Origins/Meaning of Philosophy

The beginnings of Philosophy is attributed to a thinker called Thales of Miletus (624- 564
BC) from Greece. Scholars maintain that one’s starts to wonder as they encounter reality it is
also the beginning of philosophizing. The unquenchable thirst of the human mind for a
deeper knowledge of the secrets of the universe. Thales is said to be the originator of
philosophy. The term PHILOSOPHY was coined by Pythagoras (582-507 BC). Philosophy
comes from the Greek word (philein/philo) which means to love; and (Sophia) which means
wisdom. Therefore, etymologically speaking, Philosophy means love of wisdom. Philosophy
is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as the nature
knowledge, truth, justice, beauty, mind and language.

According to Aristotle the natural desire for knowledge is innate to man. Aristotle viewed
philosophy as thinking aims at maximum connected truth about all available experiences. It
implies the interconnectedness of all the experiences. The Medieval period considers
philosophy as the science of the ultimate causes of things. It implies scientific knowledge of
caudeases of things. These causes are the objects of philosophical inquiry, and the primary
goal is to know these causes with certainties.  In the modern period, philosophy is
understood as the study of the nature of being and thinking particularly the human
experiences. It is the science of all things, Things are concrete and real.

Gilles Deleuze a post-modern philosopher, philosophy is a theory which is elaborately

developed in a form of a question, and nothing else. He argues further that by itself,
philosophy cannot be considered as a resolution to a problem, but only the elaboration, to
the very end, of the necessary implications of a formulated question. Deleuze holds that
philosophy is nothing else but a science of crafting a sound question that must start from a
problem. (Eddie Babor, 2009) 

 ///

Finally, Philosophy in its real definition begins with a question to search for meaning. It is a
scientific search for meaning and intellectual quest that transcends quest that transcend the
world of science going beyond boundaries of concrete knowledge towards abstract
knowledge to find its own meaning and essence of a thing. Philosophy is the critical
evaluation of the facts of experience. Philosophy helps to coordinate the various activities of
the individual and the society. It helps us to understand the significance of all human
experience. Philosophy critically evaluates and analyses the variety of human experiences. It
develops a comprehensive system of thoughts about the universe and the life as a whole.

 
 

Importance of Philosophy

Four reasons why philosophy is as important now as ever before.

1. Philosophy is the foundation of critical thinking.

While society is very different today from when the founding figures of Western philosophy
were making their mark, the questions we face today are just as challenging. Enter modern
philosophy, which puts critical thinking and problem-solving at the forefront in order to
make sense of these weighty problems. Writer Alexander Leivesley explains in
the Huffington Post, “Philosophy is not obsolete. Philosophy brings the important questions
to the table and works towards an answer. It encourages us to think critically about the
world; it is the foundation of all knowledge and when utilized properly, can provide us with
huge benefits.”

2. Science can’t answer every question.

We lean very heavily on science today. And with good reason: Thanks to advancements in
science and technology, we live in a very different way to how we would without them. From
fridges for our food to airplanes for travel, there’s no denying that scientific advancements
are vital to our survival as a species. But just because science is important, that does not
negate the value of philosophy. In fact, the two go hand in hand. “Science, I am sorry to say,
does not have all the answers. Just like every other field, it has its limits. We cannot derive
everything from experience, and philosophy is not dead. For example, science cannot
determine human values. Empiricism cannot determine why we ought to act morally, nor
why we ought to value human happiness over human misery. We cannot create an
experiment that tests the nature of Truth or the obtainability of knowledge,” contends
Gabriel del Carmen for Odyssey.

Blogger David Calhoun adds, “At its core, philosophy is a striving towards figuring out what
is true and worthwhile, and what it means to live a meaningful and worthwhile life. That’s
something off-limits for science, because science can tell us how things are empirically, but
it can’t prescribe how we should then live. In short: science helps us live longer, whereas
philosophy helps us live better.”

3. Philosophy has particular meaning in the business world.

At first pass, a “soft” science like philosophy may not seem especially relevant to business.
However, this couldn’t be further from the truth.
Frankfurt School of Finance & Management professor of philosophy Christine
Tiefensee explains that anyone who wants to succeed in a challenging, leading position in
business, public administration, politics, or the wider society needs a crucial set of skills. She
adds, "You will need to see quickly through complex issues, put together convincing
arguments for or against given proposals, filter relevant from irrelevant information, check
the consistency and soundness of policy papers, decide which problems are crucial and
identify the issues that are still badly understood. These skills of rigorous analysis, sound
argument and critical examination are the bread-and-butter of philosophy: no subject trains
our ability for consistent, systematic thought better than philosophy.” These skills aren’t
limited to the business world, however. They can be applied in virtually any context -- both
professional and personal.

4. Ancient philosophers continue to influence humanity.

While Plato and Aristotle are often credited with shaping future civilizations, and their
influence is still felt today, Publishers Weekly  insists, “The ancient Greek philosophers Plato
and Aristotle may seem like the quintessential Dead White Males, but in fact they are very
much alive. Twenty four centuries ago they laid the foundations of Western culture, and
their ideas and insights still dictate essential features of our world right now, from what we
eat to what we see on the internet.” And while you may think of Confucius purely in terms of
sound bites, his work was extremely significant and remains so today. This is very useful to
know, especially for students in fields such as political science, diplomacy and international
politics. For example, according to National Geographic, China’s modern government has
modeled much of its ethos on Confucius' rhetoric, such as “obedience to the emperor,
hierarchy, and loyalty.” On the other hand, recent superhero movies Man of Steel (about
Superman) and The Dark Knight (Batman) feature major moral dilemmas based on an age-
old philosophical issue known as the 'trolley problem'.

So, while to some people philosophy may not be the sexiest of subjects on paper, it’s one
with extraordinary staying power and potential. It does not just stand to change the world; it
just might change your life. One student, describing being strong-armed by his father into
taking an intro to philosophy college course altered his life’s trajectory, wrote, “While I once
scorned philosophy, I am now majoring in it. I have come to realize that philosophy
provides the tools for us to become good thinkers, which is perhaps the most important
skill there is.”

Branches of Philosophy

1. Metaphysics- Comes the Greek word “metafuisca” means something that goes beyond. It
is the study of reality.
2. Theology/Theodicy- It is the philosophical study of God or BEING in its highest form.

3. Philosophy of Man- It is the philosophical study of the nature of man as person, origin
and destiny.

4. Cosmology- It is the philosophical study of the physical world in its final analysis.

5. Political Philosophy- It is the philosophical study of the state, the ideal form of
government and its basic power.

6. Aesthetics- A philosophical inquiry on beauty and of the beautiful.

7. Epistemology- It is the philosophical study on the principles of human knowledge with

regard to value of human thought.

8. Social Philosophy- It is philosophical study between man and society.

9. Philosophy of Education- It is a philosophical and methodological study of teaching and

procedural process.

