LESSON 1: THE STUDY OF PHILOSOPHY

Origins/Meaning of Philosophy

The beginnings of Philosophy is attributed to a thinker called Thales of Miletus (624- 564 BC) from
Greece. Scholars maintain that one’s starts to wonder as they encounter reality it is also the beginning
of philosophizing. The unquenchable thirst of the human mind for a deeper knowledge of the secrets of
the universe. Thales is said to be the originator of philosophy. The term PHILOSOPHY was coined by
Pythagoras (582-507 BC). Philosophy comes from the Greek word (philein/philo) which means to love;
and (Sophia) which means wisdom. Therefore, etymologically speaking, Philosophy means love of
wisdom. Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as the
nature knowledge, truth, justice, beauty, mind and language.

According to Aristotle the natural desire for knowledge is innate to man. Aristotle viewed philosophy as
thinking aims at maximum connected truth about all available experiences. It implies the
interconnectedness of all the experiences. The Medieval period considers philosophy as the science of
the ultimate causes of things. It implies scientific knowledge of causes of things. These causes are the
objects of philosophical inquiry, and the primary goal is to know these causes with certainties. In the
modern period, philosophy is understood as the study of the nature of being and thinking particularly
the human experiences. It is the science of all things, Things are concrete and real.

Gilles Deleuze a post-modern philosopher, philosophy is a theory which is elaborately developed in a

form of a question, and nothing else. He argues further that by itself, philosophy cannot be considered
as a resolution to a problem, but only the elaboration, to the very end, of the necessary implications of a
formulated question. Deleuze holds that philosophy is nothing else but a science of crafting a sound
question that must start from a problem. (Eddie Babor, 2009)

Finally, Philosophy in its real definition begins with a question to search for meaning. It is a scientific
search for meaning and intellectual quest that transcends quest that transcend the world of science
going beyond boundaries of concrete knowledge towards abstract knowledge to find its own meaning
and essence of a thing. Philosophy is the critical evaluation of the facts of experience. Philosophy helps
to coordinate the various activities of the individual and the society. It helps us to understand the
significance of all human experience. Philosophy critically evaluates and analyses the variety of human
experiences. It develops a comprehensive system of thoughts about the universe and the life as a whole.

Importance of Philosophy

Four reasons why philosophy is as important now as ever before.

1. Philosophy is the foundation of critical thinking.

While society is very different today from when the founding figures of Western philosophy were
making their mark, the questions we face today are just as challenging. Enter modern philosophy, which
puts critical thinking and problem-solving at the forefront in order to make sense of these weighty
problems. Writer Alexander Leivesley explains in the Huffington Post, “Philosophy is not obsolete.
Philosophy brings the important questions to the table and works towards an answer. It encourages us
to think critically about the world; it is the foundation of all knowledge and when utilized properly, can
provide us with huge benefits.”

2. Science can’t answer every question.

We lean very heavily on science today. And with good reason: Thanks to advancements in science and
technology, we live in a very different way to how we would without them. From fridges for our food to
airplanes for travel, there’s no denying that scientific advancements are vital to our survival as a species.
But just because science is important, that does not negate the value of philosophy. In fact, the two go
hand in hand. “Science, I am sorry to say, does not have all the answers. Just like every other field, it has
its limits. We cannot derive everything from experience, and philosophy is not dead. For example,
science cannot determine human values. Empiricism cannot determine why we ought to act morally,
nor why we ought to value human happiness over human misery. We cannot create an experiment that
tests the nature of Truth or the obtainability of knowledge,” contends Gabriel del Carmen for Odyssey.

Blogger David Calhoun adds, “At its core, philosophy is a striving towards figuring out what is true and
worthwhile, and what it means to live a meaningful and worthwhile life. That’s something off-limits for
science, because science can tell us how things are empirically, but it can’t prescribe how we should
then live. In short: science helps us live longer, whereas philosophy helps us live better.”

3. Philosophy has particular meaning in the business world.

At first pass, a “soft” science like philosophy may not seem especially relevant to business. However, this
couldn’t be further from the truth.

Frankfurt School of Finance & Management professor of philosophy Christine Tiefensee explains that
anyone who wants to succeed in a challenging, leading position in business, public administration,
politics, or the wider society needs a crucial set of skills. She adds, "You will need to see quickly through
complex issues, put together convincing arguments for or against given proposals, filter relevant from
irrelevant information, check the consistency and soundness of policy papers, decide which problems
are crucial and identify the issues that are still badly understood. These skills of rigorous analysis, sound
argument and critical examination are the bread-and-butter of philosophy: no subject trains our ability
for consistent, systematic thought better than philosophy.” These skills aren’t limited to the business
world, however. They can be applied in virtually any context -- both professional and personal.

