LIS 226 Knowledge Management

COURSE
GUIDE
LIS 406
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
Course Team Dr. Rexwhite Tega Enakrire (Course

Writer/Developer/Writer) Delta
State University, Abraka, Nigeria
Prof. A. J. C. Mole (Instructional Designer/Content
Editor) NOUN
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

LIS 406 COURSE GUIDE
© 2022 by NOUN Press

National Open University of Nigeria
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All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any

form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Printed 2022
ISBN: 978-978-058-109-1
ii
CONTENTS
Introduction ………………………………………………………. iv
Course Aim ………………………………………………………. iv
Course Objectives ………………………………………………… v
Working Through This Course …………………………………… v
Course Materials …………………………………………………. vii
Introduction ………………………………………………………. vii
Study Units ……………………………………………………….. vii
Presentation Schedule ……………………………………………. viii
Assessment ……………………………………………………….. ix
Final Examination and Grading ………………………………….. ix
Course Marking Scheme ………………………………………… x
How To Get the Most from the Course ………………………….. x
Facilitation ……………………………………………………….. xi
iii
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to LIS 406: Knowledge Management. A two-unit credit

course (2-unit), being a prerequisite made compulsory for all the
undergraduate students in the Department of Library and Information
Science. The course is planned and prepared to assist undergraduate
students to learn, understand, internalize, apply and use the right type of
knowledge (tacit and explicit knowledge) for the day-day operations in
organizations. The application of knowledge management principles
enables students to advance in their studies and every other academic
activity they wish to embark on. The understanding surrounding how
organization operates today depends largely on the application of tacit and
explicit knowledge.
The concept of ‘knowledge management’ has attracted several

interpretations and meanings with different scholars ‘and research
backgrounds. This has become a central focal point applied in most
organizations today. Libraries are fundamental in the focus of the reason
this module is developed because, graduates who are trained in library
and information science and related course/module are expected to have
adequate knowledge of the course discussed.
The reason that necessitates knowledge management in libraries and other

related institutions/organization is increasing knowledge creation and
sharing, where practical know-how of the use of interacting tools of
networks is important. Knowledge management is significant in the
transformation of employees’ workforce, where they apply their tacit type
of knowledge in accomplishment of their day-to-day tasks. Digital
technologies have also infiltrated into how knowledge is managed in the
organization. This result to easy access to multifarious information
resources in libraries. Some of the digital technologies that have been
used in knowledge management in the organization comprise of
computers, laptops, digital tablets/ telephones, learning management
systems (Olofsson, Fransson & Lindberg, 2020). These necessitate
bringing transformation to the organization.
COURSE AIM
The aim of this course is to ensure that students registered for this course
LIS 406 understand the meaning of KM and when, where and how to
apply it in their day to day activities of academic pursuit and anyplace of
work learning. To ensure this is actualized, the student’s effort is required
in planning and preparing for attaining the prerequisite for the knowledge
and skills of employability hence the development of this module as part
of the LIS curriculum and/ or program. The course is developed into five
iv
modules and fifteen units such that it would enhance student

understanding of knowledge management in any workplace.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of this course, students registered for this module should be
able to:
i. Understand what knowledge management entails
ii. Identify the different types of knowledge
iii. Discuss the typologies of knowledge management
iv. Discover know knowledge sharing could be harnessed using
different social networking sites approaches
v. Ascertain the effectiveness and efficiency of knowledge sharing
using the social networking sites in library and information centres
and related organisations
vi. Develop the skills and knowledge required in knowledge
management, and knowledge sharing through the use of
networking tools among libraries and information centres
vii. Understand knowledge management and knowledge management
systems and strategies from organizational perspectives and its
implication in the 21st century libraries and information centres and
associated organisations
viii. Determine the factors associated with formulation and
implementation of knowledge management in libraries and
information centres
ix. Articulate values of technical approach that could strengthen
knowledge management, knowledge sharing and knowledge
management systems and strategies in libraries and information
centres
x. Develop the principles/framework and practices of practical
application of knowledge management, knowledge sharing and
knowledge management systems and strategies in libraries and
information centres and associated institutions.
WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE
In order for students to have a comprehensive understanding of this

course, they should partake in both the theoretical and practical parts of
the course. In light of this, students should read the entire units very well,
listen to all the video links that are provided. With this in mind, students
should know what each section requires, thereby undertaking critical
reading that would make them understand all recommended and required
text, recommended books and other related materials that would increase
students’ knowledge and skills in the course unit provided, thus preparing
the students for their assignment and examination when it comes.
v
The course is structured such that each unit is classified into the following
sub-headings: introduction, intended learning outcomes, main content,
summary, conclusion, references and further readings. The introduction
part of this module indicates a summary of learning objectives and
expectation meant to be covered in the unit, before it is further broadened
or broken down into segment of analysis, detailing highlights enclosed in
the unit.
It is expected that at this point students should read and acquaint

themselves with the learning outcomes which gives a summary of what
students are expected to complete at each unit. This will help the students
to evaluate their learning processes at the end of each unit, to establish
whether they have accomplished the intended objectives of the unit. To
complete the intended learning outcomes, the content of each segment is
presented in modules and units with LIS 406: Knowledge Management.
The videos and links provided in this course unit is on the provision that
it would support the student on the course LIS 406: Knowledge
Management, such that, you will not have to struggle with areas of the
course unit that are not clear to you. Kindly copy and paste the link
address as indicated in each course unit into a browser and follow the
directive as shown on Youtube. There are portions of the video where you
might have to click skip in order to avoid adverts, to get to the main
content, please listen attentively as the video plays. There is segment
where student will have to read offline, make notes and jot down points
that could re-direct you back to what you have already studied and extent
covered in the entire course unit. If possible, it would be better you
download the videos to view or watch it offline, as that will save you data.
You can also download and print the entire manuscripts for the LIS 406
course study for easy readability whenever you want to study. This will
give you relaxed mind where you will not have to open your computer all
the time. Otherwise, if you are good at reading digitally, save it in your
computer or external drive-in order not to download always. What is
discussed in each unit outlines essential recap of the points that needs to
be considered, thus leading as guide to other parts of units in the entire
journey of the study. The conclusion takes the student to the pinnacle of
the study and salient points or lessons that need to be taken into
consideration in the unit being discussed.
In each unit, two key forms of assessments are required the formative and
the summative. The formative assessments indicate how the student will
evaluate their learning processes. These are presented in the form of text
questions, discussion forums and self-assessment exercises. The
summative assessments are based on the academic performance of the
student as required by the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN),
vi
whether the student has met the minimum requirements stipulated on the
course being studied. This are summarized in Computer-Based Test
(CBT), serving as continuous assessment and final degree examinations
for the course being studied. A minimum of three computer-based tests
are given to the student, with one final examination at the end of each
semester. It is mandatory for all students registered for this course to take
and pass all computer base tests and the final examination before they
could graduate from the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN).
COURSE MATERIALS
The course materials for this module LIS 406 ‘‘Knowledge

Management’’ is presented below.
INTRODUCTION
The course materials of knowledge management module, LIS 406

comprise of the definition, scope, and topology of knowledge
management (KM) within an organization or business context; techniques
for capturing/acquiring, organizing, distributing, and sharing knowledge;
formulation of knowledge management strategies, requirements, and
issues in designing enterprise knowledge architecture and implementing
knowledge management projects; ethical issues and problems inherent in
knowledge management; measurement of the impact of KM programs
and practical work in knowledge management.
STUDY UNITS
There are 15 units in this course divided into five modules. The modules
and units are presented as follows:
Module 1 Knowledge Management in Libraries
Unit 1 Overview/Definition, Objectives, Scope, and Models of

Knowledge Management
Unit 2 Topology, Processes, Techniques, Tools, and Components
of Knowledge Management
Unit 3 Practices and Application (organization or business
context) of Knowledge Management
Module 2 Knowledge Sharing in Libraries
Unit 1 Definition, Objectives, and Methods of Knowledge Sharing

Unit 2 Techniques (capturing/acquiring, organizing, distributing),
and Tools of Knowledge Sharing
Unit 3 Implication of Knowledge Sharing in Libraries
vii
Module 3 Knowledge Management Systems and Strategies
Unit 1 Concept and objectives of Knowledge Management

Systems and Strategies
Unit 2 Types and functions of Knowledge Management Systems
and Strategies in libraries
Unit 3 Formulation and Implementation of Knowledge
Management Systems and Strategies in Libraries
Module 4 Knowledge Architecture, Ethical Issues, And Problems

In Knowledge Management
Unit 1 Definition, and Purpose of Knowledge Architecture

Unit 2 Design/Structure, and Segments of Knowledge
Architecture
Unit 3 Requirements, Enterprise, Issues in Designing Enterprises
in Knowledge Architecture and implications of ethical
issues in Knowledge Management
Module 5 Measurement of the Impact of Knowledge Management

