and also specify items
which may never be copied, few teachers or administrators have ever seen the guidelines. If someone
were to do an audit of the copies made at the copy machine in a given week
Q: As English of the second semester of school (or possibly even the second marking period),
one would find that the vast majority of the copies being made were infringing.
coordinator, I would like to
require all the high school Typical school activities (permitted and not permitted) that will be
English teachers to copy addressed by the rules in this chapter include:
and distribute an editorial • copying teacher-made tests/worksheets/letters
from the local newspaper • copying commercial workbook pages/worksheets
to use as a standardized • copying coloring book pages/sheets
test writing prompt. Since
• copying sheet music
this is a small portion of
the newspaper, would this • copying graphics onto bulletin boards freehand or via a projection device
be permissible? • copying articles from professional magazines to distribute at faculty meetings
• copying graphics/maps/charts onto transparency film
A: This small copying • copying test booklets for assessment
would be acceptable if the
classroom teacher was • copying textbooks when there are not enough for every student
making the copying • copying magazine articles/newsletters for students (Weekly Reader, etc.)
decision, (see question 1), • copying activity cards, instructional materials when there are not enough for
but because this copying is every student
being directed by a higher
authority, such copying is • copying test sheets (SRA kit sheets, etc.) when the original supply runs out
not permitted under the fair • copying flyers with graphics for PTA, etc.
use guidelines. As an • scanning book covers for library Web pages
alternative, you could
suggest the use of the
editorial, and allow the This is not a complete list of the types of print copying activities that
individual teacher to make are possible or even common in schools. But knowing the rules for these
the decision to use that activities will provide guidance to other types of activities.
particular resource with
her class.

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
"Nimeksi!" kertaa vaimo kuin itsekseen. "Sano minulle ensin yksi
asia."
"Tietenkin minä sanon."
Miehen äänessä kuvastuu hämmästys.
"Sano minulle sitten: tahallasiko sinä tämän teit? Toivoitko sinä

tämän tulevan silloin, muistatko?"
Mies häkeltyy yhä enemmän.
"Tietenkin minä toivoin", vastaa hän, "että meillä olisi poika.

Sehän on selvää. Vaikkeihän sitä osaa sanoa, että sitä niin juuri, sillä
kohdalla…"
"Annetaan sille sitten nimeksi Heikki."
*****
Mutta kun kätilö taas tulee, on vaimon kuume noussut, hän on

melkein kuin tiedoton, hän vaatii lasta viereensä ja puhelee sanoja,
joista kukaan ei parhaimmalla tahdollaankaan osaa asettaa toistensa
kanssa järjelliseen yhteyteen.
"Se taisi tulla vähän niinkuin kesken?" kysyy mies kätilöltä, johon
tämä vastaa:
"Niin tuli. Mutta on se silti hyvin kehittynyt ja jää elämään."
"No, sehän se onkin pää-asia."
*****
Ja lapsi kastettiin Heikiksi.
Mutta kas, eikö pidäkin äidin taas juuri ristiäisaamuna sairastua ja

kaatua vuoteelle. Ei voi olla edes samassa huoneessa, missä
ristiminen tapahtuu.
Ja lapsella on ruskeat silmät, — mistä se ne on saanut?
Rovasti ottaa nyt ja selvittää asian.
"Ruskeat silmät", sanoo hän hitaasti ja pyyhkii lasejaan. "Ne ovat

aivan luonnollinen asia, vaikkei isällä ja äidillä olekaan. Ellen minä
muista väärin, niin Suontaan vanhalla emännällä oli ruskeat silmät.
Eikö niin ollut?"
"Minä muistan niin vähän isoäitiä", vastasi Heikki.
"En minäkään aivan varma ole siitä. Mutta jostakin edellispolvesta

ne tulevat. Sellaista sanotaan atavismiksi."
XXIV
Syksy tulee tänä vuonna tavattoman aikaisin.
Ensin se tulee aikaisten yökylmäin muodossa, joita aurinko päivisin