10. Ethics/Moral Philosophy- It is philosophical study of the morality of human act that
distinguishes from what is good from evil and right and wrong.
Origins/Meaning of Philosophy

The beginnings of Philosophy is attributed to a thinker called Thales of Miletus (624- 564
BC) from Greece. Scholars maintain that one’s starts to wonder as they encounter reality it is
also the beginning of philosophizing. The unquenchable thirst of the human mind for a
deeper knowledge of the secrets of the universe. Thales is said to be the originator of
philosophy. The term PHILOSOPHY was coined by Pythagoras (582-507 BC). Philosophy
comes from the Greek word (philein/philo) which means to love; and (Sophia) which means
wisdom. Therefore, etymologically speaking, Philosophy means love of wisdom. Philosophy
is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as the nature
knowledge, truth, justice, beauty, mind and language.

According to Aristotle the natural desire for knowledge is innate to man. Aristotle viewed
philosophy as thinking aims at maximum connected truth about all available experiences. It
implies the interconnectedness of all the experiences. The Medieval period considers
philosophy as the science of the ultimate causes of things. It implies scientific knowledge of
causes of things. These causes are the objects of philosophical inquiry, and the primary goal
is to know these causes with certainties.  In the modern period, philosophy is understood as
the study of the nature of being and thinking particularly the human experiences. It is the
science of all things, Things are concrete and real.

Gilles Deleuze a post-modern philosopher, philosophy is a theory which is elaborately

developed in a form of a question, and nothing else. He argues further that by itself,
philosophy cannot be considered as a resolution to a problem, but only the elaboration, to
the very end, of the necessary implications of a formulated question. Deleuze holds that
philosophy is nothing else but a science of crafting a sound question that must start from a
problem. (Eddie Babor, 2009) 

Finally, Philosophy in its real definition begins with a question to search for meaning. It is a
scientific search for meaning and intellectual quest that transcends quest that transcend the
world of science going beyond boundaries of concrete knowledge towards abstract
knowledge to find its own meaning and essence of a thing. Philosophy is the critical
evaluation of the facts of experience. Philosophy helps to coordinate the various activities of
the individual and the society. It helps us to understand the significance of all human
experience. Philosophy critically evaluates and analyses the variety of human experiences. It
develops a comprehensive system of thoughts about the universe and the life as a whole.

 
 

Importance of Philosophy

Four reasons why philosophy is as important now as ever before.

1. Philosophy is the foundation of critical thinking.

While society is very different today from when the founding figures of Western philosophy
were making their mark, the questions we face today are just as challenging. Enter modern
philosophy, which puts critical thinking and problem-solving at the forefront in order to
make sense of these weighty problems. Writer Alexander Leivesley explains in
the Huffington Post, “Philosophy is not obsolete. Philosophy brings the important questions
to the table and works towards an answer. It encourages us to think critically about the
world; it is the foundation of all knowledge and when utilized properly, can provide us with
huge benefits.”

2. Science can’t answer every question.

We lean very heavily on science today. And with good reason: Thanks to advancements in
science and technology, we live in a very different way to how we would without them. From
fridges for our food to airplanes for travel, there’s no denying that scientific advancements
are vital to our survival as a species. But just because science is important, that does not
negate the value of philosophy. In fact, the two go hand in hand. “Science, I am sorry to say,
does not have all the answers. Just like every other field, it has its limits. We cannot derive
everything from experience, and philosophy is not dead. For example, science cannot
determine human values. Empiricism cannot determine why we ought to act morally, nor
why we ought to value human happiness over human misery. We cannot create an
experiment that tests the nature of Truth or the obtainability of knowledge,” contends
Gabriel del Carmen for Odyssey.

Blogger David Calhoun adds, “At its core, philosophy is a striving towards figuring out what
is true and worthwhile, and what it means to live a meaningful and worthwhile life. That’s
something off-limits for science, because science can tell us how things are empirically, but
it can’t prescribe how we should then live. In short: science helps us live longer, whereas
philosophy helps us live better.”

3. Philosophy has particular meaning in the business world.

At first pass, a “soft” science like philosophy may not seem especially relevant to business.
However, this couldn’t be further from the truth.
Frankfurt School of Finance & Management professor of philosophy Christine
Tiefensee explains that anyone who wants to succeed in a challenging, leading position in
business, public administration, politics, or the wider society needs a crucial set of skills. She
adds, "You will need to see quickly through complex issues, put together convincing
arguments for or against given proposals, filter relevant from irrelevant information, check
the consistency and soundness of policy papers, decide which problems are crucial and
identify the issues that are still badly understood. These skills of rigorous analysis, sound
argument and critical examination are the bread-and-butter of philosophy: no subject trains
our ability for consistent, systematic thought better than philosophy.” These skills aren’t
limited to the business world, however. They can be applied in virtually any context -- both
professional and personal.

4. Ancient philosophers continue to influence humanity.

While Plato and Aristotle are often credited with shaping future civilizations, and their
influence is still felt today, Publishers Weekly  insists, “The ancient Greek philosophers Plato
and Aristotle may seem like the quintessential Dead White Males, but in fact they are very
much alive. Twenty four centuries ago they laid the foundations of Western culture, and
their ideas and insights still dictate essential features of our world right now, from what we
eat to what we see on the internet.” And while you may think of Confucius purely in terms of
sound bites, his work was extremely significant and remains so today. This is very useful to
know, especially for students in fields such as political science, diplomacy and international
politics. For example, according to National Geographic, China’s modern government has
modeled much of its ethos on Confucius' rhetoric, such as “obedience to the emperor,
hierarchy, and loyalty.” On the other hand, recent superhero movies Man of Steel (about
Superman) and The Dark Knight (Batman) feature major moral dilemmas based on an age-
old philosophical issue known as the 'trolley problem'.

So, while to some people philosophy may not be the sexiest of subjects on paper, it’s one
with extraordinary staying power and potential. It does not just stand to change the world; it
just might change your life. One student, describing being strong-armed by his father into
taking an intro to philosophy college course altered his life’s trajectory, wrote, “While I once
scorned philosophy, I am now majoring in it. I have come to realize that philosophy
provides the tools for us to become good thinkers, which is perhaps the most important
skill there is.”

Branches of Philosophy

1. Metaphysics- Comes the Greek word “metafuisca” means something that goes beyond. It
is the study of reality.
2. Theology/Theodicy- It is the philosophical study of God or BEING in its highest form.

3. Philosophy of Man- It is the philosophical study of the nature of man as person, origin
and destiny.

4. Cosmology- It is the philosophical study of the physical world in its final analysis.

5. Political Philosophy- It is the philosophical study of the state, the ideal form of
government and its basic power.

6. Aesthetics- A philosophical inquiry on beauty and of the beautiful.

7. Epistemology- It is the philosophical study on the principles of human knowledge with

regard to value of human thought.

8. Social Philosophy- It is philosophical study between man and society.

9. Philosophy of Education- It is a philosophical and methodological study of teaching and

procedural process.

