1.

INTRODUCTION

Our goal in this Internship is to gain a knowledge about pharmacy and drug formulation.
The safe and efficient use of pharmaceuticals is the main emphasis of the vital healthcare field of
pharmacy. It includes a range of activities, including drug development and discovery,
distribution, and patient outcome monitoring. Pharmacists are essential in making sure that drugs
are given correctly, taken by patients in a safe manner, and have the desired therapeutic effects.
Pharmacists are qualified experts who offer invaluable knowledge in areas like drug interactions,
dose modifications, and patient education in addition to administering prescriptions. They
collaborate closely with patients and healthcare professionals to manage chronic illnesses,
enhance treatment regimens, and advance general wellness. Pharmacy is a dynamic and essential
profession that is always changing due to developments in pharmaceutical research, technology,
and healthcare procedures. There are 3000 pharmaceutical industry and India has highest number
of US-FDA complaint Pharma plants outside of USA. In India, Sun Pharmaceutical company is
#1 rank which is situated at Mumbai, Maharashtra.

A) PROFILE OF THE COLLEGE

Name of the college: Sankaralingam Bhuvaneswari College of Pharmacy.

Place:Virudhunagar, Tamil Nadu

Year of establishment:1988

Website: www.Sbcollegeofpharmacy.com

E-mail id: [email protected]

Landline No: 4562-232088

Address:Sankaralingam Bhuvaneswari College of Pharmacy (A Pioneer Institution in

Pharmaceutical Education and Research)3/77 – c AnaikuttamRoad,Anaikuttam, Sivakasi – 626
130,Tamilnadu, India

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B) HISTORY OF THE COLLEGE

Sankaralingam Bhuvaneswari College of Pharmacy, founded in 1988. It is affiliated to

Dr.M.G.R. Medical University, Chennai and approved by the AICTE and Pharmacy Council of
India, New Delhi. It is located in Annaikuttam, virudhunagar district. It Operates Under the
Parent Organization Sankaralingam Bhuvaneswari Trust. The Institute Started its First Course in
1994. Sankaralingam Bhuvaneswari College of Pharmacy is Open for Both Men and
Women.Sankaralingam Bhuvaneswari College of Pharmacy is open for all sections of society.
The Head of The Institute is Principal Dr. P. Solai Raj, M. Pharm, Ph.D.,

FIG.1 Sankaralingam Bhuvaneswari College of Pharmacy

C) ABOUT SBCP

It is a prominent institution dedicated to pharmaceutical education and research in India.

Established with the vision to impart quality education in pharmacy and contribute significantly
to the healthcare sector, the college is named after its founders, Sankaralingam and
Bhuvaneswari. The college offers various undergraduate and postgraduate programs in
pharmacy, providing students with a comprehensive understanding of pharmaceutical sciences,
drug discovery, development, and regulatory aspects. The curriculum is designed to blend
theoretical knowledge with practical experience through state-of-the-art laboratories and industry
collaborations. Sankaralingam Bhuvaneswari College of Pharmacy emphasizes holistic
development, focusing not only on academic excellence but also on fostering research aptitude,
leadership skills, and ethical values among its students. The faculty comprises experienced
professionals and researchers who guide and mentor students to excel in their chosen fields

2
within the pharmaceutical industry. Moreover, the college is committed to community service
and outreach programs, aiming to make a positive impact on society through pharmaceutical
education, healthcare awareness campaigns, and collaborative initiatives with healthcare
institutions.

Overall, Sankaralingam Bhuvaneswari College of Pharmacy stands as a beacon of

pharmaceutical education in Annaikuttam,virudhunagar district, contributing significantly to the
advancement of pharmacy education and research in the region and beyond.

D) COUSE OFFERED IN SBCP

1. PHARMACEUTICAL ANALYSIS PHARMACY (PG)

COURSE DURATION: 2 YRS
2. PHARMACEUTICS PHARMACY (PG)
COURSE DURATION: 2 YRS
3. PHARMACOLOGY PHARMACY (PG)
COURSE DURATION: 2 YRS
4. PHARMACY (UG)
COURSE DURATION: 4 YRS
5. ADDITIONAL TRAINING:
(i) GATE
(ii) TOEFL
(iii) SPOKEN ENGLISH
(iv) COMPUTER PROGRAMMING.

3
E) STUDENT’S WORK ASSESSMENT

Fig 1 tablet Punching Machine Fig 2 Dissolution Apparatus

Fig 3 Determination of blood

4
2. INTERSHIP OBJECTIVE

 Internships are generally thought of to be reserved for college students looking to

gain experience in a particular field. However, a wide array of people can benefit
from Training Internships in order to receive real world experience and develop their
skills.
 An objective for this position should emphasize the skills we already possess in the
area and our interest in learning more.
 Internships are utilized in a number of different career fields, including architecture,
chemistry, engineering, healthcare, economics, advertising and many more.
 Some internship is used to allow individuals to perform scientific research while
others are specifically designed to allow people to gain first-hand experience
working.
 Utilizing internships is a great way to build our resume and develop skills that can be
emphasized in our resume for future jobs. When we are applying for a Training
Internship, make sure to highlight any special skills or talents that can make us stand
apart from the rest of the applicants so that we have an improved chance of landing
the position.

