PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY

PROJECT

FARADAY’S LAW OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

GUIDED BY: SUBMITTED BY:

N. VIDHYALAKSHMI KAMALESH.S

KUNAL JAIN

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 INDEX

S.No Heading Page number

1. Introduction 3-10

2. Aim 11

3. Apparatus 11

4. Theory 11-12

5. Diagram 12

6. Procedure 13

7. Tabular column 14

8. Observation 14

9. Inference 15-16

10. Conclusion 17

11. Precaution 18

12. Applications 18-21

13. Bibliography 22

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INTRODUCTION

Electromagnet: An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic

field is produced by an electric current. The magnetic field disappears when
the current is turned off.

Induction: The process of generating current in a conductor by placing the

conductor in a changing magnetic field is called induction.

Electromagnetic Induction: Electromagnetic induction is the production of a

potential difference (voltage) across a conductor when it is exposed to a
varying magnetic field. Electromagnetic induction is when an electromagnetic
field causes molecules in another object to flow. Induction can produce
electricity (in coils), heat (in ferrous materials), or waves (in radio transmitter).
Finally, it refers to the phenomenon where an emf is induced when the
magnetic flux linking a conductor changes. Magnetic flux is defined as the
product of the flux density and the area normal to the field through which the
field is passing. It is a scalar quantity and its S.I. unit is weber (Wb).

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Electromagnetic induction (or sometimes just induction) is a process where a
conductor placed in a changing magnetic field (or a conductor moving through
a stationary magnetic field) causes the production of a voltage across the
conductor. This process of electromagnetic induction, in turn, causes an
electric current – it is said to induce the current.

INVENTI
ON
Michael Faraday is generally credited with the discovery of induction in 1831
though it may have been anticipated by the work of Francesco Zantedeschi in
1829. Around 1830 to 1832, Joseph Henry made a similar discovery, but did
not publish his findings until later.

Induced emfs: If magnetic flux through a coil is altered then an emf will be
generated in the coil.

This effect was first observed and explained by Ampere and Faraday between
1825 and 1831. Faraday discovered that an emf could be generated by,

a. moving the coil or the source of magnetic flux relative to each other.
b. Changing the magnitude of the source of magnetic flux in some way.
Note that the emf is only produced while the flux is changing.

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 Coil A is connected to a galvanometer and coil B is connected to a
battery and has direct current flowing through it. Coil A is within the
magnetic field produced by B and an emf can be produce in A by moving
the coils relative to each other or by changing the size of the current in
B. This can be done by using the rheostat R or by switching the current
on or off.
c. using an AC supply for B. An emf could also be produced in coil A by
replacing coil B with a permanent magnet and moving this relative to
coil A.

REPRESENTATION

Electromagnetic induction is the production of potential difference (voltage)

across a conductor when it is exposed to a varying magnetic field.

Working and construction:

Current is produced in a conductor when it is moved through a magnetic field

because the magnetic lines of force are applying a force on the free electrons
in the conductor and causing them to move.

This process of generating current in a conductor by placing the conductor in a

changing magnetic field is called induction.

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This is called induction because there is no physical connection between the
conductor and the magnet. The current is said to be induced in the conductor
by the magnetic field. One requirement for this electromagnetic induction to
take place is that the conductor, which is often a piece of wire, must be
perpendicular to the magnetic line of force in order to produce the maximum
force on free electrons. The direction in which the induced current flows is
determined by the direction of the lines of force and by the direction in which
the wire is moving in the field.

If an AC current is fed through a piece of wire, the electromagnetic field that is

produced is constantly growing and shrinking due to the constantly
changing current in the wire. This growing and shrinking magnetic field can
induce electrical current in another wire that is held close to the first wire.
The current in the second wire will also be AC and in fact will look very similar
to the current flowing in the first wire.

It is common to wrap the wire into a coil to concentrate the strength of

the magnetic field at the ends of the coil. Wrapping the coil around an iron bar
will further concentrate the magnetic field in the iron bar. The magnetic
field will be strongest inside the bar and at its ends (poles).

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Conductivity appears with the motion of charge in a conductor. The difference
between insulators and conductors is that in insulators the electrons around
the atoms and molecules composing them are bound and cannot be detached
from the potential that binds them to the nuclei of their atoms/molecules. In
conductors some of the electrons are bound by a collective potential of the
material, in bands where they can move large distances with respect to atomic
distances, being shared with many atoms/molecules.

When an electric field is applied on a conductor the electrons are attracted to

the poles and move in the direction of the electric field and a current appears.
In a closed-circuit conductor, a changing magnetic field will be producing an
electric field to which the electrons will respond by moving in the direction
pointed by the field.