Programmes
Unit 1 Overview of knowledge measurement and purpose of

measurement of the impact of Knowledge Management
Unit 2 Implementing Knowledge Management Projects
Unit 3 Practical work in knowledge management
PRESENTATION SCHEDULE
In order to have a clear understanding of what the course entails, a

presentation schedule is provided. The presentation schedule directs the
student on essential dates to take note of, especially in the completion of
computer-based tests, assignments, participation forums or discussions, if
any and every other material and video that needs to be examined.
Remember that the submission of all your assignments must be timely
and appropriate as stated in the course. Please, there is a need to guide
against delay or postponement and plagiarism while attending to your
classwork/assignment given to you to do. Please bear in mind that,
plagiarism is a criminal offence in academics, as such, it should be
avoided at all cost because it is amount to weighty or serious punishment.
Note: Each student will earn a 10% score if he/she meets a minimum of
75% participation in the course study, forum discussions, and portfolios,
or else the student will lose the 10% in their total score. The student is
expected to upload their portfolio through Google Docs. The expectation
viii
of students in their portfolio consists of the notes or jotting made during

their time of study of each of the course unit and modules made available
to them. This comprises all activities and time spent from the beginning
to the end of the course in the entire duration of this course LIS 406:
Knowledge Management.
ASSESSMENT
Two core forms of assessment are required in this course in order for any
student offering this course to pass. The first assessments consist of Tutor-
Marked Assignment (TMAs), which are included in each unit. Students
are strongly advice to attend to them without delay, so that they do not
pile up, otherwise it could discourage them from advancing to the next
stage of another unit. The TMAs is part of the continuous evaluation
module that are marked and recorded on a continuous basis. It amounts to
30% of the total scores from the cumulative. Therefore, students are
instructed to be serious with it, because it will assist and support them to
pass the course. The TMAs will be schedule according to the University
calendar, as students do not need to panic. The second assessment will be
the final examination, which will cover everything that was taught in the
course LIS 406. Students are encouraged to adhere to all slated calendar
in the University such that, they do not miss the examination.
FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING
After the completion of this course, students will be required to seat for
the examination of the course LIS 406’ Knowledge Management. The
duration of the examination will last for 2-hours and the grade point of
the course is 70%. Most of the questions that will be given to students
are what they already had in their self-assessment of the TMAs, as such,
they need to familiarize themselves more with continuous practices of the
questions and serious reading of their course materials. This will enable
them have good grades after finishing the course. Students are also advice
to use their time judiciously so that, they do not miss any of the unit and
assessment. It is expected that, the Tutor-Marked Assignment or activities
would enable you to study very well as everything in the course is
covered, even before your final examination.
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COURSE MARKING SCHEME
This table represent the layout of total course marks
Assessment 30% (Undergraduate) 40% (Postgraduate)
Final Examination 70% (Undergraduate) 60% (Postgraduate)
Total 100% course work
HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THE COURSE
In order to get the best from the course, the student needs an efficient own
or personal laptop and access to the Internet. This will enhance the study,
such that, learning becomes stress-free and the course materials can also
be accessed without geographical boundaries (wherever and anytime).
The student will be able to use the Learning Outcomes to guide
themselves through self-study approach in this course LIS 406. It is
expected that, at the close of each unit, students should be able to evaluate
themselves whether they have inculcated the LOs, such that, the purpose
of that unit course is achieved.
This could be strengthened through a thorough hard work of preparedness

of the student based on the notes and jotting taken at the discussion forum
and personal study time in each unit course. It is expected of every student
to join the online actual time facilitation planned at schedule. Any time a
student missed an actual time facilitation planned schedule, without
wasting time, the student should create time to go over the recorded
facilitation session, in order not to lag behind other students. The missed
time facilitation session of any unit will be a video recorded, that will be
dispatched on the online platform. Apart from the actual time facilitation
session, it is expected at all times that, the student should watch the video
and audio recorded, if any in each unit course. The video/audio helps to
review salient points that the student could have missed in the online
facilitation session in each unit course. Student can access the audio or
videos by clicking on the links provided in the text of each unit concluded
at the end of the course page.
It is expected that, students should work round all self-assessment

exercises, such that, they leave nothing behind regarding the course
content of this study. Lastly, adhere to all instructions given in the class
regarding each unit course.
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FACILITATION
Bear in mind that, as a student, you will be given online facilitation. The
online facilitation is an interactive process where beginners could relate
with one another as students learn. The style of facilitation can be
asynchronous and synchronous. For the asynchronous facilitation, your
organizer or facilitator will:
• Present the theme of the unit to you;
• Lead you through a summary forum discussion on what needs to
be covered;
• Manage all the activities in the online platform;
• Score and grade all activities when they are needed;
• Upload students’ scores into the university recommended
platform;
• Support and help students you to learn in whatever regards
provided the whole course is covered. This might include sending
personal mails for communications purposes and following up
with the extent students are doing in their studies.
• Send videos and audio lectures on WhatsApp, emails, Facebook,
LinkedIn, among other social media sites to students, apart from
the normal upload on online facilitation platform.
For the synchronous:

• Students are expected to spend minimum of eight hours of online
actual time contacts in the course contents. This implies watching
video conferencing in the Learning Management System. The
eight hours consist of one-hour contact for eight times.
• It is expected that, after spending one-hour each watching the
video conferencing, the video will be uploaded for possible
viewing at students’ own time and speed.
• The tutor or facilitator is expected to focus more on key themes
that are most important and known to students in the course.
• The facilitator is the person to present the online actual time video
facilitation timetable before the start of the course unit.
• It is the responsibility of the facilitator to take the students through
the course guide at the beginning of the first lecture even before
the facilitation begins.
Note: Please do not fail to contact your facilitator; in case of anything you
are not clear with. You can do so based on the following:
• When you do not comprehend any part of the units or the

assignments given.
• Have challenges following the self-assessment exercises.
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• Have any questions or issues with an assignment or your tutor ‘s

comments on an assignment that was given.
• Please use the contact provided for technical support as well.
Students are expected to read all recommended reading materials, make

comments on notes provided by their facilitator specifically on those
relating to assignments; participate in the forums and discussions. This
provides the student the privilege to socialize with others in the course of
the program. Students are encouraged to discuss any problem encountered
during their course. This would help them improve tremendously and
learn better while they prepare for course facilitation. It is also advisable
for students to have outlined list of questions before the discussion
session, so as to gain more knowledge from other folks and their
facilitator. This will make students to learn broadly while partaking
actively in the debate forum.
Lastly, facilitator or course lecturer should respond to the questionnaire

posed. This will help the university to know areas of weakness and how
best to advance on them for possible future review of the course materials
and lectures.
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MAIN
COURSE
CONTENTS
Module 1 Knowledge Management in Libraries ………….. 1
Unit 1 Overview/Definition, Objectives, Scope,

and Models of Knowledge Management …………. 1
Unit 2 Topology, Processes, Techniques, Tools,
and Components of Knowledge
Management ……………………………………… 27
Unit 3 Practices and Application (organization
or business context) of Knowledge Management… 51
Module 2 Knowledge Sharing in Libraries ……………….. 64
Unit 1 Definition, Objectives, and Methods of

Knowledge Sharing ………………………………. 64
Unit 2 Techniques (capturing/acquiring, organizing,
distributing), and Tools of Knowledge Sharing ….. 77
Unit 3 Implication of Knowledge Sharing in Libraries ….. 87
Module 3 Knowledge Management Systems and

Strategies …………………………………………. 94
Unit 1 Concept and objectives of Knowledge

Management Systems and Strategies ……………… 94
Unit 2 Types and functions of Knowledge
Management Systems and Strategies
in libraries …………………………………………. 107
Management Systems and Strategies in Libraries … 117
Module 4 Knowledge Architecture, Ethical Issues,

and Problems in Knowledge Management……… 128
Unit 1 Definition, and Purpose of Knowledge

Architecture ……………………………………….. 128
Architecture ……………………………………….. 135
Unit 3 Requirements, Enterprise, Issues in
Designing Enterprises
in Knowledge Architecture and
implications of ethical issues in
Knowledge Management ………………………… 144
Module 5 Measurement of the Impact of Knowledge

Management Programmes ……………………… 155
Unit 1 Overview of knowledge measurement

and purpose of measurement
of the impact of Knowledge Management ……….. 155
Unit 2 Implementing Knowledge
Management Projects …………………………….. 167
Unit 3 Practical work in knowledge management ………. 175
LIS 406 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
MODULE 1 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN

LIBRARIES
Unit 1 Overview/Definition of Knowledge

Management
Unit 2 Topology, Processes, Techniques, Tools,
And Components of Knowledge Management
Unit 3 Practices and Application
(Organization or Business Context) of Knowledge
Management
UNIT 1 OVERVIEW/DEFINITION OF KNOWLEDGE