koettaa voimiensa mukaan korvata, mutta sitten se muuttaa
tapojaan ja heittäytyy sateiseksi, myrskyiseksi ja tuuliseksi. Se
temmeltää vainioilla, metsissä ja puutarhoissa, kaataa huojuvat puut
ja hajoittaa kuhilaita, jotka vielä sattuvat olemaan pelloilla. Se
nostattaa Hirvijärven veden yli äyräittensä, kohottaa talojen kattoja
ja viskaa huonosti kiinnitetyt veräjät tiepuoleen.
Saisi tulla joku päivä, jolloin se osottaisi edes oireita

hellittämiseen.
Mutta sitä se ei tee. Kuutamoisina öinä, jolloin ei sada, ajelee se

pilviä kuin levottomia varjoja pitkin taivaanlakea, kiljuu jonkun
mökkiläisen uuninpiipussa, niin että asujain säikähtää, ristii kätensä
ja lukee varmuuden vuoksi vielä toiseen kertaan rukouksensa.
Öljylamppu on paras sammuttaa ja korjata pois ikkunan edessä
olevalta pöydältä. Ei ole lainkaan varmaa, milloin myrsky lyö
huonosti asetetun ruudun sisään, lampun säpäleiksi ja antaa koko
talon haihtua liekkeinä tuuleen. Vielä se ei sitä kuitenkaan tee. Se
löytää jonkun tuuliviirin, vinguttaa ja rämisyttää sitä, niin että viiri
lopulta epätoivoissaan irtaantuu salostaan, joka sitä vuosikymmenet
on kunnialla kantanut ja viskautuu rämähtävästi maahan saaden
kuulijat hätkähtämään.
Saaren nuoren isännän vanhin poika ja perillinen parkuu. Se on

terve, mutta levoton lapsi, joka vasta keskiyön tullen hetkeksi
rauhoittuu. Helmi saa kannella sitä päiväkaudet ja käy laihaksi ja
kuluneeksi, joskus isäntä tahtoo ottaa sitä käsivarsilleen ja hyssytellä
sitä.
"Koetahan nyt nukahtaa hetkinen, Helmi", sanoo hän, "minä tässä

nyt vuorostani…"
Mutta Helmi ei tahdo. Eihän hänellä ole muuta työtä kuin tämä ja
hän joutaa hyvinkin valvoa. Aina sitä päivisin on tilaisuus tunniksi tai
pariksi ummistaa silmänsä.
Ulkona ulvoo myrsky, milloin ulvoo, milloin aivan kuin ikkunan

takana kohisee ja kolkuttaa kuin sisälle tullakseen. Mutta sisällä
olijoita se ei peloita. Sillä sisällä on tyyntä, lämmintä ja rauhallista.
Helmistä tuntuu kuin se, mikä hänessä on raivonnut sisällä, olisi
siirtynyt temmeltämään tuonne ulos. Kuta enemmän myrskyää, sen
parempi. Tästä taimesta, joka hänellä on käsivarrellaan, kasvattaa
hän hyvän ja jalon ihmisen, joka suhteessa hyvän.
*****
"Huomenna pitäisi saada nukkua vähän pitkään", sanoo hän

Heikille, "alan todellakin olla kovin väsynyt."
"Olenhan sanonut", vastaa mies, "että sinun pitäisi säästää
itseäsi."
Lapsi on nukahtanut syvään uneen ja ulkona tällä kertaa on tyyntä

ja rauhallista. Helmi vetää uudinta syrjään ja katsahtaa ulos, mutta
ilta on kuuton ja tumma, lukemattomat tähdet palavat taivaalla.
Luonnossa on mustaa ja äänetöntä aivan kuin se odottaisi jotakin.
"Melkein kaameaa tuo hiljaisuus myrskyjen jälkeen", sanoo Helmi

vetäen uutimen paikoilleen.
"Olehan huoletta, kyllä se vielä alkaa uudelleen kun ennättää."
Heikki on jo vuoteessa ja tutkii tulleita sanomalehtiä. Silloin tällöin

hän lehtensä yli vilkaisee vaimoonsa ja sanoo jonkun sanan.
"Alahan jo joutua sieltä, ennenkuin poika herää, että saat edes

muutaman tunnin nukkua."
Verkalleen Helmi riisuutuu, vaatekappaleen kerrallaan pudottaa