It is the changing magnetic field that induces the electric field. A steady one
does nothing.

To produce emf we need to drive electrons or we need to produce a net

charge difference at the ends of conductor. As we all know that a moving
charged particle will experience force by a magnetic field, so, if we are talking
about dc machines, the magnetic field produced by the coil remains constant,
that is, no force is experienced by electrons of the wire.

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HOW IS THIS DESCRIBED?
There are two key laws that describe electromagnetic induction:

Faraday's law, due to 19ᵗʰ century physicist Michael Faraday. This relates the
rate of change of magnetic flux through a loop to the magnitude of the electro-
motive force \mathcal{E}EE induced in the loop. The relationship is

\mathcal{E} = \frac{\mathrm{d}\Phi} {\mathrm{d}t} E=dtdΦE, equals, start

fraction, d, \Phi, divided by, d, t, end fraction

The electromotive force or EMF refers to the potential difference across

the unloaded loop (i.e. when the resistance in the circuit is high). In practice it
is often sufficient to think of EMF as voltage since both voltage and EMF are
measured using the same unit, the volt.

Lenz's law is a consequence of conservation of energy applied to

electromagnetic induction. It was formulated by Heinrich Lenz in 1833. While
Faraday's law tells us the magnitude of the EMF produced, Lenz's law tells us
the direction that current will flow. It states that the direction is always such
that it will oppose the change in flux which produced it. This means that any
magnetic field produced by an induced current will be in the opposite direction
to the change in the original field.

Lenz's law is typically incorporated into Faraday's law with a minus sign, the
inclusion of which allows the same coordinate system to be used for both the
flux and EMF. The result is sometimes called the Faraday-Lenz law,

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CONNECTION BETWEEN FARADAY'S LAW OF
INDUCTION AND THE MAGNETIC FORCE?

While the full theoretical underpinning of Faraday's law is quite complex, a

conceptual understanding of the direct connection to the magnetic force on a
charged particle is relatively straightforward.

Consider an electron which is free to move within a wire. As shown in figure 1,

the wire is placed in a vertical magnetic field and moved perpendicular to the
magnetic field at constant velocity. Both ends of the wire are connected,
forming a loop. This ensures that any work done in creating a current in the
wire is dissipated as heat in the resistance of the wire.

A person pulls the wire with constant velocity through the magnetic field. As
they do so, they have to apply a force. The constant magnetic field can’t do
work by itself (otherwise its strength would have to change), but it can change
the direction of a force. In this case some of the force that the person applies is
re-directed, causing an electromotive force on the electron which travels in the
wire, establishing a current. Some of the work the person has done pulling the
wire ultimately results in energy dissipated as heat within the resistance of the
wire.

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 FARADAY'S EXPERIMENT: INDUCTION FROM A
MAGNET MOVING THROUGH A COIL

The key experiment which lead Michael Faraday to determine Faraday's

law was quite simple. It can be quite easily replicated with little more
than household materials. Faraday used a cardboard tube with insulated
wire wrapped around it to form a coil. A voltmeter was connected across
the coil and the induced EMF read as a magnet was passed through the
coil.

The observations were as follows:

1. Magnet at rest in or near the coil: No voltage observed.

2. Magnet moving toward the coil: Some voltage measured, rising to a peak
as the magnet nears the center of the coil.
3. Magnet passes through the middle of the coil: Measured voltage rapidly
changes sign.
4. Magnet passes out and away from the coil: Voltage measured in the
opposite direction to the earlier case of the magnet moving into the coil.

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AIM
To study the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction and verify Faraday's
law of electromagnetic induction.

APPARATUS
 connecting wires
 copper wire
 bar magnet
 a cardboard cylinder
 galvanometer

THEORY
Faraday's law of induction (briefly, Faraday's law) is a basic law
of electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic field will interact with
an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force (emf)—a phenomenon
known as electromagnetic induction. It is the fundamental operating principle
of transformers, inductors, and many types
of electrical motors, generators and solenoids.

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 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction:

DIAGRAM

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PROCEDURE

1. Wrap the copper wire tightly around the cardboard tube to create a
solenoid. Wrap as many times as you can and be sure to leave a few
inches at each end to connect to the galvanometer.
2. Connect each loose end of the wire to the positive and negative
terminals of the galvanometer.
3. Switch on the galvanometer.
4. Insert the magnet inside the cardboard tube and move it around. Record
your observations.
5. Try moving the magnet faster or slower.
6. Turn off the galvanometer and disconnect one of the terminals.
7. Reduce the number of turns in the solenoid. Reconnect and switch on
the galvanometer.
8. Insert the magnet inside the cardboard tube and move it
around again. Record your observations.