MANAGEMENT
Unit Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Learning Outcomes
1.3 Overview and Definition of Knowledge management
1.4 Scope of Knowledge Management
1.5 Objectives of Knowledge Management
1.4 Models of Knowledge Management
1.5 Summary
1.6 Glossary
1.7 References/Further Reading
1.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises (SAEs)
1.1 Introduction
In module 1, unit 1, we shall be considering the overview and definition

of knowledge management, scope, objectives, and models. These
concepts are the basis for which knowledge management was
developed. Knowledge management has to do with the management of
tacit and explicit knowledge in organization. The tacit entail those
hidden knowledges in human brain or mind while the explicit are the
ones found in documents or print format. As students familiarize
themselves with these concepts, they would found out that, the module
is such an interesting one that encompasses every areas of human
endeavours. Everything we do in life surrounds the understanding of
knowledge management, whether in the workplace, university
environment, political and socio-economic context.
The knowledge, skills and experience which students will gain from this
unit would assist them even after graduating from the university. They
will require the knowledge, skills and experience associated with
1
knowledge management for better service delivery and work

performance in the organization.
By the end of this unit, students should be able to:
• Define knowledge management
• Discuss the scope of knowledge management
• Explain the objectives of knowledge management
• Describe the models of knowledge management
1.3 Overview and Definition of Knowledge Management
Knowledge management has to do with the mechanism or capability by

which individual and organizational knowledge are managed for
longevity, transformation and enhanced work performance carried out
on daily basis. Every task and/ or operation requires one type of
knowledge or the other. The type of knowledge required for one task or
the other comprise of tacit and explicit.
The tacit are those hidden in the mind or human brain while the explicit
are those found on documents or print format. Sometimes, either the
explicit could be tacit and tacit become explicit depending on the user
application. When a user reads any information or study and internalize
or digest the information obtained, such knowledge becomes tacit
hidden in the mind of the user. In the same vein when the user decides to
transfer the hidden knowledge into writing, let say he/she was given an
assignment or write a piece of a story, the written information, now
made open in print or document is now explicit. Therefore, managing
such type of knowledge becomes important.
Take for an instance, a student who registered for a certain course or

program at the university, is expected to play diverse roles in ensuring
he/she passed the courses. With this in mind, the student would have to
plan, prepare and attend classes, attempt his/her given assignment or
research paper and at the end of the program seat for the final year
examination. It is only when all these requirements have been satisfied
before we could tell whether the student met the obligation of the course
or program registered for. The processes surrounding when, where and
how the student plan, prepare and carry out all the required task in
ensuring he/she passed the examination or complete the program
encompasses knowledge management. This implies that, when
employees are recruited in the organization, they are given certain job
description and the processes of harnessing and applying different
strategies in fulfilling those tasks in the organization is termed
knowledge management.
2
Knowledge management could be seen from the perspective of how

knowledge is harnessed/tapped, created, processed stored, managed,
used and disseminated to meet diverse information need of individuals
and organization. The processes through which knowledge is created,
processed, stored, managed, used and disseminated came from the idea
of data being collated, information processed, knowledge acquired and
wisdom used for decision making. The understanding gained concerning
knowledge management has made present generation and business
enterprise seek information and knowledge being panacea to individuals
and organizations problem, which could have been difficult to handle
ordinarily. Therefore, the expectation from this module is that, students
registered for this course/module should be exposed to what knowledge
management entails as they cannot tell where they would be tomorrow,
that is, after graduating from the university.
The knowledge gained during their study period would sustain them in
any organization they found themselves, such that, they could rely on its
application for work performance and human sustainability. The
understanding which the developer of this module has towards
knowledge management is that, there is no organization that could
survive with the application of knowledge. Knowledge management has
the components of people, process, Information technology (IT), and
strategy. These are key elements required for the manning the operations
of task in any work environment.
There are several reasons why knowledge sharing being part of

knowledge management is important in the organization. It helps to
smoothen how information and knowledge are harnessed among
colleagues in the organization, inclusive libraries. The shared knowledge
has reduced uncertainty, such that, difficult tasks are easily addressed.
Knowledge management has also reduced the financial burden of
organizations, especially where they are supposed to hire a consultant to
do a certain job, but because of the shared knowledge of expertise, the
job description can be handled by staff members.
Knowledge management is significant in the present Nigerian economy

where libraries and information centres are faced with problem that
require solution in the organization. With the understanding surrounding
knowledge management individuals in the organization or libraries
could share their knowledge to sustain and preserve the organizational
resources through the support of digital technologies. At present, there is
no organization globally that could be independent and maintainable
without necessitating needing one another. For this reason, staff
members have to do their best in applying the necessarily policy in
ensuring knowledge management practice are put in place.
3
As an undergraduate student, it is expected that you get prepared for

your academic activities but there are times, when you could not meet
up with your classes or submission of assignments. In that regard, you
might need your fellow student support or assistance, where they will
have to share with you the reading materials of the course unit. The core
interest is to enable student attend to the obligation expected of them as
a student in submitting your assignment. This act or practices could be
regarded as a cross-fertilization of ideas between, within, and outside
your environment.
Knowledge Management (KM) is not a new phenomenon in the

developed world. The understanding from the developer of this module
indicate that some developing countries are new to the concept.
Knowledge management was first considered in the late 1980s by
consulting and the business community. The factor that brought this
debate was the importance placed on organization information and
knowledge assets and the arrival of the internet being a utility tool for
information and knowledge sharing irrespective of geographical
boundaries where organizations are situated. Mclnerney & and Koenig,
(2011) highlight on the understanding of knowledge management and
stated that it involves the process of handling and utilization of
information.
Mclnerney and Koenig (2011) categorized knowledge management into

the public domain during a conference that was organized by Ernst and
Young in Boston in 1993. During the cause of the debate, based on
scholars’ areas of expertise, several connotations were given to the term
of knowledge management. The understanding surrounding what
scholars felt was based on how it could help process and perform tasks
in the organization.
4
Fig 1: overview of knowledge management

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/knowledge_management/knowledge_ma
nagement_introduction.htm
The practices of knowledge management irrespective of the organization

cannot be overemphasized. The reason is that the human brain now
helps to efficiently organize the work performance that leads to a
competitive advantage over other competitors. The human brain which
is the carrier of the knowledge used in knowledge management activities
ensures that innovation is spurred through the evolvement of improving
human capacity. Therefore, improving organizational efficiency implies
the need for work flexibility since no human being could stay in any
workplace forever. The process of turnaround times of employees in
their career endeavours require continuous upskilling, and use of
appropriate technological tools to sustain the organization, while
maintaining lifelong learning for better quality service delivery.
5
Fig 2: Roadmap to knowledge management

http://skyrme.com/kmroadmap/index.htm
The Women’s Bureau of United States Department of Labor (2000)

states that, employee’s careers have been shorten from a long life to ten
(10) and presently three years due to workers mobility and income. The
employee’s mobility and income fluctuation, which makes employees to
move around different organizations has resulted to loss of individual
and organizational knowledge. When this happens, the organization is
made to suffer a lot of loss, especially, the valuable experiences and
skills of experts. Part of the loss could also be attributed to death, loss of
jobs, retirement and resignation of employees. Since it is too costly to
train and acquire resources like tools to equip new staff members, the
need for staff retention and the increase of attractive remuneration
becomes imperative.
Malhotra (2001) indicates that 42 percent of organizational knowledge

is stored in workers’ heads, 26 on paper and 20 digital formats. It
therefore, means that, with this percentage in mind, everything that the
organization is comprised of is resident on the human head. Since
humans are the drivers of organizational growth, KM cannot thrive
without humans’ effort. The need to continually capture and share
humans’ experiences, and skills become essential because it would help
to reduce uncertainty and increase innovation and competition among
other individuals and organization (Serban, and Luan 2002).
The intriguing fact in KM is that it encompasses everything within the

organization, that is, from the acquisition of information and knowledge,
processing, repackaging, storing, disseminating, and using it for
6
enhancing work performance and organizational transformation based

on shared experiences and use of skills.
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oPnpfyAql7Q
Definition of knowledge management

Knowledge management (KM) is a broad term theorized by diverse
scholars in multidisciplinary fields, such as Business Management,
human resources, organizational development, change management,
information technology, performance measurement Information Science
and Knowledge Science (Spender, (2015).
Fig 3: Interdisciplinary nature of KM

https://knowledgemanagementgroup123.files.wordpress.com/2015/06/w
2-km.pdf
This consideration result in the nature and changes happening around

the world today. Knowledge management implies the managing of
organizational and individual knowledge for the achievement of work
performance in the organization. In order to carry out such achievement,
certain creation of work is showcased among the employees in the
organization (Demir, Budur, Omer & Heshmati, 2021). What is being
managed in this regard is the knowledge which the employee possesses
and uses to invent the action in the organization.
Demir, Budur, Omer and Heshmati (2021), opine that the sustainability
of an organization is alluded to the processes through which knowledge
within the organization is captured, distributed, and used to maximize
work performance is termed KM. It can also be referred to a scenario
7
where employees identify, captures, evaluates, retrieves, and share

organizational assets among other staff members.
The organizational assets comprise of procedures, uncaptured

knowledge of staff, policies, databases, documents. Staff members can
now use these assets to better enhance their service delivery. In the same
vein, Agrawal and Mukti (2020) assert to Knowledge management as
the principles that govern the techniques which experts use to meet
business operations. The techniques that experts use involves time
frame, the scope of the task, efficiency and effectiveness and
preparedness (Agrawal & Mukti, 2020).
The concept of knowledge management dwells on how organization run

their operations using tacit and explicit knowledge (Ahammad, 2018;
Jokanović, Okanović, & Lalić, 2018; Agrawal, & Mukti, 2020). Tacit
knowledge is the stored knowledge in the human brain or mind, that is
applied in the execution of task or the reproduction of explicit in paper
form read in newspapers and books today. The explicit knowledge is the
knowledge found on documents produced through the support and effort
of tacit. Usually, when ideas (hidden knowledge-tacit) are conceived,
they are manipulated upon to form explicit knowledge.
The resultant of organizational transformation is the use of both (tacit