yltänsä ja miettii sitten taas. Kun hän siinä syrjäsilmällä vilkaisee
mitään aavistamatonta miestänsä, tulee hänen häntä hytkähdyttävän
sääli. Hän, Helmi, sai uhrautua, tuo hyvä ihminen joutui uhriksi
tietämättään.
Mitä Heikki tekisi, jos tietäisi? Helmi ei osaa sitä kuvitella, hän
ummistaa silmänsä pelkälle ajatuksellekin. Mutta hän tahtoo olla
Heikille vielä nöyrempi ja kuuliaisempi vaimo kuin tähän asti.
Näkeehän hän ja tunteehan hän joka hermollaan, että Heikki
rakastaa häntä. Niin, mutta se toinen rakasti myöskin ja hänen on se
lapsi, joka hengittää tuolla kopassaan.
"Hyvä Luoja", ajattelee Helmi, "onhan tässä jo rangaistusta
tarpeeksi ja vielä tulee sekin päivä, jolloin voin tunnustaa Heikille
kaikki."
Näin hän ajattelee, mutta pohjimmaltaan ei hän usko sitä

itsekään. Päivät vain ovat menneet päivien jälkeen. Jos Heikki nyt
aivan tyynesti ja rauhallisesti sanoisi: "Helmi, niinä tiedän, että tuo
lapsi on sen Nikun, joka täällä aikoinaan oli renkinä", niin hän
vastaisi: "Se ei ole totta. Kuinka voit päästää sellaista mieleesikään."
Suontaan Heikki, Saaren isäntä, jää valvomaan, mutta Helmi

nukahtaa käsi arasti hänen kaulallaan. Ruumis on riutunut ja vaatii
osansa, sielu sen taas havahduttaa hereille.
Kun hän herää, nukkuu Heikki rauhassa ja huone on aivan pimeä.

Hänestä kuulostaa kuin puutarhassa rapisisi ja kuin olisi hän
herännyt siihen, että joku löi seinään.
"Heikki", sanoo hän, "joku liikkuu puutarhassa."
"Ole vait. Mikä siellä kuleksisi", vastaa mies unisesti.
Mutta nyt lyödään uudempi kerta, kovasti, määrätietoisesti ja

vaativasti. Helmi alkaa vavista, ja mies nostaa päänsä.
"Mikä perh…", aloittaa hän.
Hän ei kuitenkaan pääse lauseensa loppuun. Ulkona on hiljaista ja

pimeää, sisällä on vielä pimeämpää. Silloin kajahtaa kuin veitsellä
viiltäen läpi pimeyden:
"Panitko sinä sen nimeksi Nikolai!"

Helmi kiljaisee, sitten kuluu sekunteja, jolloin hän ei tajua mitään.
Mies nousee istumaan vuoteen reunalle ja haparoi sähkönappulaa.

Mutta hän ei ehdi sitä löytää.
"Helmi!" kuuluu toisen kerran. "Panitko sille nimeksi Nikolai."
Siinä on valitusta ja uhkaa ja raivoisaa ärjymistä. Ruudut

rämähtävät, on aivan kuin huutaja jo olisi sisällä huoneessa. Lapsi
alkaa parkua, mutta Helmi ei voi sille mitään, hänen ajatuksensa
ovat seisahtuneet, hän on kuin halvauksen saanut.
Huone tulee yhtäkkiä valoisaksi. Mies on kavahtanut pystyyn,

löytänyt nappulan ja on jo menossa herättämään renkejä. Seinältä
tempaa hän pyssyn mukaansa.
"Panitko sinä sille nimeksi Nikolai?"
Nyt se tulee kuin hiljainen valitus, joka häipyy pimeyteen.
Helmillä ovat veret pysähdyksissä. Niku on tullut takaisin, se

tappaa minut. Tai sitten Heikki. Niin, se on oikein, tapahtukoon
oikeus.
Vaikka voimat ovat poissa, tuntee hän äkkiä suurta selvyyttä ja

rauhallisuutta. Hän kuulee, kuinka ulkona juostaan ja hälistään,
mutta hän ajattelee vain, että pelastumistiet ovat nyt tukitut ja
hänen on selitettävä asia niinkuin se on. Ja hän tuntee olevansa
siihen kyllin voimakas. Tehkööt sitten, mitä tahtovat, muuta hän ei
ole ansainnutkaan. Kun eivät vain lapseen kajoa, mutta sitä ne eivät
tee.
"Tapahtukoon sinun tahtosi!"