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TABULAR COLUMN

(Caution: For all the readings, magnet should be moved at roughly the same
speed.)

OBSERVATION

We observe the amount of deflection in the galvanometer directly depends of

the no. of turns in the copper coil and the relative speed of the magnet with
respect to the coil.

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INFERENCE

The bar magnet that we are using has a magnetic field. When the magnet is in
proximity to the coil, there is magnetic flux through it. When the magnet
moves relative to the coil, the magnetic flux through the coil changes.

NOTE:

This change in magnetic flux induces a current in the coil. The magnitude of
this current depends on the rate of change of magnetic flux through the coil –
dφ/dt, which is in turn dependent on the relative speed of the magnet with
respect to the coil. We also observe that the current induced is also
proportional to the number of turns in the coil.

We also observe that the direction of current in the coil (which is shown by the
galvanometer) is dependent on the direction of movement of the bar magnet.

From the above observations, we can verify Faraday's law of electromagnetic

induction.

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CONCLUSION

From this experiment we were able to arrive at Faraday's law of

electromagnetic induction.

Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction:

Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction, first observed and published by

Michael Faraday in the mid-nineteenth century, describes a very important
electro-magnetic concept. Although its mathematical representations are
cryptic, the essence of Faraday’s is not hard to grasp: it relates an induced
electric potential or voltage to a dynamic magnetic field. This concept has
many far-reaching ramifications that touch our lives in many ways: from the
shining of the sun, to the convenience of mobile communications, to electricity
to power our homes. We can all appreciate the profound impact Faraday’s Law
has on us.

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PRECAUTIONS
 Make sure that the magnet is moved with roughly the same speed
each time.
 Take the galvanometer reading correctly.
 Make sure that all the connections are tight.
 For each reading, the magnet should be moved in the same direction
so that all the galvanometer readings have the same sign (+ve or -ve)
for easy comparison.

APPLICATIONS

The principles of electromagnetic induction are applied in many devices and

systems, including:

 Electrical generators
 Induction motors
 Induction sealing
 Inductive charging
 Transformers
 Wireless energy transfer

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 ELECTRICAL GENERATOR
The EMF generated by Faraday's law of induction due to relative movement of
a circuit and a magnetic field is the phenomenon underlying electrical
generators.

When a permanent magnet is moved relative to a conductor, or vice versa, an

electromotive force is created. If the wire is connected through an electrical
load, current will flow, and thus electrical energy is generated, converting the
mechanical energy of motion to electrical energy.

The mechanical power for an electric generator is usually obtained from a

rotating shaft and is equal to the shaft torque multiplied by the rotational, or
angular, velocity. The mechanical power may come from a number of sources:
hydraulic turbines at dams or waterfalls; wind turbines; steam turbines using
steam produced with heat from the combustion of fossil fuels or from nuclear
fission; gas turbines burning gas directly in the turbine; or gasoline and diesel
engines. The construction and the speed of the generator may vary
considerably depending on the characteristics of the mechanical prime mover.

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 INDUCTION MOTOR
A motor with only amortisseur windings is called an induction motor. An
induction motor is the most modest electrical machine from the construction
point of view, in the majority of the cases. The induction motor works on the
principle of induction where an electromagnetic field is induced into the rotor
when the rotating magnetic field of the stator cuts the stationary rotor.
Induction machines are by far the most common type of motor used in
industrial, commercial, or residential settings. It is a three-phase AC motor. Its
characteristic features are:

 Simple and rugged construction

 Low cost and minimum maintenance
 High dependability and sufficiently high proficiency
 Needs no additional starting motor and necessity not to be synchronized

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 TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a static electrical machine which is used for either increasing
or decreasing the voltage level of the AC supply with a corresponding decrease
or increase in the current at constant frequency. The working of the
transformer is based on the principle of mutual inductance between two coils
which are magnetic coupled.

According to the principle of mutual inductance, when an alternating voltage is

applied to the primary winding of the transformer, an alternating flux ϕ m which
is called as the mutual flux is produced in the core. This alternating flux links
both the windings magnetically and induces EMFs E1 in the primary winding
and E2 in the secondary winding of the transformer according to Faraday’s law
of electromagnetic induction.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
 NCERT textbook of Physics class 12
 NCERT Physics lab manual
 https://www.electrical4u.com
 https://fdocuments.in
 https://www.seminaronly.com
 www.quora.com
 https://www.nde-ed.org/Physics

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