5
3. TECHINAL REPORT

3.1ABOUT TOPCS IN PHARMACY

Pharmacy encompasses a wide range of topics that are essential for understanding
medications, their effects, and their role in healthcare. Here are some key topics in pharmacy
are

PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY

The pharmaceutical chemistry department is a key component of pharmaceutical

sciences, focusing on the design, synthesis, and development of drugs. It integrates principles of
chemistry, biochemistry, and pharmacology to create new pharmaceutical agents that can treat
diseases effectively and safely.

PHARMACEUTICS

The pharmaceutical department, often referred to as the pharmaceutics department, is a

fundamental part of pharmaceutical sciences focused on the development, formulation,
manufacture, and evaluation of pharmaceutical dosage forms. Its primary goal is to ensure that
drugs are delivered safely, effectively, and with optimal bioavailability to patients.

PHARMACOLOGY

Pharmacology is a branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug
action. It involves examining how drugs interact with biological systems, understanding their
mechanisms of action, therapeutic uses, and potential side effects. Pharmacologists explore the
effects of drugs on humans, animals, and even at the cellular and molecular levels.

PHARMACOGNOSY

Pharmacognosy is a discipline within pharmacology that focuses on the study of natural

products from plants, animals, and microorganisms that have medicinal properties. It entails
locating, describing, and evaluating these organic compounds in order to comprehend their
molecular makeup, biological activity, and their medical applications.

6
3.2 PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY
Biologically active molecule synthesis and drug design are the focus of pharmaceutical
(medical) chemistry. The goal of pharmaceutical chemistry is to create new chemical compounds
that may aid in the search for novel pharmaceuticals or enhance the structures of already existing
drugs, thus increasing the number of chemical drugs in existence. While organic chemistry is
important, only highly skilled pharmaceutical chemists can function well in an extremely
interdisciplinary setting and collaborate with researchers in other fields, including toxicology,
molecular biology, structural biology, pharmacology, physical chemistry, biochemistry,
pharmacokinetics, pharmaceutical technology, and pharmacology.
Aspects of pharmaceutical chemistry include:
1. Drug development
2. Drug design
3. Drug delivery system

1. Drug development
The process of developing a novel medication or medical device and introducing it to the
market is referred to as drug development. Drug development, chemistry, pharmacology, non-
clinical safety testing, manufacturing, clinical trials, and regulatory submissions are all included
in this integrated, interdisciplinary effort. This report, which was recently presented at the 39th
annual meeting of the American College of Toxicology in West Palm Beach, Florida, outlines
the workshop titled "Drug Development 101." The purpose of this session is to educate
participants about drug development. medication design is the first step in the medication
development process.
2. Drug design
Drug design, sometimes referred to as rational drug design, is the process of identifying
and creating novel medications by taking into account biological target information. Creating
compounds that preferentially interact with a particular target in the body, like a protein or
enzyme, is the aim of drug design in order to produce therapeutic effects with a minimum
number of adverse effects.

7
3.21 Process of drug design
A) Target identification and validation
(i)Identification
Finding a target molecule or pathway connected to a disease process is the first
stage in the drug design process. This could be a nucleic acid, protein, enzyme, or
receptor that is involved in the pathophysiology of the illness.
(ii)Validation
Upon identification of a prospective target, further validation is required to
ascertain the target's significance in the disease and its appropriateness for
pharmacological intervention. This entails a variety of experimental methods and
frequently entails analyzing the composition and functionality of the target.
B) Lead discovery
A novel medicine is designed starting with a lead molecule. The main chemical
ought to possess the therapeutical qualities that are crucial for the medicine. Lead
compounds can be found in both synthetic and natural sources.

Natural sources Drugs Class of drugs

Bark of chinchona tree Quinine Anti-malarial
Nuclear magnetic
Leaves of osmium tree Quinine Anti-malarial
the lead
Poppies plant Morphine analgesic
chemical. There are various particular tests needed in order to detect and identify lead
compounds. The screening test is the most crucial one.
C) Structural biology, molecular modeling and QSAR modeling

(i) Structural biology

X-ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy are two methods that are utilized
to ascertain the targets and its lead compound complexes' three-dimensional structure.
This data aids in the comprehension of binding interactions and directs logical design.