Hän aikoo jo nousta pukeakseen ylleen, mutta samassa Heikki
astuu sisään ja asettaa taas pyssyn naulakkoonsa. Vaistomaisesti ja
kuin itseään suojellen vetäytyy Helmi vuoteen nurkkaan ja luo
mieheensä kysyvän, rukoilevan katseen, mutta kun Heikki kääntää
kasvonsa häneen, ovat ne melkein iloiset.
"Onkin sitä kaikenlaista", sanoo hän, vetäen housut jaloistaan.

"Ellen olisi omin korvin kuullut, niin en vieläkään uskoisi
kummituksiin. Ei jälkeäkään puutarhassa."
Hän aikoo tyynenä heittäytyä vuoteelle, mutta Helmi parahtaa

itkuun.
"No, älähän nyt", lohduttaa mies, kietoen hellästi kätensä hänen

vyötäisilleen, "pelästyy kai sitä toki vähemmästäkin. Tulet vain
huonommaksi."
"Voi, Heikki, voi…"
"Koeta nyt vain rauhoittua ja nukkua, otetaan aamulla tarkempi

selko, jos saadaan."
Ja Helmi rauhoittuukin, näennäisesti. Hän istuu paikallaan ja

tuijottaa pimeyteen, mutta pitkälleen hän ei saa laskeuduttua.
Ruumis on turruksissa, mutta ajatukset ovat käynnissä, sanat olisivat
selvät, mutta suu kieltäytyy puhumasta. Hetket kiitävät, vaan
samalla ne tuntuvat iankaikkisuudelta.
Tuvan puolella aletaan jo liikuskella, ja Helmikin valmistautuu

menemään sinne.
Mutta äkkiä siellä aletaan kirkua ja metelöidä. Helmin ja Heikin

makuuhuoneeseen vievä ovi lennähdytetään selälleen ja joku piika
ilmestyy ovelle peittäen kasvonsa käsillään.
"Tulkaa pian, isäntä ja emäntä", huutaa hän itkunsekaisesti.

"Emäntäpiika on jo tainnoksissa."
Helmi jähmettyy paikalleen, mutta Heikki kavahtaa pystyyn.
"No, mikä nyt taas", ärjäsee hän.
"Herra Jeesus, se Sarkan Niku, joka oli täällä renkinä, on hirttänyt

itsensä kuistinoven ulkopuolelle…"
"Hä, jumalaut…!"
"Joku lappu sillä on rinnassa, se on emännän kirjoittama…"
Suontaan Heikki syöksyy ulos.
"Jää tänne!" karjasee hän piialle mennessään.
Helmi ei kuule enää mitään, hän on kuin eloton kasa lysähtänyt

lattialle.
Saaren talon ovipielessä roikkuu tosiaankin Sarkan Nikolai, ja

rintaan on neulalla kiinnitetty Helmin viimmeinen kirje.
*****
Kun Heikki tulee sisään, on hänellä kirves kädessä ja hänen

katseessaan kuvastuu tuli ja veri, mutta Helmiä ei saada millään
virkoamaan. Vain kerran hän avaa silmänsä ja mainitsee erään
lääkärin nimen, saman, jonka luona hän oli käynyt, huomatessaan
olevansa raskaana Sarkan Nikolaille.
Sitten hän taas on pitkät ajat kuin kuollut.
XXV
Herra tohtori on kutsunut Heikin vastaanottohuoneeseensa.
"Tämä asia", sanoo hän, "kuuluisi kyllä oikeastaan papille eikä

lääkärille."
Heikki seuraa häntä vastahakoisesti. Hän on kolkko ja harmaja,

hän on parissa viikossa vanhentunut vuosia ja hän tuntee olevansa
kuin jääpuikko.
"Kuoleeko hän?" kysyy hän istuutuen.
"Ei, ei ainakaan tähän tapaukseen", vastaa tohtori verkalleen ja