and explicit) type of knowledge. The most important thing regarding all
the shared understanding of knowledge management is that information
and knowledge being asserted in the organization are key components in
ensuring a functional system (Ahammad, 2018; Jokanović, Okanović, &
Lalić, 2018; Agrawal, & Mukti, 2020).
On the basis of the above view, Ahammad (2018) alludes to knowledge

management as the process design to recognize, capture, structure,
value, influence, and share the organization's intelligent assets for
enhanced work performance of staff members. The process involves the
application of staff initiatives, strategies, and systems in sustaining the
created knowledge in the organization. Knowledge management is
performance enabled through the application of tacit and explicit
knowledge utilization (Jokanović, Okanović, & Lalić, 2018). Therefore,
the procedures, processes, practices, and policies used in the
actualization of the tasks in an organization result in the knowledge
management practice available in the system. This approach has made
the organizations adopt the strategy of sharing knowledge among staff
members, such that, work ethics are well managed. The attitude of
sharing knowledge led to building collaboration capability among
colleagues. This is due to the fact that everything the organization is
made up of is knowledge.
8
A practical example that represents knowledge management could be

viewed in the image below.
Fig 4: Knowledge management

https://helpjuice.com/blog/what-is-knowledge-management
The desire for knowledge management has brought a lot of capability in

the organization for deep-rooted research that would make every nation
to see how their knowledge economy could be strengthened (Hock-
Doepgen, Clauss, Kraus & Cheng 2021). The reason is that, no economy
could grow if the people are not ready to harness and share knowledge
that would drive sustainable development.
Figallo (2002) refers to building knowledge management networks

being key to sustaining the organization. The networks connect staff
members to other colleagues within and outside their work environment
for the purpose of cross-cultural activities and collaboration. These
cross-cultural activities and collaboration would help staff members to
tap untapped knowledge from other members in relation to what they do
not know. Certain tools of social media and techniques of teamwork and
mentorship are very crucial when dealing with knowledge management
practices in organizations.
9
Fig 5: Building a knowledge management network

https://learn.g2.com/knowledge-management
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_dEkwRlyszo
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nRVx9qhzbgw
1.3 Scope of Knowledge Management
Knowledge management is meant to assist individuals in the

organizations to utilize the available organizational knowledge that has
been created where job performance is improved, thus broadening
content of resources used. The scope of knowledge management
according to Serban and Luan (2002) comprises subject areas of
Information Science, Knowledge Science, Business Management,
human resources, organizational development, change management, and
information technology.
10
Fig 6: Diversities of knowledge management scope

https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/knowledge-management.html
Saito (2015) refers to other subject areas that comprised of the scope of
knowledge management as management science, business, computer
science, organizational science, psychology, library and information
science, social science, and planning and development. Saito (2015)
alludes that, knowledge management has grown to where it stands as the
key component for organizational processes required by information
technology (IT) experts to perform their task in the organization.
Fig 7: coverage of knowledge management

https://stangarfield.medium.com/what-is-the-use-of-knowledge-
management-9a3de7c083cd
11
The emphasis made regarding the scope of knowledge management has

brought invention and changes that staff members need to absorb in
their culture of knowledge management practices. The scope of
knowledge management has also led to improved agility where staff
members continually tap, capture, familiarize, transfer and reuse the
organizational knowledge to improve the effectiveness of job
performance. Another point raised by knowledge-management-tools.net
(2018) is that, the scope of knowledge management could be
represented in the diagram below. In fig 1 below, it could be observed
that the scope of knowledge management encompasses strategy,
organizational culture, processes, leadership, technology, and corporate
politics required by staff members to enforce their job performance in
the organization.
Fig 8: scope of knowledge management,

http://www.knowledge-management-tools.net/
The understanding had from the previous discussion on the scope of

knowledge management stretch further to business transformation,
innovation, information management, knowledge base systems,
intellectual assets, and learning organization. These have become so
profound for staff members to explore, such that through it, they can
learn and strengthen their intuition for organizational growth.
12
Fig 9: Roots of knowledge management covers the scope

http://www.providersedge.com/docs/km_articles/km_an_overview.pdf
Presently, the scope of knowledge management has overlapped to the

extent that, managing information and knowledge takes diverse forms.
The forms encompass where staff members have to create, retain, share,
use, and update for organizational learning. These practices would not
have been easy without the appropriation of technology, people and
policy support.
1.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RhHMgkUdhdk&t=4s
1.4 Objectives of Knowledge Management
By objectives, we refer to the purpose for which knowledge

management was established/formulated and developed to be part of
human exitance and organization. The objectives of knowledge
management are diverse in contexts and from one organization to
another. The reason for this assertion is that, apart from knowledge
sharing for enhanced job performance among staff members, issues with
the application of best practices in the organization, policy formulation,
and implementation are fundamental. University of Alaska Office of
Information Technology (2012) refers to sharing ideas, experience, and
knowledge as key factors in knowledge management objectives. These
help staff members to unravel known to unknown concepts difficult for
13
them to tackle. The shared knowledge improves efficiency and reduces

uncertainty.
The University of Alaska Office of Information Technology (2012),

attests that through the support of knowledge management, employees
and management staff would be able to achieve the following:
(i) carry out informed decisions among colleagues with align

policies in the organization
(ii) Ensure the organizational structure is re-engineered
(iii) Manage reliable data, information and knowledge on daily basis
(iv) Provide efficient and effective service delivery at a reduce cost
with discovered knowledge
(v) Support staff members with clear direction and mutual
understanding of how customers should be treated
(vi) Provide a value judgement for organization in relation to other
competitors
(vii) Maintain a functional knowledge management system, easy
access to valuable data and information in utmost priority in the
organization.
(viii) Ensure staff members gather, analyze, store, use and maintain
knowledge management capability
(ix) Ensure work done by staff members in the organization are
assessed and scored
regularly score to work done by staff members in the
organization.
(x) Ensure task are processed timeously
(xi) Assist staff to learn technology enabler as means of operation in
planning, organizing, coordinating, directing, staffing, evaluation
and monitoring.
(xii) Build a legacy of knowledge, where values, principles, and
strategy are crucial on what staff does.
(xiii) Increased productivity among staff members
(xiv) Help manage knowledge stored in repositories
(xv) Helps alleviate human error
(xvi) Assist employees navigate within the organization on the culture
practice
(xvii) Gives agility to knowledge accessibility
(xviii) Makes employees integrate into organizational performance
(xix) Provide collective knowledge that will support individual and the
organization on smart decision
(xx) Help maximize knowledge loss among individuals
(xxi) Ensure knowledge sharing to reduce the risk of data and
information loss
14
The above-mentioned objectives of knowledge management have

helped to transform the organization such that, the knowledge of
employees is retained for the maximization of innovation, training,
better service delivery, improved collaboration, and building
organizational knowledge. The idea behind the objectives of knowledge
management is that the core entity through which actions or activities of
work performance take place is by human effort. Therefore, the need to
capacitate human beings becomes essential such that, they could help
manage the organization in the right culture for better productivity and
organizational transformation. The transformation experience in the
organization results from proper decision-making and planning among
staff members. This emphasis demonstrates an analogy of a student who
enrolled in a higher education institution or a staff member who was
newly employed learning how to navigate his/her way in the
organization.
The act of enrolling in a program in any higher education institution by

students is another form of knowledge management. When a student
enrolls and is registered for a course, he or she is given orientation on
how to go about attending classes, thus requiring the student to consult
the library and make use of the books available and his knowledge. The
use of both the recommended books and that of his/her personal brain is
knowledge management. The reason is that when a student study or
reads, he/she digest and assimilate what is being read, and that
knowledge forms tacit. By the time the student writes assignments,
home works, and examinations, the written information/knowledge
becomes explicit. This implies that for staff members to excel and do
better in their work operations, they must read or study in order to
acquire more knowledge and skills required in the pursuit of the
organizational goals.
15
Fig 10: Higher education institution students engage in knowledge

management
https://www.unesco.org/en/education/higher-education
1.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RhHMgkUdhdk&t=4s
Self-Assessment Exercise 1.
1. How would you develop similar knowledge management

definitions, as a library and information science student?
2. Why do you feel the scope of knowledge management is diverse
into multi-interdisciplinary?
3. Why are the objectives of knowledge management important?
1.5 Models of Knowledge Management
A Model could be regarded as a useful picture or symbol of an object,

person, or system. It helps to understand certain entities in the object or
person, for instance, the plan of a building. The model helps to unveil
what such an entity entails or represents. Models are designed for the
purpose of sharing knowledge in the organization. When sharing
knowledge with colleagues, certain objects, images, or representations
could be used to unveil what is meant or being shared. This is to give a
clear picture of the process of sharing such information and knowledge.
When referring to models of knowledge management, we imply
structured ways through which knowledge management is used in the
16
organization by employees, to manage the functions of activities (Three

KM Models, 2018).
The activities being managed refer to the specific and general tasks
given to the various staff that works in the organization (Three KM
Models, 2018). Considering the roles which knowledge management
plays in the organization, using tacit and explicit knowledge by human
beings, the products, and services rendered in the society become more
efficient and effective on a gradual process. The rationale of the models
of knowledge management is to bring theory into practice based on
existing knowledge management models used in the organizations.
Fig.11: Holistic view of knowledge management model