(ii)Molecular modeling

8
 Potential therapeutic candidates and the target molecule are simulated using
computational methods by QSAR (Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship)
modeling, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics simulations.

(iii)QSAR modeling
QSAR models are useful for predicting the biological activity of novel compounds
because they establish a correlation between a compound's chemical structure and activity.

D) Preclinical development
(i)Preclinical studies
Before lead compounds enter clinical trials, preclinical studies are essential for
assessing their safety, effectiveness, and pharmacokinetic characteristics. To obtain
complete information on a medication candidate, these investigations are usually carried
out in vivo (in animal models) and in vitro (in cell cultures).
The important in preclinical studies is
 Pharmacokinetics
The ADME process is part of the pharmacokinetics process.
Absorption
Analyze the drug’s absorption into the bloodstream following delivery.
Distribution
Examine the drug’s distribution over the body’s tissues.
Metabolism
Know the drug’s metabolism, which is mostly carried out by liver enzymes.
Excretion
Examine the drugs and its metabolites excretion from the body, which usually happens in
the form of feces or urine.

 pharmacodynamics

9
 pharmacodynamics is the study of mechanism of action of drugs and explain what
drug does to body and how do they do it.
Biochemistry of drug action
The study of how medications interact with biological molecules to
produce their desired effects or unwanted side effects is known as the
biochemistry of drug action. Usually, drugs work by attaching themselves to
particular target molecules in the body, including enzymes, transport proteins, or
receptors. This binding event modifies the target molecule's function, resulting in
physiological modifications that have positive therapeutic effects.

Example

The use of beta-blockers in cardiovascular therapy is a prime illustration of this drug action.
Beta-blockers are medications that are used to treat cardiac arrhythmias, or irregular heartbeats,
and hypertension, or elevated blood pressure. These medications function by attaching
themselves to the surface of cardiac muscle cells' beta-adrenergic receptors. Beta-blockers inhibit
the activity of stress hormones such as adrenaline (epinephrine) and others by binding to these
receptors, which would otherwise cause the heart to beat more rapidly and forcefully.
Consequently, beta-blockers lower blood pressure and heart rate, enhancing cardiac
performance. Commonly used beta blockers like Tenormin, Cardicor, Betaloc, Angilol,
Lopresor.In this example:

 Target Molecule: Beta-adrenergic receptors on heart muscle cells.

 Mechanism of Action: Competitive inhibition of adrenaline binding to beta-adrenergic
receptors.
 Therapeutic Effect: Lowered heart rate and blood pressure, beneficial in managing
hypertension and certain cardiac conditions.

E) Toxicology

Evaluate the drug's immediate hazardous effects following a single dosage, also known as
acute toxicity.

10
F) Clinical studies

Phase I, II, and III clinical studies involving people are carried out to evaluate safety,
efficacy, dose, and adverse effects. The outcomes of these trials are used to seek regulatory
permission.

We learned that Instead of doing clinical studies on animal, Bureau for Health and
Education Status Upliftment introduce a software call Ex pharma – software. It is a computer
assisted learning software containing various programs which stimulate animal experiments in
pharmacology. This software can be used to demonstrate the effect od drugs on different animal
system without using real animals.

FIG.2 Effect of drug on rabbit eye (Ex Pharma – software)

G) Formulation development

Creating appropriate formulations (such as pills, capsules, injections, etc.) to efficiently

administer the medication to the intended tissue or organ.

H) Quality control
Throughout their entire lifecycles, from initial design to manufacture and distribution,
pharmaceutical goods must adhere to specified quality standards, which are ensured by quality
control in drug design and development.

11
The quality control includes:
(i)Chemical and analytical testing
 Identity: Ensuring that techniques like mass spectrometry, chromatography (HPLC),
spectroscopy (IR, NMR), and spectroscopy are used to accurately identify the drug
substance and excipients.
 Purity: Measuring the amount of contaminants in the drug ingredients.
 Uniformity: Ensuring that the active components in the formulations are distributed
uniformly.

(ii)Microbiological and physical testing

 Appearance: Examining the medication product's outward features, including its color,
shape, and texture.
 Dissolution: Measuring how long it takes for the active components in tablets or
capsules to dissolve and release.
 Microbial limits: Checking for the presence of dangerous bacteria in the medication
product.

(iii)Accelerated stability testing

Accelerated stability testing involves determining how a pharmacological product breaks

down in high-temperature and high-humidity environments in order to forecast shelf-life and
storage circumstances.

We learned that by using Friability tester we find out the stability of the tablets.

FIG.3 Friability tester

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(vi) Quality risk managements

 Risk assessment
Recognizing possible threats to patient safety and product quality at every stage of
the drug's lifecycle and putting mitigation strategies in place.

Importance of Quality control

To guarantee that pharmaceutical products are high-quality, safe, and effective, quality
control is essential in medication design. Good quality control helps to better healthcare
outcomes and facilitates the successful creation of new medications.