10. Ethics/Moral Philosophy- It is philosophical study of the morality of human act that
distinguishes from what is good from evil and right and wrong.

adorefairfoc
I.i ANCIENT PERIOD

1.    Pre-socratic period

The pre-socratics were primarily concerned with the basic stuff of the cosmos, with what
constituted the universe. The question on man could not be totally divorced from the
cosmological, since man was conceived as part of nature. Man was seen as a microcosm,
and the search for the truth about man was simultaneously the search for the truth about
the universe. Thus, the ancient philosophical approach to the study of man was
COSMOCENTRIC. ( they were concerned not with a part of the cosmos but with the totality).

2.    Classical period

Greek wisdom on Man The greek philosphers Socrates, plato and Aristotle taught that the
proper way to solve the problem of man is to first inquire into and discover the true nature
of man. The Greek philosophers believed that man’s soul pre existed his body. In his original
ideal existence as a soul or pure mind in the realm of ideas, man knew all things by direct
intuition and had all this knowledge stored in mind. However because of his banishment
into this world of sense, he blurred or forgot all or most of what he knew.

 The solution to his present problems caused mostly by ignorance or lack of knowledge, can
be found by recalling all what he knew clearly in his former existence and finally regain his
former perfections.

Socrates

Socrates Man and virtue Since knowledge is inborn, virtue likewise is natural endowment,
not an artificial convention or habit of action to be acquired by education. Virtue may
indeed be taught, but this is to be understood not as introducing something foreign to the
mind but rather as merely awakening the seeds of good deeds that perhaps lie dormant in
the mind and heart of mind. Since virtue is inborn in the mind and self knowledge is the
source of all wisdom, then the only way to acquire virtue is simply to know what is in the
mind, in the self.

Virtue then depended on knowledge could be defined as true knowledge of one’s self.
“knowledge is virtue, ignorance is vice’ True knowledge according to Socrates includes with
it the application of this knowledge. This means that knowledge should not be merely
theoretical or speculative, it should be practical. True knowledge is wisdom which in turn
means virtue. EVIL – is the result of ignorance, the opposite of knowledge. A man does evil
because he does not know any better, or that his knowledge is imperfect or inadequate.

 
Plato

            Man in his present earthly existence, is only an imperfect copy of his real original
self, the perfect man, in the realm of ideas. By knowing and constantly recalling his former
self and his perfections and by constant imitation of his ideal exemplar by the practice of
virtue, man can regain his perfection which he lost during his long earthly exile and his
imprisonment in the body as punishment for sin. Man’s perfection consists in constant
recollection and imitation of his former perfect self.

Idealism was fathered and fostered by plato, emphasized on the idea behind the things that
we see. The individual things that we perceive, exist in space-time. These are not real since
they change, pass in and out of existence. It is the idea behind these changeable, individual
and finite things that alone is real. The individual men that we know and see are, in this
sense not real since they come and go. They’re only the external manifestations, the
reflections and replicas of the unseen universal, immutable an eternal idea. Originally, man
existed as a pure mind, an ideal man, with all his pristine genuine perfections as a perfect
man in the realm of ideas.

Man and knowledge As a perfect state as pure mind, man knew all things by direct intuition.
Man was omniscient, all knowing, before he came to be born in this world. With his
separation from the paradise of truth and knowledge and his long exile on earth, he forgot
most of the knowledge he had. However by constant remembering and doing good, he can
regain his former perfections.

Aristotle

Characterizes man as “political animal” this refers to the social nature of man, social is not
something that one enters into by contract to achieve some common aim. the social is
within each man; man does not only live in society, society lives in him.The things he uses in
daily life presuppose contact with fellowman. Even the individual himself is a product of a
social contact.Man as person and his crowning activity is love which presupposes justice the
final aim of education is becoming a person. Person is the task of becoming oneself. And it
consists in integration, in becoming whole, in unifying his diverse activities of speaking,
thinking, willing and feeling. how can he achieve this self possession? By directing all these
activities towards as objective value or realm of objective values. Objective because they are
valuable in themselves.

Mere relative values cannot integrate man because they derive their worth from man
himself. what beings possess inherent worth? Man in his uniqueness and irreducibility is an
objective value. The commitment of love presupposes justice, the true foundation of social
order. Love as the enhancement of the other person requires giving to the other his due, his
basic dignity as a person love is the maximum of justice, justice is the minimum of love.
I.ii MEDIEVAL PERIOD (Theocentric)

With the coming and predominance of Christianity in medieval Europe, philosophy became
the handmaid of theology. reason was the companion of faith, its task was to make faith
reasonable. Man was viewed still as part of nature but nature now was God’s creation, and
man, next to the angels, was the most noblest of God’s creatures, created in his image and
likeness. Philosophy became the search for the ultimate causes of things, eventually leading
to the truth about God. Man’s ideal was to contemplate God and his creation, and his action
was to conform to the natural moral law implanted in his reason. Thus, the Christian
medieval philosophical approach to the study of man was THEOCENTRIC.

St. Augustine

Ø  He is the greatest of all the Christian philosophers and theologians.

Ø  Born near Carthage in North Africa of a pagan father and a Christian mother.

Ø  He was attracted as a youth first to the Manichean religion, a variation of the
Zoroastrianism that had spread through the Roman Empire and later to the mysticism of the
Neo-Platonists, whose influence is discernible throughout his writings.

Ø  He took a posithaion in Milan as a professor of rhetoric.

Ø  There he came under the influence of St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan who succeeded in
leading him into the Christian fold.

Ø  Augustine devoted the remainder of his life to the strengthening of the church, especially
in North Africa.

Ø  In 395, he was appointed bishop of Hippo.

Ø  He wrote 113 books, 213 letters and 500 sermons, particularly in philosophy and
theology.

Ø  His literary output covers the entire sphere of human thought and ranges from the
psychological complexity of the confessions, to the political insights of the City of God,  to
the stridently polemical.

St. Augustine Is the first Christian philosopher and the main authority in medieval period.
God is Absolute Spirit, Absolute Will, Absolute Intelligence, Absolute Freedom, Absolute
Good, Absolute Power, and Absolute Holiness.God is the Creator, He created man with a
mortal body with an immortal soul and gave them freewill.The source of evil is freewill, God
created man good, but the good of man ceases to be good when man turn himself away
from God. Man’s freewill makes him imperfect.Man is capable of reaching perfection only if
he keeps himself good.

St. Thomas Aquinas

Ø  born in Italy of a noble family

Ø  was the most important intellectual figure of high medieval civilization

Ø  he studied at the famous Abbey of Monte Cassino then at the University of Naples

Ø  In 1243 he joined the Dominican Order, much to the displeasure of his parents.

Ø  They imprisoned him in the family castle, where he remained for two years until his
mother relented, passing him a rope by which he let himself out on window and down the
castle wall.