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Holistic-Views-of-Knowledge-
Management-Models-Yang-
Zheng/23d924c3c53e227065dc03fc1909d634c45bc11a/figure/1
There are several knowledge management models used in present-day

information and knowledge organization. The models use different
images or objects to represent knowledge and information which would
have been complex or difficult to explain ordinarily to individuals in the
organization. Among some of the models of knowledge management
are: the KM Process Framework by Bukowitz and Williams on the KM
Matrix by Gamble and Blackwell (2001), Knowledge Management
Process Model by Botha et al (2008) (Three KM Models, 2018) among
others too numerous to mention.
17
Fig 12: The KM Process Framework by Bukowitz and Williams (Three

KM Models, 2018). https://www.knowledge-management-
tools.net/three-km-models.php
The knowledge management models according to Bukowitz and

Williams on the Three KM Models (2018) depicts the processes of
applying certain strategies of management that involve building,
stripping, and enhancement of knowledge assets in the organization. The
reason for such emphasis is to know when and why building knowledge
is important. This model has the capability that put knowledge
management action into context. Another intriguing image worth noting
regarding this model is the inclusion of ‘divestment’ that is not included
in most knowledge management models. This brings us to a fascinating
knowledge management initiatives strategy employed by many
organizations (Three KM Models, 2018).
Fig 13: The KM Matrix by Gamble and Blackwell (2001)- (Three KM

Models, 2018)
https://www.knowledge-management-tools.net/three-km-models.php
18
The Knowledge management Matrix model by Gamble and Blackwell

(2001) refers to a broad spectrum of the theoretical frameworks of
knowledge management and a specific requirement that must be met for
implementation to take place. This model comprises four stages. First,
the source of knowledge must be located in the matrix, then its
organization becomes imperative for easy access such that it could help
to strengthen the organization due to its usability. What follows next is
socialization, through the application of various techniques for which
the knowledge could be shared and disseminated to whoever needs it in
the organization. Finally, internalization becomes crucial for the purpose
of use to meet diverse organization needs and individuals (Three KM
Models, 2018).
Fig.14: The Knowledge Management Process Model by Botha et al

(2008)- (Three KM Models, 2018), https://www.knowledge-
management-tools.net/three-km-models.php
The knowledge management process model challenges the realistic

impression of the knowledge management process. The reason is that
the knowledge management process which comprises people, process,
information technology, and strategy, are used to navigate the business
operations carried out through capturing of knowledge, storing,
organizing, verifying, distributing, and re-using to meet organizational
needs.
It can be deduced that the three models of knowledge management

overlap in their interaction processes. For example, Gamble and
Blackwell main focus is on making knowledge management initiatives a
reality, Bukowitz and Williams depicts on the application of strategies
19
of management that involve divestment, while the one by Botha et al

(2008) speaks more on the knowledge management process.
It can be observed from the understanding had in this segment that the
three knowledge management models are more people-oriented than
technology-focused. We cannot also say that without people knowledge
cannot be shared because even if we have to use technology, people are
the drivers of the technology. Nonetheless, how the organization
operates or functions depends largely on the class of individuals in that
organization and what they carry in their brain.
One intriguing thing that is significant in the models discussed is

knowledge management initiatives though not very pronounced because
it was not discussed. Every action of knowledge capture to its sharing
rest on knowledge management initiatives that have been developed in
the organizations. The usefulness of knowledge management models
cannot be undermined considering how it has underpinned the roots and
part that each variable in the models represents. Other types of models
of knowledge management according to Dalkir (2013) are:
• Theoretical Models of Information and Knowledge Management.

• The Nonaka and Takeuchi Knowledge Spiral Model
• The von Krogh and Roos Model of Organizational Epistemology
• The Choo Sense-Making KM Model
• The Wiig Model for Building and Using Knowledge
• The Boisot I-Space KM Model
• Complex Adaptive System Models of KM.
Fig 15: Fig: Knowledge management model by Probst et al, 2012

https://blog.hslu.ch/majorobm/2020/04/01/kne-knowledge-management-
part-3/
20
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ef4Q0uwmzIM
The understanding of knowledge management has brought different

processes of knowledge creation, classification, transfer and application
for better service delivery. The idea and ability surrounding individuals’
efforts depends on what the individual carry in their brain and what they
in mind to do. This shows that we know more than we can imagine
hence knowledge management cannot be undermined. The organization
rely strongly on it in sustaining their operations. Knowledge
management is a mixture of what they employees has in their mind and
processes that take place in the organization. So, no matter the
circumstances, time has a role to play on what approach the individual
could use in managing the library activities. In any business operations,
what is most significant is how the business owner was able to apply
certain strategy in transforming the business ideas. So, it is in the
corporate world of business or organization. Even though organizations
have good objectives and have broaden their scope in what they do, the
effort of the knowledge carriers is most significant. Therefore, it is
beneficial for libraries and information centres to incorporate knowledge
management practices into the organization so that, staff members could
share what they know best. This is the only way the organization would
move forward.
Self-Assessment Exercise 2
1. What makes up models from the definition you have
developed using your knowledge management
initiatives?
2. How has the knowledge management models builds
organizations?
1.5 Summary
This unit examined the overview, definition, scope, objectives and

models of knowledge management. The justification behind the
emphasis regarding the variables mentioned is due to the changes that
have evolved in the organization requiring the application and use of
human knowledge to accomplish tasks in the organization. Presently,
even though the use of technological tools has become part of the library
operations globally, knowledge management is still the driver of the
organization because that is where individual knowledge is tapped to
create new knowledge. Knowledge has become a panacea through
which task are achieved in the organization. It comprised of a value
complex experience and skills acquired over a period of time.
21
It is a fluid of experience gained in the workplace. Knowledge implies a

scenario where you read an article or book and the information
contained in it helps the individuals to understand the circumstance
surrounding the story therein. The information acquires about the story
that was told in the book or article read is now resident in your mind and
when you apply it, it becomes knowledge in your brain. Knowledge is
what enables every individual to accomplish all tasks in the
organization.
The created knowledge helps in the application of processes of

documentation of activities carried on a daily basis. The essence of
knowledge management has brought informed decisions among
colleagues in the organization such that, they were able to re-organize
their thoughts in affirmed structure and policy. This has given staff
members a clear direction and mutual understanding of how customers
should be treated whenever their information needs change. Based on
activities or work performance in the organization, staff members could
create models based on task of operations and this model serves as a
benchmark. The created models are liable data, information and
knowledge that management officials could use for decision making,
whenever they are confronted with difficulties.
1.6 Glossary
1. Knowledge management implies the capability by which

individual and organizational knowledge are managed for
longevity, transformation and enhanced work performance
carried out on daily basis
2. Tacit and explicit knowledge are the key to the operations in the
organization.
3. The human brain are the engine block to knowledge management
activities
4. Knowledge management are multi-interdisciplinary fields that cut
across management science, business, computer science,
organizational science, psychology and among others.
Assignment File
The prediction here is that the students should attempt the following:
1. Give an overview of what knowledge management entails?

2. Identify three (3) definitions of knowledge management and draw
a distinction between each of the authors’ views?
3. What are the various objectives of knowledge management and
how are they useful to library and information centers
management operations?
22
4. Identify three models of knowledge management and write short

notes on them?
1.7 References/Further Readings
Agrawal, A., & Mukti, S. K. (2020). Knowledge Management & It's

Origin, Success Factors, Planning, Tools, Applications, Barriers
and Enablers: A Review. International Journal of Knowledge
Management (IJKM), 16(1), 43-82.
https://ideas.repec.org/a/igg/jkm000/v16y2020i1p43-82.html
Ahammad T. (2018). Overview on Knowledge Management,

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324603140_Overview_
on_Knowledge_Management
Anantatmula, V.S. (2005). Knowledge Management Criteria. In M.

Stankoshy. (Ed.). Creating the Discipline of Knowledge
Management: The Latest in University Research (pp.171- 188).
Amsterdam, Boston: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/33956645_Criteria_for
_measuring_knowledge_management_efforts_in_organizations
Botha, M. L., & Reddy, C. P. S. (2011). In-service teachers’

perspectives of pre-service teachers’ knowledge domains in
science. South African Journal of Education, 31(2).
https://www.ajol.info/index.php/saje/article/view/66460
Dalkir, K. (2013). Knowledge management in theory and practice.