3. Drug Delivery system

During the drug design process, drug delivery systems are essential. Enhancing the
therapeutic efficacy, safety, and patient compliance of pharmaceutical chemicals is the goal of
the drug delivery system. These systems are made to target particular bodily locations, regulate
the release profile, and increase the bioavailability of medications. Drug delivery system types
include:
(i) Extended-release tablet with controlled release system

In contrast to quick release formulations, extended-release tablets are a type of drug

delivery method intended to release medication gradually over an extended period of time,
maintaining therapeutic levels in the body and lowering the frequency of dose.

Advantages

 Drug release that is sustained: Extended-release tablets are designed to release the
medication gradually and steadily over a longer amount of time.
 Enhanced patient adherence: Through a decrease in the daily dosage requirements.
Patients' adherence is improved by this kind of pill, particularly for long-term diseases.
 Steady blood levels: By reducing swings that may happen with instant release
formulations, they aid in maintaining a steady plasma drug content.
 Systems with coatings: A polymer membrane coats tablets to regulate the rate of
release.
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Applications

 Long-term ailments: Extended-release tablets are frequently used to treat chronic

conditions like diabetes, hypertension, and psychiatric problems that need long-term
care.
 Disorders of the central nervous system: It is used to transfer medications for diseases
like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's across the blood-brain barrier.
Examples:oxycontin (oxycodone ER) for severe pain and metformin (Glucophage XR)
for type 2 diabetes.

(ii)Instant release tablets

These oral dosage forms are made to release the active ingredient in pharmaceuticals
quickly after consumption, giving a prompt onset of action.

Advantages

 Quick start of action:The medication is designed in such a way that immediate release
pellets enter the bloodstream swiftly, enabling quick therapeutic benefits.
 Convenience:Depending on the drug's pharmacokinetics and dosage regimens, they are
usually taken many times a day.
Examples:Paracetamol (acetaminophen) for fever and Cetirizine tablet for relief of
allergy symptoms.

3.3 PHARMACEUTICS

The science of pharmaceutics focuses on how pharmaceuticals are made, administered,

and utilized to maximize therapeutic advantages while minimizing side effects. Its goal is to
transform drugs into safe and effective medications for patients. Medication design,
development, and testing to guarantee safe, efficient, and patient-appropriate medication are all
included in pharmaceutics drug formulation and evaluation.

3.31 Drug Formulation

1. Selection of Drug Substance

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 The first step in the procedure is choosing the active pharmaceutical ingredient
(API) in accordance with its intended pharmacological effects and therapeutic
qualities.

2. Choice of Excipients
Excipients are inert ingredients that are added to a formulation to improve
solubility, stability, convenience of administration, or alter the drug's release. They
are picked with care to guarantee compliance with legal requirements and API
compatibility.

3. Formulation Design
Excipients are inert ingredients that are added to a formulation to improve
solubility, stability, convenience of administration, or alter the drug's release. They
are picked with care to guarantee compliance with legal requirements and API
compatibility.
4. Manufacturing Process
We learned that manufacturing procedures are created once the formulation is
created to guarantee the product's uniformity and repeatability.The machine used to
punch the tablet is tablet punching machine.

FIG.4 Tablet punching Machine

5. Tablet coating process

15
 We learned that Tablet coating is a critical process in pharmaceutical
manufacturing, involving the application of a thin layer of coating material to the surface of a
tablet.

FIG.5 Tablet coating Machine

Types of tablet coating

Film Coating

 Purpose: Protecting the drug, controlling release, improving appearance.

 Process: Application of a thin polymer-based film.
 Advantages: Faster and more efficient than sugar coating, minimal increase in tablet
size.
 Materials: Polymers (e.g., hydroxypropyl methylcellulose), plasticizers, colorants,
solvents.

Controlled-Release Coating

 Purpose: Regulating the release rate of the drug.

 Process: Use of specific polymers that control drug release over time.
 Materials: Ethyl cellulose, polymethacrylates.

Benefits of Tablet Coating

 Protection: Shields the drug from moisture, light, and air, enhancing stability.
 Controlled Release: Enables sustained or delayed release of the drug.

6. Packaging and Stability Testing

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 The packaging materials are chosen to preserve the stability of the formulation
and shield it from external influences. To find out how well the formulation holds up
over time under different storage circumstances, stability testing is done.

3.32 Evaluation of Formulated Drugs

1. Physical Characteristics
To guarantee consistency and quality, the external look, homogeneity of dosage
units, hardness, disintegration time (for tablets), and viscosity (for liquids) are
assessed.
We learned that the dissolution testing apparatus plays a major role in
pharmaceutical manufacturing. It measures the rate at which a drug is released from
its dosage form (e.g., tablet) into a solution, which simulates the drug's behavior in
the gastrointestinal tract. This test helps ensure consistency and predict the drug's
bioavailability.