sytyttää sikarin. "Joku olisi kenties voinut saada halvauksen tai muita
seurauksia, mutta vaimonne näkyy olevan tavallista voimakkaampi."
Heikki naurahtaa katkerasti.
"Niin kai."
"Mutta mielentilaan", jatkaa tohtori välinpitämättömästi, "tämä

tietysti vaikuttaa, niin, voin kai sanoa: lähtemättömästi."
Suontaan Heikki ei vastaa mitään, mutta hän ajattelee: "Se vielä
puuttuisi, ettei vaikuttaisi." Äkkiä herra tohtori kohottaa katseensa:
"Kuinka on", kysyy hän, "rakastitteko te vaimoanne?"
Nyt Heikinkin katse ikäänkuin kirkastuu ja eräs ajatus välähtää

hänen mielessään. Hän muistaa taas kirjelipun, vaimonsa
kirjoittaman, joka oli kiinnitetty ruumiin rintaan.
"Luuleeko tohtori, ettei se ole ollut niin vaarallista… se hänen ja

sen vainajan välillä?" kysyy hän.
Herra tohtori ei emmi vastatessaan.
"Tahdon sanoa teille, että se suhde on mennyt niin pitkälle kuin

sellainen ylipäänsä voi mennä. Lapsi, joka teillä on kotonanne, ei ole
teidän."
Suontaan Heikki on jo tähän ajatukseen tottunut, mutta hän ei

tahdo sitä uskoa. Hänet oli kaksinkertaisesti petetty ja lisäksi hän oli
vedetty vastaamaan toisen synneistä. Hän oli ollut yksinkertainen ja
tyhmä. Nyt puoli pitäjää häntä sääli ja toinen puoli hänelle
naureskeli. Silmät ovat pullistua ulos kuopistaan ja kädet puristuvat
nyrkkiin, kun hän tätä ajattelee.
"Tiedän tämän asian jotenkin tarkoin", jatkoi herra tohtori tylysti,

"sillä vaimonne kävi luonani huomatessaan, että oli raskaana sille…
kas, kun en nyt muista hänen nimeään. Luullakseni vaimonne silloin
häntä rakasti…"
Heikki rykäisee, mutta se on enemmän karjaisemista kuin

rykäisemistä.
"Jos herra tohtorilla on minulle jotakin asiaa vaimoltani", keskeytti
hän, "niin olisin halukas kuulemaan sen mahdollisimman pian."
"Ehdimme kyllä tulla siihen", vastasi lääkäri tyynesti. "No niin,

mies rakasti myöskin häntä, mutta heistä ei voinut tulla mitään, siinä
oli kaikenlaista, jonka ehkä tiedättekin. Sitten tulitte te…"
"Ja Helmi ajatteli, että kas siinäpä oikea aasi syntipukiksi…"
"Hyvin mahdollista, että hän niin ajatteli, mutta luultavasti hän ei

hakenut teitä käsiinsä, vaan te hänet."
"Ah, jospa tuon olisin tiennyt…" mutisi Suontaan Heikki

tuskallisesti, "mutta minä rakastin häntä. Voin vaikka vannoa, herra
tohtori, että ennen häntä en ollut kajonnut naiseen, tuskinpa paljon
katsonutkaan."
Lääkäri otti silmälasit nenältään, pyyhkieli niitä huolellisesti ja

katsoi sitten pitkistään mieheen.
"Ettekö siis kysellyt ollenkaan vaimoltanne hänen entisyyttään?"
"Sellainen ei olisi juolahtanut mieleenikään."
"Mutta eikö teissä herättänyt ihmettelyä, että hän oli niin valmis
tulemaan teille?"
"Luulin — tai uskoin, olin niin tyhmä, — että hänkin rakasti minua.
Katsokaa, herra tohtori, vuosikausia, vuosikausia olin häntä katsellut
ja ajatellut saamatta suutani auki. Ja tämän minä nyt sain."
"Olisitteko ollut onnellisempi, ellette olisi saanut mitään?"
"Julkista häpeää ei ainakaan olisi tullut."