Ø  Escaping, he rejoined the Dominicans and set out for Cologne, to study under Albertus
Magnus. Then he studied at the University of Paris.

Ø  he became a highly successful teacher

Ø  he wrote selection on ethics on his two important books called The Summa Contra
Gentiles and Summa Theologica

He claims that man is substantially united by the body and soul.Man is the point of
convergence between the corporeal and spiritual substances.The soul is the united with the
human body and it is the principle of life.The souls requires the body as the material
medium for its operation but the soul has operative functions which do not need a material
medium.The soul are man’s intellect and will.Thus, at death the intellect and will remain in
the soul as it is immortal and incorruptible.

I.iii MODERN PERIOD

The most prominent of modern philosophy how people can gather and confirm knowledge
through their own direct experiences and logic instead automatically accepting it. It is the
period of science and technology.

Rene Descartes
The change of focus began with the philosophizing of Rene Descartes (father of modern
philosophy) He view human being is founded on his idea of substance, material and
immaterial.Man as material substance is both thinking (soul) and extended (body)
substanceHuman can know and think apart from his bodyMan is a machine and a thinking
being “ Man is a thing which thinks”.Man as a finite substance and thinking substance
(dualistic)RES COGITANS- human can know and think apart from the body as an extended
substance. RES EXTENSA- refers to the body.

Everything was dubitable, for Descartes, even his own body, all except for one fact, the fact
that he was doubting. He could not doubt that he was doubting. And doubting being mode
of thinking, brought him to the realization of “ COGITO ERGO SUM” (I think, therefore I am)
with the emergence of Descartes’ cogito, Philosophy became ANTHROPOCENTRIC. The
question of man was now the foreground of other questioning on nature or on God.

Thomas Hobbes

Everything is fundamentally matter in  motion. Hobbes materialism claim that every event in
the world is determined. Since human activity is similar to the events in nature it follows the
behavior is absolutely determined. Human being is essentially anti-social; essentially egoistic
and this egoism makes life difficult in the natural state of things “LEVIATHAN”

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Human is essentially good and that good people are made unhappy and corrupted by their
experiences in society. He viewed society as artificial and corrupt that results to continuing
unhappiness of man. The Social Contract is the compact agreed to among men that sets
conditions for membership.

 no

I.iv  CONTEMPORARY PERIOD

Karl Marx

Ø  Born in Trier, Germany in 1818

Ø  Marx is widely referred to as a Philosopher, Political-Economist, and a Journalist.

Ø  Studied philosophy in University of Berlin

Ø  He was greatly influenced by the works of German idealist, G.W.F. Hegel

Ø  He wrote his monumental work, Capital

Ø  Died on March 14, 1883

            Human nature is derive from labor since nature is the totality of human activity
considering that labor is human activity “Labor Man”.Human nature rests on labor; man
should be productive. An unproductive human person stops to be a human being.

Existentialism

Man shapes his being as he lives. Knowledge is subjected to the person’s decision and
varies from one person to another

Five common features of existentialist thinkers

1.    Existentialist thinkers attempt to philosophize from the standpoint of an actor rather

than from that of a spectator. This is due to the fact that the problems considered by
existentialist thinkers arise out of their personal experience. The life of the existentialist
thinker can hardly be divorced from his philosophy.

2.    Existentialist philosophies are basically philosophies of man, stressing the subjectivity of

man. They did not deny that man to a certain extent is an object, that he is a thing,
conceptualizable, manipulable and controllable by others, still they hold on to the
subjectivity of man; man as the original center, the source of initiative and giver of meaning
to the world.

3.    Existentialist philosophies stress on man’s existence, on man as situated. This

situatedness of man takes on a different shades of meaning for different existentialist.
Soreen Kierkegaard – existence is a religious category; the situation of the single, finite,
unique individual who has to make a decision before the one infinite God in fear and
trembling like the situation of Abraham. Martin Heidegger, man is Dasein, there-being,
thrown into the world to realize himself, doomed to potentialities, the extreme of which is
death.

4.    4. Existentialist thinkers emphasize the freedom of man. Each existentialist has his own
interpretation of freedom
5.    Existentialist philosophers propagate authentic existence versus inauthentic existence
Inauthentic existence is living under the impersonal on (they) of Heidegger Keirkegaard –
crowd mentality Albert camus – L’etranger, indifferent ,tranquilized, unable to make a
personal decision of his own Gabriel Marcel – functionalized man living in the mass society
Martin Buber – the man living the life of Monologue.

Authentic existence – is personal and the authentic man is one who freely commits himself
to the realization of a project, an idea, a truth, a value. He is one who does not hide himself
in the anonymity of the crowd but signs himself to what he manifests.

The question of value for the existentialist cannot be divorced from the more original
question of what does it mean to be? What is the meaning of life? Camus in his myth of
Sisyphus says that the truly philosopehical question is the question of suicide, for in suicide
one poses the question of the meaning of life. value then is intimately related to life, and if
human life for existentialist is to be lived freely, authentically, responsibly, personally, then
value is that for which a person lives and dies for. Value is that to which the authentic man
commits himself.

Kierkegaard

(Father of Existentialism)- Philosophy became the search for the meaning of life. The search
for truth was now the search for meaning. The question of what is the meaning of man’s
existence is more important for the existentialist rather than its answer. Kierkegaard –
freedom is that which enables man to pass from the aesthetic state to the ethical and
ultimately to make a leap of faith, the highest act of man’s liberty

Theistic existentialist – Soren Kierkegaard, Karl Jasper, Gabriel marcel, and martin buber

Atheistic existentialist – Jean Paul Sartre, Albert Camus, and Maurice Merelau-Ponty,

Jean Paul Sartre

To exist is to be condemned to freedom Maurice merleau-ponty – man is condemned to

meaning Albert camus – to exist is to live the absurdity of life. Sartrean freedom – “existence
precedes essence” man first exists and then gradually creates his own essence. Nothing
determines human freedom from creating its own essence except freedom itself; man
cannot help but be free.

Martin Heidegger
Man shapes his being as he lives. Knowledge is subjected to the person’s decision and
varies from one person to another.Heidegger equates freedom with self-transcendence in
time, the being-ahead-of-itself of dasein while having been-been and making present
entities in his world.
The fundamental nature of humankind has long challenged the great philosophers. Are
people born inherently good, evil, or somewhere in between? Is human nature
predetermined by a supernatural being or self-directed? These ethical questions are crucial
to systems of government and justice, determining the way people should live together in
society, and when and how punishment should be meted out to those who don’t follow
what is considered the “right” way to behave (Duignan, 2010).

The person is a rational being. His/Her nature emerges and is fulfilled in one’s various
relationship.