FIG.6 Dissolution Testing Apparatus

a) USP Apparatus 1 (Basket Apparatus)

o Use: Commonly used for capsules and tablets that tends to float.

b) USP Apparatus 2 (Paddle Apparatus)

o Use: Widely used for tablets and capsules, especially those that sink.

17
2. Chemical Analysis
Methods including titration, spectroscopy, and chromatography are employed to
confirm the identity, concentration, and purity of the medicinal ingredient in the
formulation.

3. Biological Evaluation
This entails evaluating the drug's pharmacological activity to make sure the
intended therapeutic impact is achieved. Studies may be carried out both in vivo
(using animal models) and in vitro (using cells or tissues).

4. In vivo Pharmacokinetics
Pharmacokinetic investigations ascertain the drug's mode of absorption,
distribution, metabolization, and excretion from the body. This aids in determining
dosage schedules and forecasts human drug behavior.

5. Safety and Toxicity Testing

Preclinical research is done to investigate the drug formulation's safety profile,
including genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, and acute and chronic toxicity.

6. Clinical Trials
Following the completion of preclinical research and the receipt of regulatory
approval, clinical trials involving human participants are carried out to assess safety,
effectiveness, and tolerability in a regulated setting.

7. Regulatory Approval
To ascertain whether a medicine satisfies safety and efficacy requirements for
commercialization, regulatory bodies like the European Medicines Agency (EMA) in
Europe and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States examine
all data from formulation and evaluation trials.

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3.33 PARACETAMOL DRUG FORMULATION

The synthesis of paracetamol (acetaminophen) from p-aminophenol involves an

acetylation reaction. Here's a step-by-step procedure for this synthesis:

Materials and Chemical

 p-Aminophenol (C₆H₇NO)  HCl or H₂SO₄ (as a catalyst, if

 Acetic anhydride (C₄H₆O₃) needed)
 Distilled water  Sodium acetate (optional, to
 Ice neutralize the reaction)

Chemical Structure and Reaction

Procedure

1. Dissolution of p-Aminophenol
In a beaker, dissolve 10 grams of p-aminophenol in 100 milliliters of distilled water.
To guarantee total disintegration, you might need to reheat the mixture a little.
2. Preparation of Acetylation Reaction
Stirring constantly, add 15 mL of acetic anhydride to the p-aminophenol solution.
Add a few drops of strong sulfuric or hydrochloric acid to the mixture if a catalyst is
needed.
3. Reaction and Cooling
Stir the reaction mixture for approximately fifteen minutes at room temperature. After
that, chill the solution in the beaker by submerging it in an ice bath, which will aid in
the product's precipitation.

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 4. Precipitation of Paracetamol
The paracetamol will separate from the solution as it cools. In order to neutralize any
leftover acetic acid and encourage crystallization, add a tiny amount of sodium
acetate if the precipitation is going slowly.

5. Filtration
After the paracetamol has completely precipitated, strain the mixture and gather the
solid result with a funnel and filter paper.

6. Washing and Drying

To get rid of contaminants, wash the filtered solid with a tiny bit of cold distilled
water. Let the product air dry or dry in a desiccator until it is totally dry.

7. Recrystallization (Optional)
Re-crystallize the paracetamol for maximum purity by dissolving it in a small amount
of hot water, letting it drop to room temperature, and then chilling it even further in
an ice bath. The product has been recrystallized; filter and dry.
Safety and Precautions

• Use the proper personal protection equipment (gloves, goggles, lab coat) when handling

any chemicals with caution.

• Carry out the reaction behind a fume hood or in a well-ventilated space.

• Concentrated acids and acetic anhydride should be handled carefully since they are
corrosive.

Uses

It works well as an analgesic and antipyretic. The antipyretic effect of the medication is
attributed to its activity on the hypothalamus heat-regulating center, whereas analgesia is
demonstrated as a result of an increase in pain threshold.

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3.34 Evaluation of Paracetamol Tablets

1. Physical Tests
Tablet Hardness
To make sure the tablet can tolerate handling, its hardness can be measured with a
hardness tester.
Friability
Using a friabilator (Fig 3), determines how resistant the tablet is to abrasion.
Weight Variation
Preserves consistency in the tablet weights within a batch. The disintegration test
measures how long it takes for a tablet to start disintegrating into smaller pieces.

2. Chemical Tests
Assay of Active Ingredient
Quantifies the amount of paracetamol in the tablet using techniques like HPLC
(High-Performance Liquid Chromatography) or UV spectrophotometry.

Dissolution Test
Using Dissolution Testing Apparatus (Fig.6) Measures the rate and extent of drug
release from the tablet in a specified medium.