"Mutta häpeähän ei ole teidän."
"Ei minun! Kenen sitten? Mikä kakara tahansa voi osoittaa minua
sormellaan ja sanoa naudaksi."
"Sitä teidän ei tarvitse ajatella. Mutta teillä on tilaisuus olla jalo.

Tottahan on, että sellainen ominaisuus ei nykyisin maksa kovinkaan
paljon, mutta antaahan se sentään jonkunlaista sisäistä
suuruudentuntoa ja itsetietoa. Muutamat ihmiset hakemalla hakevat
itselleen vihamiehiä saadakseen olla heille ja maailmalle jalomielisiä."
"Kuulkaapas nyt, herra tohtori. Olen ollut kyllin jalomielinen

antaakseni ruumiille kunniallisen hautauksen ja minä olen lisäksi niin
jalomielinen, että annan vaimolleni kunniallisen eron. En tahdo
hiventäkään hänen omaisuudestaan, kaiken, mikä hänellä on ollut,
saa hän pitää. Se pitäisi minun puoleltani riittää."
"Aivan. Se on täysin riittävää. Niinkään paljon, sanon minä, ei voi

jalomielisimmältäkään mieheltä odottaa. Entä mitä sitten aiotte
tehdä?"
"Tehdä työtä ja unohtaa."
"Sekin on oikein ajateltu. Ja nyt tulemmekin vaimonne asiaan. Hän

käski minun vain puolestaan pyytää teiltä anteeksi kaikkea sitä
tuskaa ja häpeää, minkä hän on teille tuottanut. Kun hän toipuu,
muuttaa hän poikineen jonnekin, ettei teidän tarvitse häntä nähdä ja
elättää itse itsensä. Mutta hän pyysi minua rukoilemaan teitä
puolestaan, että te viljelisitte hänen kotitaloaan."
"Saatanhan tehdä sen kotoani käsin."

"Niin, te itse parhaiten ymmärrätte, kuinka se edullisimmin
tapahtuu."
Herra tohtori nousi ja ojensi Suontaan Heikille kätensä. Nähtävästi

hänen sanomisensa olivat jo loppuneet. Mutta kun Suontaan Heikki
juuri oli lähtemäisillään, niin hän taas hänet pidätti.
"Oletteko voinut valittaa rakkauden puutetta vaimonne puolelta?"

kysyi hän äkkiä.
"En. Mutta sehän on ollut välttämättömyyteen alistumista ja

ilmitulemisen pelkoa."
"Vaan minä tiedän, että hän nyt rakastaa teitä."
"Arvatenkin. Tätä ennen hänen oli pakko ainakin sanoa

rakastavansa minua ja nyt se toinen kuoli hirteen."
"Se, jos mikään, on suuren ja epätoivoisen tunteen tunnusmerkki.

Mutta siitä ja kaikesta huolimatta vaimonne rakastaa teitä. Myönnän,
etten sitä ollenkaan ymmärrä: kantaa toisen lasta ja rakastua
toiseen. On kuitenkin asioita, jotka ovat tosia, vaikkei niitä voi
käsittää. Ja minä edellytän, että vaimonne olisi voinut tarjouksenne
hyljätäkin, tarkoitan, ettei hän ole niitä ihmisiä, jotka antavat pakon
vaikuttaa itseensä."
Suontaan Heikki muisti nyt yhtäkkiä jotakin, kaiken sen, mitä oli
tapahtunut silloin kun hän ensi kerran kävi Helmin yliskamarissa.
Hänen ajatuksensa menivät sekaisin ja hänen verensä joutuivat
kiihdyksiin. Suonet tykyttivät ja poskille nousi polttava puna, hän
aikoi sanoa jotakin, mutta tohtori ehätti ennen häntä.
"Kun te menitte naimisiin", kysyi hän, "niin kummanko rakkauden
varaan te sen perustitte, omaanne vaiko vaimonne?"
"Omaani, luonnollisesti", vastasi Heikki, kuulematta oikein