4. Ancient philosophers continue to influence humanity.

While Plato and Aristotle are often credited with shaping future civilizations, and their influence is still
felt today, Publishers Weekly insists, “The ancient Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle may seem like
the quintessential Dead White Males, but in fact they are very much alive. Twenty four centuries ago
they laid the foundations of Western culture, and their ideas and insights still dictate essential features
of our world right now, from what we eat to what we see on the internet.” And while you may think of
Confucius purely in terms of sound bites, his work was extremely significant and remains so today. This
is very useful to know, especially for students in fields such as political science,
diplomacy and international politics. For example, according to National Geographic, China’s modern
government has modeled much of its ethos on Confucius' rhetoric, such as “obedience to the emperor,
hierarchy, and loyalty.” On the other hand, recent superhero movies Man of Steel (about Superman) and
The Dark Knight (Batman) feature major moral dilemmas based on an age-old philosophical issue known
as the 'trolley problem'.

So, while to some people philosophy may not be the sexiest of subjects on paper, it’s one with
extraordinary staying power and potential. It does not just stand to change the world; it just might
change your life. One student, describing being strong-armed by his father into taking an intro to
philosophy college course altered his life’s trajectory, wrote, “While I once scorned philosophy, I am
now majoring in it. I have come to realize that philosophy provides the tools for us to become good
thinkers, which is perhaps the most important skill there is.”

Branches of Philosophy

1. Metaphysics- Comes the Greek word “metafuisca” means something that goes beyond. It is the study
of reality.

 The examples of the metaphysics are BEING, EXISTENCE, PURPOSE, UNIVERSALS, PROPERTY,
RELATION, CAUSALITY, SPACE, TIME, EVENT, and many others. Explanation: They are
fundamental, because all other concepts and beliefs rest on them.

2. Theology/Theodicy- It is the philosophical study of God or BEING in its highest form.

 Theodicy is a philosophical attempt to explain why God would allow evil to exist in the world.
Within Christianity, for example, God is omniscient (all-knowing), omnipotent (all-powerful), and
omnibenevolent (completely good), a World-Creator that also cares for each human being
personally.

3. Philosophy of Man- It is the philosophical study of the nature of man as person, origin and destiny.

4. Cosmology- It is the philosophical study of the physical world in its final analysis.

5. Political Philosophy- It is the philosophical study of the state, the ideal form of government and its
basic power.

 Libertarianism -Libertarians support legalization of victimless crimes such as the use of

marijuana while opposing high levels of taxation and government spending on health, welfare
and education. Libertarians also support a foreign policy of non-interventionism.
 Socialism- Socialism is an economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse economic
and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to
private ownership.
 Utilitarianism- For example, if you are choosing ice cream for yourself, the utilitarian view is that
you should choose the flavor that will give you the most pleasure. If you enjoy chocolate but
hate vanilla, you should choose chocolate for the pleasure it will bring and avoid vanilla because
it will bring displeasure.

6. Aesthetics- A philosophical inquiry on beauty and of the beautiful.

7. Epistemology- It is the philosophical study on the principles of human knowledge with regard to value
of human thought.
  There are three main examples or conditions of epistemology: truth, belief and justification.
First of all, truth occurs when false propositions cannot be discerned. Consequently, in order for
something to be considered as knowledge, it must be true in nature.

8. Social Philosophy- It is philosophical study between man and society.

 Gender identity, trans rights, the effects of racism, disability, or cultural history and how we
display it publicly: these are all social philosophical issues. At its best, social philosophy
contributes to meaningful social change. It is continuous with gender studies, black studies, and
disability studies.

9. Philosophy of Education- It is a philosophical and methodological study of teaching and procedural

process.

10. Ethics/Moral Philosophy- It is philosophical study of the morality of human act that distinguishes
from what is good from evil and right and wrong.

LESSON 2: THE STUDY OF ETHICS

Meaning of Ethics

Ethics comes from the Greek word “ethos” meaning custom or behavior. Ethics is the
fundamental character and spirit of a culture and custom. Ethics is defined as a general study of
moral life which deals with two types of question, one critically normative and the other theoretical.
Ethics is a branch of philosophy. It is also called moral philosophy dealing with actions

and values relating to human conduct. (Rightness or wrongness of actions, goodness and badness of
motives and ends of such actions). Ethics is the practical science of the morality of human actions. It is
the scientific inquiry into the principles of morality. It is the science of human acts with reference to
right and wrong. It is the study of human conduct from the standpoint of morality. Ethics is the science
which lays down the principles of right living. It is a practical science that guides us in our actions that we
may live rightly and well.

Education is the harmonious development of the whole man- of all man’s faculties: the moral,
intellectual, and physical powers in man. How the highest of man’s power are his reason and will.
Hence, the primary objective of education moral development of the will. Unfortunately, this moral
training that the most important to man is not given due emphasis in our educational system. Our
schools train the head more than the products of our schools today. Knowledge is good, bodily health
and strength are good, but first and above all – good character.

Ethics means right living and good moral character; and it is in good moral character that man
finds his true worth and perfection. All the great teachers of the ages maintain that the supreme
purpose of human living lies not in the acquisition of material goods or bodily pleasures, nor in the
attainment of bodily perfections such as health and strength; nor even in the development of
intellectual skills but in the development of the moral qualities which lift man far above brute creation.