3. Stability Testing
Accelerated Stability Testing
Tablets are stored under elevated temperature and humidity conditions to predict shelf
life.
Long-term Stability Testing
Tablets are stored under normal conditions to monitor changes over time.

4. Microbial Testing

21
 Ensures that the tablets are free from harmful microorganisms. Common tests include
total microbial count and specific pathogen testing.

3.4 PHARMACOLOGY

PHARMACOLOGY

Jonathan Pereira is known as the father of pharmacology. Pharmacology is the derived from the
Greek words: Pharmakon means drug and Logos means study. Pharmacology is the study of
action of drugs on living organisms or tissues and how those drugs help to diagnose, treat, cure
and prevent disease. Clinical Pharmacology is the study of drugs in humans. It includes the
substance origin, composition, therapeutic use and toxicology, pharmacokinetics and
pharmacodynamic studies of drugs in humans. The two main areas of pharmacology are
pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. It is useful for rational prescription of drugs. Drug is
defined as an agent used for diagnosis, treatment, or prevention of diseases in humans and
animals.

PHARMACOKINETICS

Torsten Teorell is known as the father of pharmacokinetics. Pharmacokinetics is the

study of effect of biological systems on a drug. It discusses about absorption (A), distribution(D),
metabolism(M), excretion(E) of drugs. It is generally abbreviated as KADME as it is the kinetics
of ADME. Pharmacokinetics helps to determine the time course of drug in the body and relates
the change in drug concentration with time. Clinical Pharmacokinetic involve the application of
pharmacokinetic method to optimize the drug dosage according to individual patient’s age, sex,
diseased state to achieve maximum therapeutic response.

PHARMACODYNAMICS

Gerhard Levy is known as the father of pharmacodynamics. Pharmacodynamics is the study of

mechanism of action of drugs and explain what drug does to body and how do they do it. It
involves the drug-receptor interaction to elicit the action of drug in the body. Pharmacodynamics
is the study of biochemical and physiological effect of drugs and their mechanism of action.

22
 The assignment they had given to me during my holiday was to take notes on the topics of
mechanism of action of anti-bacterial drug, anti-diabetic drug, anti-ulcer drug, anti-cancer drug.
The above mentioned topics are discussed below:

3.41 MECHANISM OF ACTION OF ANTI-BACTERIAL DRUGS

There are six major modes of action i) interference with cell wall synthesis, ii) inhibition of
protein synthesis, iii) interference with nucleic acid synthesis, iv) inhibition of a metabolic
pathway, v) inhibition of membrane function, vi) inhibition of ATP synthase. According to its
mechanism of action, the targets of antibacterial drugs include cell membrane, cell wall, protein
synthesis, nucleic acid synthesis and biological metabolic compound synthesis. The six main
modes of action of antimicrobial and support target and phenotypic discovery, including:

INHIBITORS OF NUCLEIC ACID SYNTHESIS

Antibiotics can inhibit replication, transcription and folate synthesis of micro-organisms.

Quinolone drugs can interfere with DNA synthesis by inhibiting topoisomerase, an enzyme
involved in DNA replication.

3.42 MECHANISM OF ACTION OF ANTI-DIABETIC DRUG

The mechanism of action of anti-diabetic drugs are described by their pharmacologic names and
their actions:

i)METFORMIN

It improves the response of cells to insulin, by promoting glucose uptake by the cells which in
turn bring down the blood sugar levels. It also suppresses appetite. It is the most tested drug for
diabetes which usually does not cause low sugars.

ii) INSULIN (Injection)

It is the most potent drug for diabetes. It drives blood glucose into the cells. Hypo glycemia
(low sugar) is the only complication if used inappropriately. It can be used in conditions like
renal, cardiac, hepatic impairments, sepsis and pregnancy where most oral drugs cannot be used.

23
3.43 MECHANISM OF ACTION OF ANTI-CANCER DRUG

The anti-cancer drug may be divided into two groups. i) cell cycle specific (CCS), it act
mainly in dividing cell. ii) Cell cycle non specific (CCNS), it act mainly in dividing cell as well
as resting cell.

CELL CYCLE SPECIFIC (CCS) CELL CYCLE NON SPECIFIC (CCNS)

Antimetabolites Alkylating Agents
Vinca Alkaloids Antibiotics
Taxanes Camptothecins

ALKYLATING AGENT

It works by directly damaging the DNA of cancer cell by getting converting

azindinum ion and bond with the nitrogen atom at 7th position in the guanine of DNA. It comes
under CCNS.