In Relation to Self

A.   He has intellect and free will.

The human person is endowed and blessed with natural capacities and abilities. He has the
ability to reason and decide freely. He has the ability to grasp, recognize, and appreciate
truth and goodness, and the ability to choose among options to promote or disregard truth
and goodness.

i.              The person has the right to seek the truth and act in freedom. He has the right to
free expression, to information, to education, to assembly, to worship and to collective
action to freedom.

ii.             With freedom comes responsibility. While a person has rights. He also has the
duty to respect the rights of fellow humans, to promote for his acts.

B.   He has dignity.

The human person is bestowed an inherent dignity which demands unconditional respect.
The demand for absolute dignity invalidates all manipulation of person as justified even if
the end is ultimately the person.

C.   He is created in the image and likeness of God.

The human person is both mind and spirit. The person is a co-creator, co-worker, and co-
savior of God. Creation and salvation is an ongoing process and all are part of it. According
to Saint Thomas Aquinas, the highest perfection of man is in his/her wanting to be with
God. 

D.   He is ambivalent.

The human person has the capacity for both good and evil. He has the ability to go beyond
self interest and work for justice and goodness. On the other hand, he is also capable of
selfishness and oppression. This implies the danger of empowering a person with absolute
authority and influence. There is a need for checks and balances if we are to help deter a
person from succumbing to his natural weakness. Another implication is that there must be
a constant choosing that is opting to do good. Because of man’s ambivalence, it takes
practice to be/do good.

E.    He is limited.

The human person’s life is limited. The significance of death is on how life was lived –
whether he opts to do good or not. The person is also limited in his capacity to know and
do good.

F.    He is unique.

The human person is different and has his own contribution to society. Because of this
uniqueness, one cannot label or put a stereotype on anybody. The uniqueness of a person
has to be respected.

G.   He is an embodied subject.

The human person is in charge of his or her own life. The person is a moral agent with a
certain degree of autonomy, and self determination empowered to act according to his or
her conscience, in freedom and with knowledge.

H.   He is a historical subject.

The human person being an embodied subject is necessarily a historical subject. Being a
historical subject is to be temporal and is part of a progressive movement toward full
human development. The moral significance of the personal historical process is that one’s
moral responsibility is proportionate to his or her capacities at each stage of development.
As historical subject, the person’s moral reflection must be as dynamic as the human life it
intends to guide.

The person is a historical being in that he develops personality as he grows up and

circulates within the members of his family, his peer group, his neighbourhood, his school,
his church, and eventually within the society at large.
 

In Relation to Others

A.   Each person is a social being.

Every individual is oriented towards other people and needs their company. He fulfils
himself with and through others. He is a relational being. To be a human person is to be
essentially directed towards others. Human persons need to live in social groups with
appropriate structures which sustain human dignity and the common good.

Since a person is not an island unto himself, he will have to relate himself to society. For his
survival and belonging needs, he is not simply a mere member of a socio-cultural group – a
mere individual – but he cooperates with the members of that group. In short, he is also a
social being.

B.   Each person is of equal value with other persons.

God has gifted all with equality, although natural inequalities may exist. All are equal in
basic rights and needs.

In Relation to World

                                                  

A.   Work

The person interacts with the world through his/her work. Work is a means to fulfil one’s
personhood and to glorify God.

B.   Caretaker

The things of the world are for all people to use – not adored or amassed. All are
responsible for the preservation and development of the earth.
Human Act

·         The human activity of man as man

·         Act of rationality of man

·         Involves understanding and free will

·         “an act which proceeds from the deliberate free will of man” (Glenn:3)

·         The agent becomes responsible and accountable of such act

·         A human act can be morally good or morally evil

·         The human act  is one that is proper to a human being, an act that proceeds from the
free will of a man.

Act of Man

·         Activities of man as animal

·         Acts are not deliberately done nor voluntary

·         Performed without the free will of the agent

·         Includes beating of the heart, dreaming, sensations by the five sense organs

·         Do not demand responsibility from the agent

·         Amoral acts and not subject to morality

EXISTENCE OF HUMAN ACT- If there is an act, the agent has an objective in mind. ¨ For
every act that is done, there is always a corresponding end, or a goal. ¨ It is this end that
gives the act a reason for its existence.

HUMAN ACT AND RESPONSIBILITY- Responsibility is the ability of a person to respond to

a need or problem in a situation. That ability to respond is an internal quality of a person,
which is free and voluntary yet morally obligatory in himself.
COMPARISON OF CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN ACTS AND ACTS OF MAN
CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN ACTS:

A.   Elicited acts – these are human acts which find their adequate cause in the will alone.

1. Wish – the simple love of anything.

2. Intention – the purposive tendency of the will towards a thing.

3. Consent – the acceptance by the will of the means necessary to carry out intention.

4. Election – the selection by the will of the precise means to be employed in carrying out
an intention.

5. Use – the employment by the will of powers to carry out its intention by the means
elected.

6. Fruition – the enjoyment of a thing willed and done.

B.   Commanded acts – human acts that do not find their adequate cause in the simple-will
act, but are perfected by the action of mental or bodily powers under the control of will.

1. Internal – acts done by internal mental powers under command of the will.

2. External – acts affected by bodily powers under command of the will

3. Mixed – acts that involve the employment of bodily powers and mental powers.

Elements of Human Acts

a.    KNOWLEDGE

An act done is knowingly, when the doer is conscious (all senses are active, sensory-
perception if functional) and aware of the reason and consequences on his actions.

b.    FREEDOM

An act is done when the doer acts by his own initiative and choice without being forced to
do so by another person or situation It makes the doer the father if his acts and thus, the
doer is responsible for those acts. He can acknowledge that he has done them because he
wanted to and he can explain why he wanted to do. Knowledge is supplied by the intellect
and it directs the will to want the object it proposes.

Our freedom is “situated” or limited by the rights of others, things or persons. Our
environment constricts our freedom. But man remains man despite the limitations of human
freedom. “Man cannot be reduced to historicity, to his environment, to determinism” (Dy,
Jr.:159)

Negative: freedom is the absence of constriction

Positive: freedom is the power to be and to act under free will and choice.

FREE WILL AND FREEDOM

WILL- It is a man’s natural tendency of being attracted to what is good and beautiful and to
be repulsed from what is evil and ugly, after they have been presented by the intellect. ¨ Will
is the counterpart of intellect.

HUMAN FREE WILL- The will is free when it acts without any pressure from outside. It is
free when it is attracted to or repulses anything on a natural tendency. ¨ Free will makes the
agent become responsible and accountable for his act.

Freedom of the will is the “power which men have of determining their actions according to
the judgment of their reason” - St. Thomas

c.    VOLUNTARINESS

An act is done wilfully when the doer consents to the acts, accepting it as his own, and
assumes accountability for his consequences. It is naturally inclined to the good, but man
may sometimes deliberately choose evil.

 
Thomas Aquinas

 Key features

1. When we focus on God’s role as the giver of the natural law, the natural law is just one
aspect of divine providence; and so the theory of natural law is from that perspective just
one part among others of the theory of divine providence.