According to Socrates, “the unexamined life is not worth living for man.” Now ethics, as we
already said before, is the very investigation of the meaning of life.

Different Branches of Ethics

Metaethics.

Refers to the nature of ethics, study of characteristics and moral reasoning. It basically takes metaethics
to measure and discuss about whether ethics is relative and whether we always act from self-interest
are examples of metaethical discussions. Also, it often attempts to identify the best moral values. An
example within metaethics is: "How can we know what is right and wrong?" There are many different
answers as there are different people answering the question. Some individuals may say that right and
wrong are dictated by holy books, or philosophy books, or political books, or by popular speakers, but
there is not yet a good explanation within philosophy that can illustrate the origins and nature of right
and wrong that is acceptable to everyone.

Normative ethics

Is concerned in determining the content of our moral behavior. Normative ethical theories seek to
provide action-guides; procedures for answering the question such as “what ought I to do?”. Examples
of behaviors that are judged as right or wrong in Normative Ethics are honesty, lying, and stealing. The
behaviors being judged by Normative Ethics are actions that have already occurred and are then being
interpreted by the observer to be "honesty," "lying," or others. It is a weakness within the human
manner of circular thought to observe the result of an action, to then place a name upon the
endproduct, and to then believe that the end-product is a singularity that is self-defined by the name
given to the action.

Applied Ethics

Is a field of ethics that deals with ethical questions specific to a professional, disciplinary, or practical
field? Subsets of applied ethics include medical ethics, bioethics, business ethics, legal ethics, and
others. It also attempts to deal with specific realms of human action and to craft criteria for discussing
issues that might arise within those realms. For example, sex before marriage is always an ethical
question to the public. In ASEAN countries, it may be wrong because of religions and culture perceptive
different but it is right in most of the western countries.

The Importance of Ethics

1. Helps every student to know the meaning and internalize ethical or moral principles.

2. Students should understand and uphold moral standards.

3. Seeks to inculcate among men the true values of living a good life.

4. Guide students to commit in right living and pursue the development of good moral character.

Relation of Ethics with Other Science

1. Ethics and Logic. –Logic is a science of right thinking. Ethics is the science of right living. But right
living presupposes right thinking. Doing follows thinking. To think right often means to do right, as
knowledge of right leads to the doing of right. Both ethics and logic aim to rectitude: the former aims at
right doing; the latter, at right thinking.

2. Ethics and Psychology. –Both deal with the study of man, human nature, and human behavior.
There is, however, a basic difference. Psychology is not interested in the morality of human behavior,
unlike ethics. Psychology studies how man behaves; ethics studies how man ought to behave. The word
“ought” is emphasized to show the difference: Ethics is concerned with moral obligation while
psychology is not.

3. Ethics is related to Sociology. – Ethics deal with the moral order which includes the social order.
Whatever does violence to the social order does violence also to the natural and moral order.

Sociology deals with human relation in a society, but human relations are based on proper order and
proper order comes only with the proper observance of morals laws and principles which regulate the
actions of men in a community.

4.Ethics and Economics.-Man is also an economic being because he has to support himself by earning a
living. He has to live by bread (though he does not live by bread alone). Economics and Morality are two
aspects of one and the same human nature. Economics deals with such topics as
wages,labor,production and distribution of wealth. But what will determine the relation between
employer and employee,for instance? This and all other relations in business must be based on justice
and charity which,after all are moral principles. In order that peace and happiness will prevail in a
communiy,the action of man must be governed by the invariabe principles of morality.

5. Ethics and Education.- Education develops the whole man: his moral, intellectual and physical
capacites. Since man, however, is primarily a rational moral being (endowed with reason and will, which
ranks him above brute creaation), the primary objecitve of education should be the developments of
these power in man,which consists his true perfection. This is recognized in our constitution when it
mentios “moral character” as the first and primary aim of all education. “All schools should develop
good moral character, personal discipline, civic conciousness, etc.”

Education, a great educator said, is life; it s co-extensive with life. With greater reason and emphasis
we can even say that ethics is life because ethics is the very science and art of human living, one that
gives life its direction. Goal, worth, and meaning. Ethics is both co-extensive and co-intensive with life.

6. Morality and Law. –Morality and Law are intimately related. Right and wrong, good and bad in
human actions presuppose a law or rule of conduct. Futhermore,the laws of state are
restatements,specification or interpretations of an anterior natural moral. The legal only covers the
external acts of man; the moral governs even the internal acts of man, such as the volitional and the
intentional actvities of the will and mind. Thus, a man may commit a thousand murders in his mind or a
thousand adulteries in his desires, and is,for these, morally guilty; yet legally, he is not criminally liable
or guilty.

7. Ethics and Politics. –Man owes allegiance to the State. Politics aims at good government for the
temporal and the spiritual and eternal welfare there is no conflict. The two are inseparable in man’s
present state of existence, where the material and the spiritual, the body and the spirit, form one
person. Politics has often become very dirty and the reason is precisely because it is divorced from
ethics “ Politics without ethics is meaningless”.