3.44 MECHANISM OF ACTION OF ANTI-ULCER DRUGS

Anti-ulcer drug works through various mechanisms to reduce stomach acid, protect the stomach
lining and promote healing of ulcers. The modes of action of drugs are:

i) Proton Pump Inhibitors

These drugs such as omeprazole and esomeprazole, block the enzyme H+ /K+
ATPase in the stomach lining, which is responsible for the final step in acid production.

ii) Antacids

These compounds such as magnesium hydroxide and aluminum hydroxide neutralize

existing stomach acid. They provide quick relief from pain and discomfort caused by ulcers.

24
3.45 DETERMINATION OF BLOOD CLOTTING TIME

During my internship I had learned to determine the blood clotting time of blood by wrights
capillary method.

The materials required to determine the blood clotting time are:

 Sterile disposable needle and 10-20 cm long clean capillary tube.

 Stopwatch
 Cotton swab
 Antiseptic lotion

Clotting or coagulation is a complex process in which clotting factors activate each other
and form a gel like substance of insoluble fibrin threads. This process is very important as it
prevents excessive blood loss irrespective of reason for bleeding. The process occurs in three
stages

 Formation of prothrombin activator.

 Conversion of prothrombin to thrombin.
 Conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin.

Clotting time of interval between entry of blood into glass capillary tube and
formation of thin fibrin thread.

The procedure to be followed to determine the clotting time of blood are:

 A finger is pricked after aseptic precaution and the time is noted.

 The freely oozing blood was drawn into the capillary tube.
 A bit of capillary tube was broken for every 30 seconds till a fine thread occurs
between the two broken bits while breaking the tube.
 Clotting time was calculated by counting the number of broken pieces.
 The normal clotting time is 3 to 6 minutes.

We had discussed some points about the clotting time of blood and they are mentioned below:

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  Coagulation of blood is a chemical process in which the soluble fibrinogen is
converted into an insoluble fibrin threads.
 It is due to reaction among various coagulation factors in the blood.
 There are 13 clotting factors in the blood.
 The time taken for this conversion is known as clotting or coagulation time.

The anticoagulants used are:

 It is a substance that prevents or postpones the process of coagulation of blood.

 Commonly used anticoagulants are sodium citrates and oxalates, potassium
fluoride and heparin.
 Heparin is a natural anticoagulant which is secreted in the body.

Finally The clotting time of blood was found to be 1 minute and 30 seconds.

3.46 DETERMINATION OF BLEEDING TIME

During my internship I had learned to determine the bleeding time of blood by Duke’s method.

The materials required to determine the bleeding time are:

 Sterile disposable needle

 Filter papers
 Stopwatch
 Cotton swab
 Antiseptic lotion

Haemostasis (‘Haem’ means blood, stasis means ‘to stop’) refers to the process of stoppage of
bleeding within specified duration (usually 1-5 minutes) after blood vessels are punctured, cut or
damaged. It prevents excess loss of blood and thereby avoids further complications. This process
involves multiple processes like vasoconstriction, platelet plug formation and blood clotting.
Bleeding time is the time interval between the onset of bleeding and spontaneous unassisted
stoppage of bleeding.

The procedure to be followed are:

 A finger is pricked after aseptic precaution and the time was noted.

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  The bleeding point was touched gently by a filter paper for every 30 seconds
without pressing the finger.
 Number the blood spot one onwards(30,60,90,…)
 Note the tone when bleeding stops (when there is no trace of blood spot on
filter paper as end point).
 The blood spots were counted and the bleeding time was calculated.
 The normal bleeding time is 1-5 minutes.

We had discussed some points about the bleeding time of blood they are mentioned below:

 The normal blood volume in our body is 5 to 6 litres.

 This volume must be maintained for normal functions of the body.
 Whenever there is an injury, bleeding occurs resulting in loss of blood.
 Immediately arrest bleeding takes place thus prevents loss of blood.
 Platelets [ Thrombocytes] play an important role in the arrest bleeding.
 Normal platelet count is 1.5 – 4.5L/cu mm of blood.
 Bleeding time depends on normal platelet count.

Finally The bleeding time of blood was found to be 1 minute and 30 seconds.

3.5 PHARMACOGNOSY

Pharmacognosy is the study of the medicinal use of crude drugs obtained from plants
and natural resources. Crude drugs are the dried, raw material of plant, animal or mineral origin,
used for the medicinal purpose.The American society of pharmacognosy defines
Pharmacognosy as “the study of the physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties
of drugs, drug substances or potential drugs or drug substances of natural sources”.

3.51 IMPORTANCE OF PHARMACOGNOSY

 Pharmacognosy is thestudy of medicines derived from natural sources, mainly from

plants.
 The pharmacological qualities of traditional medicinal substances are effective.
 The phytochemicals arederived from plants and the identification of new drug
candidates derived from plant sources.

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  Easy availability of drugs and their low cost.