2. When we focus on the human’s role as recipient of the natural law, the natural law
constitutes the principles of practical rationality, those principles by which human action is
to be judged as reasonable or unreasonable; and so the theory of natural law is from that
perspective the preeminent part of the theory of practical rationality.

Natural law and divine providence

Natural law is a participation in the eternal law (ST IaIIae91, 2)

The eternal law is that rational plan by which all creation is ordered (ST IaIIae 91, 1); the
natural law is the way that the human being “participates” in the eternal law (ST IaIIae 91, 2).

Natural law and practical rationality

Natural law constitutes the basic principles of practical rationality for human beings, and has
this status by nature (ST IaIIae 94, 2).

The notion that the natural law constitutes the basic principles of practical rationality
implies, for Aquinas, both that the precepts of the natural law are universally binding by
nature (ST IaIIae 94, 4) and that the precepts of the natural law are universally knowable by
nature(ST IaIIae 94, 4; 94, 6).

Natural laws are universally binding by nature

The precepts of the natural law are binding by nature: no beings could share our human
nature yet fail to be bound by the precepts of the natural law. This is so because these
precepts direct us toward the good as such and various particular goods (ST IaIIae 94, 2).
The good and goods provide reasons for us rational beings to act, to pursue the good and
these particular goods. As good is what is perfective of us given the natures that we have
(ST Ia 5, 1), the good and these various goods have their status as such naturally. It is
sufficient for certain things to be good that we have the natures that we have; it is in virtue
of our common human nature that the good for us is what it is.

Natural laws are also knowable by nature

All human beings possess a basic knowledge of the principles of the natural law (ST IaIIae
94, 4). This knowledge is exhibited in our intrinsic directedness toward the various goods
that the natural law enjoins us to pursue, and we can make this implicit awareness explicit
and propositional through reflection on practice. Aquinas takes it that there is a core of
practical knowledge that all human beings have, even if the implications of that knowledge
can be hard to work out or the efficacy of that knowledge can be thwarted by strong
emotion or evil dispositions (ST IaIIae 94, 6).

Basic features of the natural law

That from the God’s-eye point of view, it is law through its place in the scheme of divine
providence

From the human’s-eye point of view, it constitutes a set of naturally binding and knowable
precepts of practical reason

Principle of intelligibility of action

Fundamental principle of the natural law is that good is to be done and evil avoided (ST
IaIIae 94, 2)

But no one can in acting simply pursue good — one has to pursue some particular good.
And Aquinas holds that we know immediately, by inclination, that there are a variety of
things that count as good and thus to be pursued — life, procreation, knowledge, society,
and reasonable conduct(ST IaIIae 94, 2; 94, 3)

Aquinas’s thoughts are along the following lines

first, there are certain ways of acting in response to the basic human goods that are
intrinsically flawed;

second, for an act to be right, or reasonable, is for it to be an act that is in no way

intrinsically flawed (ST IaIIae 18, 1)

We are to look at the features that individuate acts, such as their objects (ST IaIIae 18, 2),
their ends (ST IaIIae 18, 3), their circumstances (ST IaIIae 18, 4),

An act might be flawed through a mismatch of object and end.

An act might be flawed merely through its intention: to direct oneself against a good — as
in murder (ST IIaIIae64, 6), and lying (ST IIaIIae 110, 3), and blasphemy (ST IIaIIae 13, 2)

killing of the innocent is always wrong, as is lying, adultery, sodomy, and blasphemy; and
that they are always wrong is a matter of natural law.

 
History of Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is one of the most powerful and persuasive approaches to normative ethics in
the history of philosophy. Utilitarianism is generally held to be the view that the morally
right action is the action that produces the most good.

One thing to note is that the theory is a form of consequentialism: the right action is
understood entirely in terms of consequences produced.

The utilitarian view one ought to maximize the overall good — that is, consider the good of
others as well as one's own good.

Classical Utilitarians

Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, identified the good with pleasure

They also held that we ought to maximize the good, that is, bring about ‘the greatest
amount of good for the greatest number’.

Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832)

He famously held that humans were ruled by two sovereign masters — pleasure and pain.
We seek pleasure and the avoidance of pain, they “…govern us in all we do, in all we say, in
all we think…” (Bentham PML, 1).

He also promulgated the principle of utility as the standard of right action on the part of
governments and individuals.

Actions are approved when they are such as to promote happiness, or pleasure, and
disapproved of when they have a tendency to cause unhappiness, or pain (PML).
 

The one intrinsic good is pleasure, the bad is pain. We are to promote pleasure and act to
reduce pain.

When called upon to make a moral decision one measures an action's value with respect to
pleasure and pain according to the following:

a. intensity (how strong the pleasure or pain is)

b. duration (how long it lasts)

c. certainty (how likely the pleasure or pain is to be the result of the action)

d. proximity (how close the sensation will be to performance of the action)

e. fecundity (how likely it is to lead to further pleasures or pains)

f. purity (how much intermixture there is with the other sensation).

John Stuart Mill (1806–1873)

There are some pleasures that are more fitting than others.
 

Intellectual pleasures are of a higher, better, sort than the ones that are merely sensual, and
that we share with animals.

There are a variety of parameters along which we quantitatively measure pleasure —

intensity and duration are just two of those.

When a student decides to study for an exam rather than go to a party, for example, she is
making the best decision even though she is sacrificing short term pleasure. That's because
studying for the exam, scores higher in terms of the long term pleasures doing well in
school lead to, as well as the fecundity of the pleasure in leading to yet other pleasures.

Ideal Utilitarianism

A beautiful object had value independent of any pleasure it might generate in a viewer.

Compare two worlds, one was entirely beautiful, full of things which complimented each
other; the other was a hideous, ugly world, filled with “everything that is most disgusting to
us.” Further, there are not human beings, one imagines, around to appreciate or be
disgusted by the worlds. The question then is, which of these worlds is better, which one's
existence would be better than the other's?

Of course, it was clear that the beautiful world was better, even though no one was around
to appreciate its beauty. If beauty was a part of the good independent of its effects on the
psychological states of others — independent of, really, how it affected others, then one
needn't sacrifice morality on the altar of beauty anymore. Following beauty is not a mere
indulgence, but may even be a moral obligation.
The term "deontology" derives from the greek "deon" meaning "obligation" or "duty", and
"logos" meaning "speaking"  or "study“.   Deontology is an approach to ethics that focuses
on the rightness or wrongness of actions themselves, as opposed to the rightness or
wrongness of the consequences of those actions or to the character and habits of the
actor.

Deontologist, whether a situation is good or bad depends onwhether the action that

brought it about was right or wrong. What makes a choice "right" is its conformity with
a moral norm: right takes priority over good.

Advantages and disadvantages of Deontology:

ADVANTAGES:

-It preserves consistency and stability in the moral life and clearly supports the social fabric
of the human community by giving such a prominent place to commonly shared norms,
laws or duties as it points of reference.

-It shows that some aspects of action cannot be sacrificed to consequences. 