Routledge.,
https://vulms.vu.edu.pk/Courses/MGMT730/Downloads/Knowle
dge%20Management%20Models.pdf
Davenport, T. H., De Long, D. W., & Beers, M. C. (1997). Building

successful knowledge management projects. Center for business
innovation working paper, 4.
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Building-Successful-
Knowledge-Management-Projects-Davenport-
Long/0d768994d39d1aa5f3313ba689c0fc9520e96b16
Demir, A., Budur, T., Omer, H. M., & Heshmati, A. (2021). Links
between knowledge management and organizational
sustainability: does the ISO 9001 certification have an
effect?. Knowledge Management Research & Practice, 1-14.
https://www.academia.edu/48534280/Links_between_knowledge
_management_and_organisational_sustainability_does_the_ISO_
9001_certification_have_an_effect
23
Figallo, C. (2002). Building the Knowledge Management Network—

best Practices: Tools and Techniques for Putting Conversation to
Work. New York: John Wiley& Sons, Inc.
https://www.amazon.com/Building-Knowledge-Management-
Network-Conversation/dp/B01FGLG2DG
Ford, D (2001). Trust and Knowledge Management: The seeds of

Success. Retrieved May 4th, 2007, From
http://business.queensu.ca/centres/monieson/docs/working/worki
ng_01-08.pdf
Frappaolo, C. (2002). Knowledge Management. Oxford: Capstone

Publishing Ltd.
https://www2.uwstout.edu/content/rs/2008/11Knowledge%20Ma
nagement%20for%20publication.pdf
Gamble, P. R., & Blackwell, J. (2001). Knowledge management: A state

of the art guide. https://www.amazon.com/Knowledge-
Management-State-Art-Guide/dp/0749436492
Hock-Doepgen, M., Clauss, T., Kraus, S., & Cheng, C. F. (2021).

Knowledge management capabilities and organizational risk-
taking for business model innovation in SMEs. Journal of
Business Research, 130, 683-697.
https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/jbrese/v130y2021icp683-697.html
Igbinovia M. O. and Ikenwe I. J. (2017). Knowledge Management:

Processes and Systems Journal of Information and Knowledge
Management, 8 (3), 26 – 38, ISSN: 2141 – 4297,
https://www.ajol.info/index.php/iijikm/article/view/167179
Jokanović, B. T., Okanović, A. V., & Lalić, B. (2018). Knowledge

management diagnosis in Vojvodina firms by using Bukowitz
and Williams model. Industrija, 46(4).
https://aseestant.ceon.rs/index.php/industrija/article/view/17740
Kerka, S. (1995). The learning organization: myths and realities.

Retrieved Feb 4th, 2022, Form
http://www.cete.org/acve/docgen.asp?tbl=archive&ID=A
Knowledge-management-tools.net (2018). Knowledge management

http://www.knowledge-management-tools.net/
24
Lee, J. H., & Kim, Y. G. (2001). A stage model of organizational

knowledge management: a latent content analysis. Expert systems
with applications, 20(4), 299-311. https://coek.info/pdf-a-stage-
model-of-organizational-knowledge-management-a-latent-
content-analysis-.html
Lesser, E., & Prusak, L. (1999). Communities of practice, social capital

and organizational knowledge. Information Systems Review, 1(1),
3-10.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284256963_Communiti
es_of_Practice_Social_Capital_and_Organizational_Knowledge
Malhotra, Y. (2001). From information management to knowledge

management: Beyond the" hi-tech hidebound" systems.
In Knowledge management and business model innovation (pp.
115-134). IGI Global. https://www.igi-
global.com/chapter/information-management-knowledge-
management-beyond/129623
McInerney, C. R., & Koenig, M. E. (2011). Knowledge management

(KM) processes in organizations: Theoretical foundations and
practice. Synthesis Lectures on Information Concepts, Retrieval,
and Services, 3(1), 1-96.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220696219_Knowledge
_Management_KM_Processes_in_Organizations_Theoretical_Fo
undations_and_Practice
lofsson, A.D., Fransson, G. & Lindberg, J.O. (2020). A study of the use
of digital technology and its conditions with a view to
understanding what ‘adequate digital competence’ may mean in a
national policy initiative. Educational Studies, 46(6): 727-743.
DOI: 10.1080/03055698.2019.1651694, https://www.diva-
portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1342984/FULLTEXT02.pdf
Sarayreh, B., Mardawi, A and Dmour R (2012). Comparative Study:

The Nonaka Model of Knowledge Management, International
Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology (IJEAT)
ISSN: 2249 – 8958, 1 (6),
https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/187114511.pdf
Serban, A. M., & Luan, J. (2002). Overview of knowledge

management. New directions for institutional research, (113), 5-
16. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ir.34
25
Spender, J.C. (2015). Knowledge Management: Origins, History, and

Development Advances in Knowledge Management, 1, ISBN:
978-3-319-09500-4 https://ideas.repec.org/h/spr/kmochp/978-3-
319-09501-1_1.html
Three KM Models, (2018). https://www.knowledge-management-

tools.net/three-km-models.php http://www.knowledge-
management-tools.net/three-km-models.html
University of Alaska Office of Information Technology (2012).

PinkSCAN Assessment Report Page 46 of 74 Pink Elephant Inc.,
2012.https://www.alaska.edu/files/oit/PinkSCAN_knowledge.pdf
Women’s Bureau, U. S. (2000). Department of Labour (2000). Facts on

working women. Retrieved September, 13.
https://www.dol.gov/agencies/wb/about/history
1.8 Possible Answers to Self–Assignment Exercise
1. The development of similar knowledge management definitions

encompasses diverse knowledge of tacit and explicit knowledge
obtained through acquired knowledge and experience of this
module amidst other relevant materials and readings which the
students have explored.
2. The scope of knowledge management is diverse into multi-
interdisciplinary because the field of knowledge management was
developed to meet the need of different fields and that as
knowledge continue to evolve, its management because
imperative
3. The objectives of knowledge management are important because
it helps to give direction to the organization
4. Different concepts or ideas are what makes up models’
knowledge management initiatives
5. The knowledge management models help to build organizations
based on different concept used to foster the activities in it.
26
UNIT 2 TOPOLOGY, PROCESSES, TECHNIQUES, TOOLS,

AND COMPONENTS OF KNOWLEDGE
MANAGEMENT
Unit Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.3 Topology of Knowledge management
2.4 Processes of Knowledge Management
2.5 Techniques of Knowledge management
2.6 Tools of Knowledge Management
2.7 Components of Knowledge Management
2.8 Summary
2.9 Glossary
2.1 Introduction
In previous unit 1, we considered the overview and concept of

knowledge management, scope, objectives, and models of knowledge
management. The rationale regarding this analogy was for students to
have a better understanding of the basis for which knowledge
management as a philosophy was developed by scholars. Presently,
irrespective of the contexts we find ourselves, in everything employees
do in the organization comprises knowledge management. The reason is
that employees now make use of their brain more than using explicit
knowledge (knowledge on documents/literature) to identify, capture,
evaluate, retrieve, and share organizational knowledge for better service
delivery and performance of their responsibility.
Organizational knowledge which comprises procedures, policies,

databases, and documents are now tapped to enhance the growth and
sustainability of the system. With this in mind, staff members can now
use these assets to better enhance their networking of continuous
knowledge-sharing practices.
In the present unit 2, we shall be considering the topology of knowledge

management, processes, techniques, tools, components, and policy of
knowledge management. These are the building blocks through which
knowledge management was formed. These factors or variables
discussed below cannot be undermined for any prospective students.
They are utilized to govern the operations carried out in the
organization, including libraries and information centres.
27
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Explain topology of knowledge management
• Discuss the processes of knowledge management
• Describe the techniques of knowledge management
• Discuss the tools of knowledge management
• Describe the components of knowledge management
2.3 Topology of Knowledge Management
Topology of knowledge management has to do with the anatomy of

knowledge management. When knowledge management was postulated,
it came with the understanding that it did not fall from the sky, rather it
metamorphosed from data, information, knowledge and wisdom
(Cleveland, 1982: Knowledge Management Topology: The Futurist,
December 1982 p. 34-39). The understanding surrounding the topology
could be virtualized from the graph below.
Fig.16: Knowledge management topology

http://www.ddavid.com/groundzero/km3.htm
28
To understand the topology of knowledge management better, it is

important we substantiate the steps through which the anatomy of the
topology was developed. The first steps earlier mentioned was data,
followed by information, knowledge and wisdom.
Data: Data has to do with raw materials yet to be processed. They take
the form of figure, image. These are used for different purposes of
decision making and planning in the organization and by individuals for
research practices. Research has proven that data could be used for
creation, gathering and discovery in the laboratory. Data could take
different form depending on the context and purpose for which is it
requested. Examples of data could take different forms nominal, ordinal,
discrete and continuous.
Information: Information could be regarded as a processed data, useful

for action irrespective of the contexts, organization and individuals.
When data are turned into an organized form, it become information.
The essence of turning it into a meaning form is because there is a need
for it. Information is very vital in present-day economy as it is meant for
several purposes. Anyone who is informed cannot be deformed. The
usefulness of information cannot be overemphasized because the
difference between the rich and the poor people today is as a result of
access to vital information being utilized.
Knowledge: Knowledge is regarded as a deeper meaning of

information. It could be seen as a complex experience, knowledge, and
skills acquired over a period of time. It is a fluid of experience gained in
the workplace. A scenario where you read an article or book and the
information contained in it helps individuals to understand the
circumstance surrounding the story therein. The information acquires
about the story that was told in the book or article read is now resident
in your mind and when you apply it, it becomes knowledge in your
brain. Knowledge is what enables every individual to accomplish all
tasks in the organization.
Wisdom: Wisdom is the deeper root of knowledge. A better

understanding of wisdom is through its application. Knowledge acquired
results in wisdom. Wisdom operates within knowledge acquired over a
period of time. When experiences are shared and it happens that the
experiences possessed by an individual are deeper and better to solve a
problem, we could regard that as someone with wisdom. Wisdom is not
hidden as they are usually shared among folks and friends. Therefore, as
students continue to learn in any higher education institution, what
enables them to excel and become outstanding in their grades is wisdom
over experiences gained over a period of time.
29
2.4 Processes of Knowledge Management
Knowledge management has become so essential that without its

processes, its application in the organization becomes difficult. The
processes of knowledge management vary in context and range from
acquisition, storage, distribution, and use (Gonzalez & Martins, 2017).
Knowledge management processes involve different activities that assist
the organization to accomplish tasks. These tasks could be enabled
through the application and use of knowledge in the organization.
Knowledge management processes is a continuous practice in which one
form of knowledge is transformed into another (Dhamdhere, 2015b;
Alegbeleye, 2010; Mutula and Mooko, 2008)). Therefore, the support to
transform knowledge from tacit to explicit and vice-versa becomes
important. In the same vein, Dhamdhere (2015b), Alegbeleye (2010);
and Mutula and Mooko (2008) identified the following as the processes
of knowledge management, which include: knowledge acquisition and
generation, knowledge capture, knowledge organization, knowledge
storage, sharing and application. A description of the processes of
knowledge management can be viewed in the image and videos below.
Fig.17: Knowledge management processes