3.52 PLANTS USED IN PHARMACOGNOSY

1.Bees wax 3.Belladona

Botanical name: Apis mellifera Botanical name: Atropa belladonna

2.blackpepper 4.Cotton

Botanical name: Piper nigrum Botanical name: Foeniculum vulga

3.53 SOLVENT EXTRACTION

The solvent used for the extraction of medicinal plants. The choice of solvent depends on
the type of plant, part of plant to be extracted, nature of the bioactive compounds, and the
availability of solvent. In general, polar solvents such as water, methanol, and ethanol are used in
extraction of polar compound, whereas non polar solvents such as hexane and dichloromethane
are used in extraction of non-polar compounds. During liquid–liquid extraction, the conventional
way is to select two miscible solvents such as water–dichloromethane, water–ether, and water–
hexane. In all the combinations, water is present because of its high polarity and miscibility with
organic solvent.

Solvents Polarity
n-Hexane 0.009
Petroleum ether 0.117

During fractionation, the selected solvent is added according to the order of increasing
polarity, starting from n-hexane, the least polar to water with the highest polarity.
3.54 TEST FOR ALKALOIDS

(a) Wagner’s test

1mL of extract was taken and placed into a test tube. Then 1mL of potassium
iodide (Wagner’s reagent) was added and shaken. Appearance of reddish-brown
precipitate signifies the existence of alkaloids.

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EXAMPES

a) Morphine

Morphine is the most abundant opiate found in Papaver somniferum (the opium poppy).
It has a role as an opioid analgesic, a mu-opioid receptor agonist, a plant metabolite, an
environmental contaminant, a xenobiotic, a vasodilator agent, an anaesthetic, a drug allergen and
a neuroprotector.

USES

Morphine is used to treat severe pain severe. Morphine belongs to the group of medicines
called narcotic analgesics (pain medicines).

b) Papaverine

Papaverine belongs to the group of medicines called vasodilators. Vasodilators

cause blood vessels to expand, thereby increasing blood flow. This medicine is used to
treat problems resulting from poor blood circulation. Papaverine is available only with
your doctor's prescription.

USES

Papaverine is an alkaloid used to treat many types of smooth muscle spasms such as
"vascular spasms”.

3.55 TEST FOR FLAVONOIDS

(a) Lead acetate test

To detect the presence of flavonoids, 1mL of extract was taken and placed into a test
tube. Then few drops of lead acetate added and shaken. Formation of yellow precipitate signifies
the presence of flavonoids.

Uses

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 Flavonoids possess a number of medicinal benefits such as anticancer,anti-oxidant,anti-
inflammatory and antiviral properties.

EXAMPLES

Citrus fruit

Citrus fruits are notably rich in flavonoid compounds and represent an important source
of dietary flavonoids, including hesperidin, hesperidin, naringin, naringenin, diosmin, quercetin,
rutin, nobiletin, tangeretin.

Uses

 Help reduce pigmentation:

Hyperpigmentation or dark spot may form because of exposure to ultraviolet rays
of the sun. Vitamin C is an excellent remedy that may help you with your dark
complexion. For this purpose, you can either consume citrus fruits or apply their juice
topically.
 Acts as an exfoliator:

Vitamin C is the best and natural exfoliator of our skin, and citrus fruits are rich in
it. Citrus fruits help clear your clogged pores and dead skin to make your pores shrink.
Orange peels are here to rescue your skin-related problems.

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4. CONCLUSION

 As a student of THE STANDARD FIREWORKS RAJARATNAM COLLEGE FOR

WOMEN, Sivakasi.
 I’m very thankful for organizing such a useful informative training forIIPG student.
 The training was very useful.
 Apprenticeship training gave me a new experience and a practical knowledge apart
from theoretical knowledge.
 During the period of training, more information was gained by me how to check blood
pressure, how to determine the blood clotting time, blood bleeding time and blood
group.
 In pharmaceutics lab there I know the way to convert a drug to tablet by tablet punching
machine there I noticed that when a tablet thickness increases; hardness decreases.
 In pharmacology lab they had a practical on software named ‘Ex-pharm software’ for
the study of muscle relaxant, study of CNS depression, drug acting on CNS, effect of
various drug on rabbit eye, etc..
 In blood group determination AB group is called ‘universal recipient’ and O group is
called ‘universal donor’.
 In pharmacognosy lab they teach about plant’s common name, botanical name, and
their uses.
 They teach with patience to help to know the new things.

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5. BIBLOGRAPHY

1. Quality control and Standardization of Herbals by Dr. Antara Choudhury.

2. Text book of Industrial Pharmacy - II By Dr. Sammer S.Sheaikh, Rahul P.Gaikwad,

Dr.Md.Rageeb Md. Usman.

3.Pharmaceuticalformulation
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562239/#:~:text=Pharmaceutical%20formulation
%20is%20the%20multistep,the%20final%20beneficial%20medicinal%20product.

4. General mechanism of drug action

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK13703/

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