DIS-ADVANTAGES:

-The insufficient account for the temporality and contextuality of moral living.        

-The insufficient account for the complexity of circumstances which can change the moral
reality of an action.
All forms of egoism require explication of “self-interest” (or “welfare” or “well-being”).
Egoism can be a descriptive or a normative position.

Psychological egoism, the most famous descriptive position, claims that each person has
but one ultimate aim: her own welfare.

Normative forms of egoism make claims about what one ought to do, rather than describe
what one does do.

Ethical egoism claims I morally ought to perform some action if and only if, and because,
performing that action maximizes my self-interest.

Rational egoism claims that I ought to perform some action if and only if, and because,
performing that action maximizes my self-interest.

Psychological egoism claims that each person has but one ultimate aim: her own welfare.

    Aristotle attempts to identify what are the characteristics of human being that
differentiate it from other species.

•        Every species has its own role in the universe.

•        It is fulfilling its role well that defines what the ultimate is good of that thing or animal.
 The three Oriental Sages:

Buddha - (563-483 B. C.)

Lao Tzu - (circa the 6th century B. C.)

Confucius - (circa 4th century B. C.)

Buddha

There is only one absolute, uni0versal all-pervading Reality, Brahma, in which all things are
one.

Man, therefore, in reality was united originally with Brahma and is called a Brahman.
However, because of the accident of being born into this earthly life, he naturally acquired
an individual self (atman) and identified with a mortal body at birth, and thus was separated
from his universal Brahman self.

According to him, the selfishness and uncontrollable fleshly impulses of a man endangered
by his passions are the root cause of human misery and suffering. Hence, man, in order to
be happy, must liberate himself of this selfishness, subjugate his baser instincts by self-
restraint or denial, and in so doing he acquires virtue.

Lao Tzu

Work the importance of the virtues of humility, self-negation and absolute calm or quietism
in the face of misfortune or calamity or even death.

Man should avoid display and self assertion; he should be humble, modest, calm, ready to
meet misfortunes in life and fearless even in death.

Man rises above his bodily desires because his spirit is stronger than matter.

Confucius

There are a few core values for Confucianism. One is called Jen, it prioritizes Human

Heartedness, goodness, benevolence, dignity for the human life, and last but not least,
characteristics that make humans, humans (something that makes them what they are,
human). Li, the other value, is the principle of gain, benefit, order, priority, and the concrete
guide to human action. There are 2 meaning of Li. The first meaning is the ways things
should be done in one’s social life. For example the relations the father to son should be
that the father loves the son and the respects the father. Other examples are; elder brother
younger brother (gentle/respectful), husband and wife (good/listening), older friend and
younger friend (considerate/deferential), ruler and subject (benevolent/loyal) Finally, respect
for the aged and elderly. The second sense of li is the principle of social order; comply with
the norms of Jen. 

Also, another main value of confucianism is yi, another key core value of confucianism. Yi
focuses on the righteousness, which is a necessary condition for a superior man. Yi implies a
moral sense, which is the ability to decide what is right or wrong. Another idea that yi
focuses on is that some actions ought to be performed for the sole reason that they are
right, not for the sake or good of someone or something else. Another key aspect of
confucianism is the hsiao, which keeps its focus on respect. Parents are to be respected
because they are the sources of your life. One must feel obliged to do well and make the
family known and respected, and giving your parents emotional, physical, and spiritual
richness. 

Chih is the value of moral wisdom. Chih says that man has the potential to be good for
confucius. Chun-tzu is another value that symbolizes the ideal, superior man. A man must
be intelligent enough to meet anything without fear. The final value of confucianism is te,
which is the power of moral example where men rule. A government is said to be good if it
can maintain economic sufficiency, military sufficiency, and earn the confidence of the
people.
Thrasymachus

Three central claims about justice.

• Justice is nothing but the advantage of the stronger (338c)

• Justice is obedience to laws (339b)

• Justice is nothing but the advantage of another (343c).

Nicollo Machiavelli

End justifies the means. Where end=peace and order and means=force.

Also known as mightism ~ "Might is Right."

Friedrich Nietzsche

Inherent in every individual, regardless of race and clime, is the will to power or the will to
dominate.

All that proceeds from power is good and all that springs from weakness is bad.

Reason is an instrument of the will, and the will is narrowed down to a single purpose: the
will to power.

Culmination of the full development of man's will to power is the state of SUPERHUMANS
or OVERMEN.

 
here are at least six frames of reference within which the term has been used.

(1) the best in the moral philosophy of all ages and places

(2) the moral standards of Christendom

(3) the ethics of the Christian Church and its many churches

(4) the ethics of the Bible

(5) the ethics of the New Testament

(6) the ethical insights of Jesus.

Karl Marx

Marxism

 Our place in the society determine our consciousness

 Study the relationship between a text and society that reads it.
 Focuses on class relations and societal conflict.
 People’s experiences are responsible for shaping and developing an individual
personal’s consciousness

Karl Marx wrote very little directly in the subject of ethics. His writings on history,
economics, and politics offer a perspective on the nature of society that embodies a
conception of justice highly critical on the practices as well as most of the theories of
modern civilization.

The manuscript contain no mention of his solution to the economic, political, and ethical
problems in society; namely the realization following a revolution by the proletariat
(workers), of an ideal classless society.  The key concept in his analysis is the notion of
alienation or estrangement.

Marx sees the modern industrial workers as being almost totally alienated and, as result as
living a life that can only be charitably described as human. This deplorable condition is no
fault of the worker but the inevitable result of the entire social structure generated and
maintained by bourgeois capitalism.

Who are the Proletariat?

§  The proletariat is basically an all-encompassing term for the working class or more
specifically, anyone who under capitalism has to live by working for a wage. This includes
the unemployed and retired.

Marx articulates his views on the nature of reality in his works.

•       Core belief of Marxism

•       Marx believed that society had progressed from one economic system to another.
•       As society progresses from a feudal system to a more market-based economy, the
actual process from producing, distributing, and consuming goods become more complex.

•       People’s functions within the economic system become differentiated.

Two Economic means of production within a society

1. Base

-Engenders and controls all human institutions and ideologies.

2. Superstructure

-All social and legal institutions, political, and educational system, religions, and art.

Proletariat Bourgeoisie
- Class of society which does not have ownership - Wealthy class that rules society.
of the means of production.
 

v  The Communist Manifest (1848)

  - Marx and Hegel further develop Marxism

ü  States that the history of all existing societies is the history of class struggle.

ü  They declare that the capitalists, or the bourgeoisie, has successfully enslaved the working
class, or the proletariat through economic policies and production of goods.

v  Das Capital (1867)

ü  History became the basis for 20th century Marxism, socialism, and communism.

ü  History, an understanding of people and their actions and beliefs is determined by

economic conditions.

ü  Marx maintains that an intricate web of social relationships emerges when any group of
people engage in the production of goods.