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Knowledge-management-
processes_fig3_334367961
(i) Knowledge acquisition: By knowledge acquisition, we imply the act

of searching for the right knowledge and possessing it for personal and
organizational use. Knowledge acquisition denotes the act of seeking in
30
order to know then acquire. When employees seek knowledge, it means

they have a need for it. Gonzalez and Martins (2017) note that due to the
intra-organizational process that takes place in the organization,
employees seek knowledge through the creation of tacit and explicit
knowledge. The act of seeking knowledge starts with the individual and
it moves gradually into the organization. We individuals seek for
knowing by way of first identifying, thereafter absolving the information
and knowledge from the external knowledge source (Gold et al., 2001).
To this end, Gonzalez and Martins (2017) further note that knowledge
acquisition is the creation of knowledge within the organization.
Different processes of learning, training, teaching, practices, mentoring,
taking responsibility, and supporting one another could be regarded as
ways through which knowledge acquisition takes place. The learning
processes according to Zollo and Winter (2002) imply taking
responsibility for administrative activities of working routine and self-
motivated competence among employees because it enables them to
improve in their routine adjustment.
Fig.18: Knowledge Acquisition

https://physicscatalyst.com/graduation/methods-of-acquiring-
knowledge/
(ii) Knowledge Storage: By knowledge storage, we refer to the stored

knowledge in our mind or brain. It can also be established that
knowledge storage can be found in the organizational memory and
system which comprises policies, databases, and routines. The stored
knowledge of the individual and organization give the value that
surrounds the rules, structure, and culture practiced in the organization
(Alavi & Leidner, 2001; Argote et al., 2003). Knowledge stored could
31
be found in books, CDs, an institutional repository (Igbinovia & Ikenwe,

2017). The essence of storing this knowledge (explicit and tacit) is to
use it to support the coordination of tasks or job descriptions, the
development of staff members in the organization. Organizations and
individuals have been shown to store knowledge in different ways.
Some of the ways include human beings, that is, in their brain, culture,
repository, Structure show to store set of rules, orders, and qualities
which makes the functional model (Igbinovia & Ikenwe, 2017).
Fig.19: Knowledge storage

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Figure1-Knowledge-storage-
media-and-its-features_fig1_50392297
Lin (2007) elucidates that knowledge storage point toward the

translation procedure that involves grouping, configuring, storing and
combining the knowledge in the instruction to enable future use by those
in need of it. Information technology (IT) has shown to play a key role
in the applications of encoding the knowledge, such that it can be
shared. Another thing to be considered is the formation of communal
knowledge directories through networks of users (Alavi & Leidner,
2001). This made Rowley (2001), Thompson and Walsham (2004) and
Huysman and Wulf (2006) to draw inference to the significance which
(IT) has over knowledge retention strategy. Huysman and Wulf (2006)
note that, organizations would continue to create knowledge such that it
could be stored for use transformational purpose. The purpose that led to
knowledge storage was to bring about its sharing among colleagues in
the organization.
(iii) Knowledge Distribution: Knowledge distribution denotes the

procedure through which novel information from diverse sources are
collectively shared. The rationale is to bring about the conception of
innovative knowledge, which must be understood like information (Lee
& Yang. 2000). Lee and Yang (2000), mentioned the distribution
32
processes requiring organization to assemble what they have created.

Some of the ways through which knowledge could be disseminated is
through group discussion, transfer among folks, when teaching and
learning is ongoing, giving a talk, sending emails, publishing research
papers among others. It is not enough to say that organization has
adequate ownership of knowledge when it is not shared. The
organization ought to safeguard the movement of knowledge such that,
learning processes among individuals, should result to improved work
performance (Yuan et al., 2010).
Fig 20: Knowledge Distribution

https://www.dataversity.net/distributed-knowledge-marketplace/
Levine and Prietula (2012) mentioned different ways knowledge could

be distributed and they are self-learning, contact to contact basis among
individuals, performance relations, group discussion, communities of
practice and exchange of information and usage of languages language
(Brown & Duguid 2001). Other forms listed by Levine and Prietula
(2012) are through tacit and explicit knowledge exchanges. Due to the
fact that knowledge is most significant for use in the organization, the
need to circulate it becomes imperative. The essence of such distribution
is for correctness and critical analysis whether it is most accurate or
refined.
Fig.21: Knowledge Distribution

https://www.dataversity.net/distributed-knowledge-marketplace/
33
(iv) Knowledge Use: Knowledge use has to do with putting the

knowledge acquired into use in the organization. The use of knowledge
could be for diverse purposes: carrying out job performance, writing
research paper, developing and delivery lectures, developing lecture
notes and modules for students among other factors. Ganzaroli et al
(2016) note that, knowledge use is the capacity through which the
individual owner of the knowledge put it into use. The knowledge use
could be to trace, contact, and develop personal knowledge such that,
the information and knowledge stored are fully put into use in a
recognized and unfamiliar memory systems. Knowledge cannot be left
on its own, rather put into use, hence the essence of its creation. A
scenario where students write their assignment, carry out research work
and put their brain into reading in preparation for examination and other
activities in the university system, they are putting.
Fig 22: Knowledge Distribution

https://conxpros.com/knowledge-is-power-when-put-to-use/
Knowledge use can also be integrated into the expansion of innovative

knowledge such that, modernization, conception, and present knowledge
are used for making decision. Therefore, the use of knowledge cannot be
undermined in any context and organization, due to the unequal
atmosphere of knowledge where decision is required. The same applies
to developing business opportunities through exploratory character of
the individual. The primary focus of knowledge use is to create
innovative knowledge that could enhance job performance of the
individual (Ganzaroli et al., 2016; Nooteboom et al., 2007).
34
Fig 23: Context of Knowledge Distribution Hundt et al., 2014)

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Examples-of-context-knowledge-
use-Hundt-et-al-2014_fig7_310301250
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FNS1lE5ncns
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CahRZsG9nOI
2.5 Techniques of Knowledge Management
By technique, we imply the strategies through which knowledge

management is practiced in the organization. Techniques vary in
context, and content based on what needs to be achieved. Some of the
ways or technique, knowledge management is practiced could be seen as
identification of knowledge of employees by evaluating what they know
and how capable they are in their job performance. Capturing the
knowledge is very crucial such that, it could be evaluated,
retrieved/harnessed, and shared among other colleagues to meet
organizational goals and objectives. When employees apply different
strategies of knowledge management, it becomes easy to identify,
capture, evaluate, retrieve, and share individual and organizational
knowledge.
35
Fig 24: Knowledge management technique

https://blog.hslu.ch/majorobm/2020/04/01/kne-knowledge-management-
part-3/
The techniques applied in KM varies on the tasks that require

employee’s expertise (Ogiela, 2015). The techniques used for
knowledge management in the organization could be categorized as
identification, codification, procedures, designs, operating guidelines,
marketing, and identifying. These the individual in the organization uses
for documenting, managing, and operational practices in the
organization. Based on this analogy, the figures below also represent
different way knowledge management techniques are applied in the
organization.
Fig 25: Techniques of knowledge management-Different methods

http://www.greenesconsulting.com/services/list-services/knowledge-
capture-retention
36
The representation of the above image indicate that techniques used in

knowledge management vary in context and goals of the organization. It
could be deduced that different methods apply to different tasks. In this
regard, applying the same procedure to knowledge application might not
work for the same task, hence certain training and exposition are
required, since employee expertise differs in the organization.
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sVtMC3GkMr0
This made Ghani (2009) refers to brainstorming, community of

practices, face to face interations, training, staffing and knowledge
gatekeepers as techniques that could be applied in knowledge
management by employees. Rao (2012) refers to continuous review of
work operations, monitoring and evaluation of staff tasks,
operationability, taking inventory, training, support staff system, and
attitude as techniques of knowledge managementt. The understanding
obtained from this assertion is that the student could apply several
strategies in their module study such that, their preparation for future
tasks could be well balanced in exposition to knowledge had while in
the university.
2.6 Tools of Knowledge Management
A general understanding of the term tools means a device or instrument