itsekään, mitä vastasi.
"Ja sekö on loppunut nyt?" kysyi tohtori uudelleen.
Saaren isäntä, Heikki Suontaa, taisteli itsensä kanssa. Hän muisti

ne monet vuodet, jotka hän oli Helmiä vartioinut koko ajan peläten,
että joku toinen hänet veisi, hän muisti senkin, kuinka hän oli
itsekseen vannonut, että hän tempaa Helmin vaikka toisen sylistä.
Kaikki tämä astui nyt ilmielävänä hänen silmiensä eteen ja yhä
hänen verensä kuumenivat. Sitten hän kuitenkin muisti kaiken sen,
joka äsken oli ollut. Vielä kerran leimahti harmaista, uskollisista
silmistä salama ja vielä kerran puristuivat huulet yhteen ja kädet
menivät nyrkkiin. Mutta Heikki Suontaa oli lopultakin mies, hänen
kasvojensa juonteet laskeutuivat, ja kun hän pitkän ajan mietittyään
puhui, oli hänen äänensä tyyni ja rauhallinen. "Sanokaa vaimolleni
terveisiä, että kun hän on terve, niin tulen itse häntä hakemaan",
lausui hän. "Koetamme saada särkyneestä niin hyvän kalun kuin
voimme, — onhan häntä jo tarpeeksi rangaistu."
"Niin", jatkoi hän, ottaen lakkinsa, "mikä tuomari minä olen. Kun
hänellä on se poika silmäinsä edessä, niin se muistuttaa häntä yhtä
paljon minusta kuin siitä menneestäkin. Ja minähän sen pojan
tahdoin tehdä… Sanokaa vaimolleni, että minä puolestani en halua
häntä olleesta muistuttaa."
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Practical Guide 4th Edition Carol Simpson

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The Care of Wounds A Guide for Nurses 4th Edition Carol

A practical guide for medical teachers 4th Edition John

Staff Development A Practical Guide 4th Edition

Practical Lambing and Lamb Care A Veterinary Guide 4th

Live Better South of the Border A Practical Guide for

A Practical Guide for Policy Analysis The Eightfold

Redeveloping Industrial Sites A Guide for Architects

Echocardiography A Practical Guide for Reporting Second

Professional Development Resources for

Simpson, Carol, 1949-

Published by Linworth Publishing, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Linworth Publishing, Inc.

2 Copyright for Schools: A Practical Guide. 4th Edition

Chapter 1: The Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Chapter 3: Fair Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Chapter 4: Print Materials in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

4 Copyright for Schools: A Practical Guide. 4th Edition

Chapter 5: Audiovisual Materials in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69

Chapter 6: Music Materials in Schools (Print and Recorded) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97

Chapter 7: Multimedia in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105

6 Copyright for Schools: A Practical Guide. 4th Edition

Chapter 9: Internet in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119

Chapter 10: Computer Software in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131

Chapter 11: School Library Exemptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143

Chapter 12: Permissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155

Chapter 13: Managing Copyright in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163

8 Copyright for Schools: A Practical Guide. 4th Edition

Chapter 15: Copyright Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173

Chapter 16: Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177

10 Copyright for Schools: A Practical Guide. 4th Edition

For David: 1979-2003.

12 Copyright for Schools: A Practical Guide. 4th Edition

Origin in the U.S.

Chapter One: The Law 15

Rights of a copyright holder

16 Copyright for Schools: A Practical Guide. 4th Edition

Chapter One: The Law 17

18 Copyright for Schools: A Practical Guide. 4th Edition

Chapter One: The Law 19

Digital transmission of sound recordings

20 Copyright for Schools: A Practical Guide. 4th Edition

Q: Do students own the

Chapter One: The Law 21

What can’t be protected by copyright?

22 Copyright for Schools: A Practical Guide. 4th Edition

Chapter One: The Law 23

24 Copyright for Schools: A Practical Guide. 4th Edition

Chapter One: The Law 25

Visual Artists Rights Act

26 Copyright for Schools: A Practical Guide. 4th Edition

Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act

Digital Performance Right in Sound Recordings Act

Chapter One: The Law 27

Penalties for infringement

Some examples of different types of infringement would be:

28 Copyright for Schools: A Practical Guide. 4th Edition