ü  The ideology of a society such as the beliefs, values and culture is determined by upper
class.
ü  The rich become richer, while the poor become poorer.

Assumptions

 Marxism is not primarily a literary theory that can be used to interpret a text.
 It is a set of social, economic, and political ideas that its followers believe will enable
them to interpret and more importantly, change the world.
 Marxism is material not spiritual
 The structure if our society is built on a series of ongoing conflicts between social
classes.
 Capitalist control the society’s ideology or social consciousness.
 Existentialism is a philosophy that emphasizes individual existence, freedom and choice.

•       It emphasizes that the only route to truth in the sphere of human existence is through
the individual persons own personal participation

•       Man must start with his own existence

•       Existentialists believe that “existence precedes essence”

EXISTENTIALISTS

•       Existentialists stress the possibility of the transition from false to genuine modes of
existence

JEAN-PAUL SARTRE

•       Jean-Paul Sartre was in 1905 in Paris.

•       He completed his education in France and went to Berlin to study German philosophy

•       Sartre was a great thinker who was profoundly sensitive to ontological problems, a
master of dialectic and a really great psychologist

•       Sartre was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1964 where he refused to accept.

•       Sartre visualized “existence precedes essence”

•       His contention was that we have no common human nature or essence but that we
were thrown in the world to make ourselves what we can.

•       Man prefers to be what he is by the plan which he has chosen.

GABRIEL MARCEL

•       Marcel’s philosophical development has been influenced by a radical rebellion against

the subjectivist and idealistic conceptions of modern philosophy.

•       He presented a descriptive insight and sharp analysis on the inauthentic existence of
modern mass society in a “broken world”.
•       Marcel believes that the basic human existential are rational in structure. Human
existence is in the world with others, or intersubjective, and constantly in a dynamic
situation. 

MARTIN BUBER

•       Buber was highly critical of much about modern society. He discarded the dreadful
potentialities of society for denying the reality of personal existence.

•       He criticized modern society’s frightful abuse of mass communication and patronizing
industrial techniques which dehumanized and depersonalized him.

Buber states that there are two attitudes toward the world:

1.    I-THOU

(THE WORLD OF REALIZATION)

Establishes the world of relation, reciprocity, and mutuality.

       2. I-IT

(THE WORLD OF PERCEPTION)

Establishes the world of experience, use, and objects.

MARTIN HEIDEGGER

•       For Heidegger, the horizons of pure theory are broader and its structural knowledge
clearer.

ANGST (Dread or Anxiety)

•       Anxiety is the most primordial way in which the spirit can relate itself to itself.

•       The primary of anxiety is especially adopted to exhibit the analysis of mood’s

authenticity
•       It is generally held to be a negative feeling arising from the experience of human
freedom and responsibility.

DASEIN

•       Dasein is to be there. To be there is to be in the world. The being of dasein is not “is”
but “to be”

•       For Heidegger, the essence of men lies in his existence. He employed the term “dasein”
indicative and is a determinate whatness but rather a mode of being (sein) always
proceeding from a certain position (da) into which he has been thrown.

THE THEY

•       Heidegger defines conscience that the dasein issues to itself. It calls itself in the mode
of keeping silent from fallenness into the “they” to it’s own potentiality to being.

TRUTH (ALETHEIA)

•       Truth is centered in a man. Heidegger censures the relational concept of truth as

concurrence of thought or discretion as a thing related to other things.

SORGE

•       There are no non conative events in human life as it is lived. Heidegger uses the term
“care” (sorge) to express this this conative structure.

•       There is a three-fold order of human existing (the structures of care): first, is ahead of
itself, second, as already in the world ( I myself, and that which I care for, already exist in the
world)

•       Heidegger defines care as ahead-of-itself-being-already-in-the-world-as-being

alongside entities which he encounters within the world.

KEY THEMES OF EXISTENTIALISM

THE ABSURD
•       The idea here is that there is no meaning in the world beyond what meaning we give
it.

•       This meaninglessness also encompasses the “unfairness” of the world.

•       This contrasts the notion that “bad things don’t happen to good people”

FACTICITY

•       Is both a limitation and a condition of freedom. It is a limitation in that a large part of
one’s facticity consist of things one couldn’t have chosen (birthplace, etc.) but a condition in
the sense that one’s values most likely depend on it.

AUTHENTICITY

•       Authentic existence involves the idea that one has to “create oneself” and then live in
accordance with this self.

•       The role of facticity in relation to authenticity involves letting one’s actual values come
into play when one makes a choice (instead of, like Kierkegaard’s Aesthete, “choosing”
randomly), so that one also takes responsibility for the act instead of choosing either-or
without allowing the option to have different values.

DESPAIR

•       Despair, in existentialism, is generally defined as a loss of hope. More specifically, it is a

loss of hope in reaction to a breakdown in one or more of the defining qualities of oneself
or identity.
What do Filipinos value?

The family

The family is at the center of the Filipino community. Children are not expected to leave
their parents’ house until they themselves get married; and even after then, many couples
opt to stay with or close to their or their spouse’s parents.

They’re expected to care for their ageing parents instead of sending them to a retirement
home.

The value that Filipinos put into caring for one’s family can also be seen as one of the
reasons why nurses and caregivers from the country provide their patients and clients with a
high level of care.

Humor and positivity

In the face of difficult or challenging situations, members of the community are encouraged
to look at the brighter side of things.

The inclination for finding the good in the bad can be traced to the country’s location, which
lies in the path of typhoons and sits along the Pacific Ring of Fire. In a place where natural
calamities are commonplace, humor and positivity work as a coping mechanism, much like
how some children laugh to hide their embarrassment after slipping or falling.

Flexibility and adaptability

The term “bahala na”, which can be translated to whatever happens, happens, is one of the
more familiar phrases used in the country and is perhaps the most representative of how
Filipinos value adaptability and quick thinking. It exemplifies one’s belief in a higher power
and submitting one’s fate to elements that cannot be controlled.

People who use the term “bahala na” do not see anything wrong with it, as it serves as a
sort of positive affirmation that allows them to deal with a problem right then and there.
However, those who do see it negatively often view it as a form of fatalistic submission or a
way to absolve one from the responsibility of their actions.
 

Faith and religion

Spirituality is deeply ingrained in Filipinos.

Religion plays a big part in society and in the everyday lives of Filipinos.

The Catholic Church’s views still affect the passing of some laws, most towns still hold fiestas
to honor their patron saints, and many regular non-working national holidays are dedicated
to celebrating various religious activities and events.

Religion helps shape their values and principles.

Filipino hospitality

Filipinos in the country and around the globe can be expected to extend a warm welcome
to their guests regardless of where they come from, how well they know their host, and why
they’re visiting someone’s home.

Hosts typically provide their guest with food and entertainment and, if there’s time, a tour
around the local destinations.

Before they leave, guests are entreated to take home pasalubong or souvenirs, which often
come in the form of delicacies and local sweets.