which could be held in someone hand and used to carry out a specific
and general roles, activities and functions in the organization or
household. A good example of tools is shown in the image below. These
tools are used for general and specific work operations in the
organizations. The tools used by one individual might not be the same
tools that can be used by another person. This attributes to the
specification of tasks or jobs that need to be carried out. Tools are very
crucial in accomplishment of job description in the organization. It helps
to enhance and facilitate enormous task which might be difficult to
handle with the physical hand or mind. Tools helps to improve the
knowledge of the individual especially when applying tacit type of
knowledge in the execution of jobs in the organizations. The rationale of
the use of tools will assist students in diverse way, especially using tools
such as the computer system, pen, ruler, marker and drawing board to
support their teaching and learning and research interface in the
university.
37
Fig 26: Different tools for diverse purpose

https://www.google.com/search?q=Different+tools+&tbm=isch&ved=2
ahUKEwi0tbb65cP5AhWYg84BHV_9AHMQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=Different+tools+&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIFCAAQ
gAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIAB
CABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgARQAFi6
BGD4DWgAcAB4AIABkwOIAZMDkgEDNC0xmAEAoAEBqgELZ3
dzLXdpei1pbWewAQDAAQE&sclient=img&ei=LZb3YvTqNZiHur4P
3_qDmAc&bih=657&biw=1366&rlz=1C1GCEA_enZA993ZA993#img
rc=yly4QbQvFTjSCM&imgdii=s3xZJNSysnCNmM
Nevertheless, regarding the tools for knowledge management, Ghani

(2009) notes that it has to do with systems created to manage
knowledge-intensive procedures in order to have a successful
functionality in the organization. Knowledge management has an
extensive variety of operations in the organization, as such, applying
information technological (IT) tools to support the activities become
essential. Such information technology tools are meant to support the
creation, processing, storing, sharing, and dissemination of knowledge
that has been modified in the organization.
Fig 27: Components of tools

https://www.google.com/search?q=Components+of+tools+&tbm=isch&
ved=2ahUKEwiJpcvj5sP5AhXS44UKHXz3CH0Q2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=Components+of+tools+&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIG
CAAQHhAIOgUIABCABDoGCAAQHhAFOgQIABAYUJANWJAN
38
YOIUaABwAHgAgAGOAogBmASSAQMyLTKYAQCgAQGqAQtnd
3Mtd2l6LWltZ8ABAQ&sclient=img&ei=Cpf3Yon4GdLHlwT87qPoB
w&bih=657&biw=1366&rlz=1C1GCEA_enZA993ZA993
Some of the tools through which knowledge is managed in the

organization according to Harineeswaran, Nithyanandam and Muthu
(2015) are Metadata, electronic document management, Groupware,
help desk technologies, information retrieval tools, intranet, extranets,
Machine learning, Mapping tools, computer-based Portals, work flow
management systems, agents’ technologies, data analysis, data ware
housing. Ghani (2009) also noted knowledge management tools of
system tools, collaboration tools, Video conferencing, database
management systems, E-mail, Social network analysis, face-to-face
facilitation, data warehousing, groupware and knowledge portals.
Fig 28: Knowledge management tools

https://www.google.co.za/search?q=Tools+OF+KNOWLEDGE+MAN
AGEMENT+++image&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiIwunXsOP2AhXfY
vEDHT12DrEQ2-cCegQIABAA#imgrc=wdZM8YEtceh84M
Harineeswaran, Nithyanandam and Muthu (2015) states that knowledge

management tools are used for different purposes in the organization.
Some of the operations or activities which surround what knowledge
management are used for are: Convera tool used for recovery software,
semantic mapping back up demonstration of information, investigation,
and decision making. Ontology tools allow users to create information
and knowledge by collections of the different organizational knowledge
bases. Employees being drivers of the organization due to the
knowledge they possess, also require the support of some of the
mentioned knowledge management tools. These knowledge
management tools play different key roles as used by employees.
Other activities or functions mentioned by Harineeswaran,

Nithyanandam, and Muthu (2015) are business intelligence, online
searching, information retrieval, knowledge extraction, mining texting,
interpreting, documentation and process modeling. Wiki, Web 2.0,
39
content repository, social software, knowledge visualization, decision

support and data warehouse were other form of knowledge management
tools used in the operations of activities in the organization (Ngai &
Chan, 2005; Oliva & Kotabe, 2019). Students offering this module
should be able to attempt using some of these knowledge management
tools to enable information retrieval in metadata and intelligent
knowledge transfer of information among other folks. This would enable
them to advance better on how to source for information and knowledge
in meeting their information needs.
The students are expected to create time to watch the link of videos to
enable them have better understanding of explanations of the concept of
each variable discussed in the modules. See video below.
1.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5odLZA1mAFY
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-
BUHHPS8AXs
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bhgx-
qbIMOg
2.7 Components of Knowledge Management
By components we imply the mechanisms through which knowledge is

managed in the organization. Omotayo (2015) refers to knowledge,
people, processes and technology as key components required in the
sustainability of the organizational growth and transformation (Desouza
2011). The organization depends largely on these components to
survive. For instance, there is no way activities in the organization could
function on their own hence knowledge is required to act and take
decision. The knowledge required could not have effect if people who
are the holders of the knowledge do not also act. The other consideration
are processes and technology, which comprises of policy, routines,
organizational knowledge and facilities that help the individual to
function if they are retired. The technology serves as enabler to the
accomplishment of the goals.
40
Fig 29: Knowledge management components

https://todayfounder.com/components-of-knowledge-management-best-
guide/
Looking at the components mentioned, connecting people, processes,

and technology together for the purpose of enhancing knowledge
become essential in the organization. This made Baloh, Desouza, and
Paquette (2011) allude to having the ability to manage the right
knowledge, otherwise, its plans become fruitless, hence appropriating
people, processes and technology together. The essence of integrating
people, processes, and technology together in the organization is to
collect organizational information and knowledge hidden in people,
processes, routines, policy and practices.
Fig 30: Knowledge management components

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Knowledge-Management-
Components-and-Sub-elements_fig3_319567412
41
Fig 31: Details of knowledge management components

https://toolkits.knowledgesuccess.org/toolkits/km/operationalizing-km
The understanding in the above represented figure is simplified below

according to Sun and Scott (2005); Baloh, Desouza, and Paquette (2011)
and Desouza (2011).
(i) the process: Process in the organization is an activity supported

through the enabler of people. The process is judiciously followed on
the basis that the organization developed the consciousness that people
would work together as team creating zeal to place knowledge sharing
as top priority. Processes oversee work in the organisation and it is so
serious that it cannot be undermined with regards to the operation-ability
of the organisation. Consequently, KM program should first be
recognized before the processes of safeguarding the position of humans
and that of the machines is carried out. When the process is well
followed, there is the assurance that inputs and outputs of information
and knowledge resources are feasible. What the authors imply here is
that, the knowledge shared among colleagues cannot just flow on its
own, rather there are processes that must be followed. The reason is that
the knowledge shared comprise of fluid of experiences valued in
different context based on expert insight provided there is an existing
framework that help knowledge workers to operates. The second
consideration is people.
42
Fig 32: process involved in KM components

https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/design-
process
(ii) People: People are the foundations through which knowledge are
obtained. The capability through which humans articulate ideas resulting
to productivity of work performance depends on experiences acquired
over a long period. The capacities of human being is valued over several
sources of knowledge. People are both creators and consumers of
knowledge. People depend on individuals based on numerous sources
they have also accessed on a day-to-day basis.
Fig 33: people that are involved in KM components

https://www.quickanddirtytips.com/articles/people-or-persons/
(iii) Strategy: Strategy has to do with using different approach or route
by knowledge worker in arriving at a suitable solution with regards to
solving the organizational and individual problem. Strategy depends on
the capability of the individual to try, retry continuously before arriving
at the best options. No strategy is the best, as there could be numerous
43
strategies to managing knowledge of the employees and that of the

organization.
Fig 34: Strategy involved in KM components

https://www.b2bsustainable.com/the-comparison-of-corporate-
strategy-vs-business-strategy/
(iv) Technology: Technology is a useful enabler and opening

component of knowledge management plan in the organization. The
advance of information and communication technologies (ICTs), has
helped to accomplished greater heights in the activities of knowledge
management practices where colleagues use different technological
tools to collaborate and facilitate work processes among team members.
Irrespective of the geographical location, knowledge could be dispersed
through the support of ICTs. ICTs can also be used in the categorization
of knowledge, integration, instructiveness, and communication. This has
made the Internet the footstone of all knowledge works in the
organization. Since the advent of technology, many knowledge works
have become much easier and better resulting in meeting diverse
customers ‘information needs. Technology is not the primary focus of
sharing knowledge in the organization, rather it is the people concerned.
If the people in the organization refuses to share what they know,
technologies cannot function on their own. The only possible way
through which technology could be of help is when the people
concerned are willing and able to use it to spread the coverage of such
knowledge exchanges.
44
Fig 35: Technology involved in KM components

https://www.process.st/checklist/technology-essay/
Technology is a tool for advancing and supporting task in the

organization. It requires adequate ability to learn and unlearn how its
operations is carried out. Therefore, for undergraduate students to make
the use of any technologies, such as artificial intelligence, Robotic
Process Automation (RPA), Internet of Things (IoT), intelligent Apps,
5G, machine learning, Blockchain, cognitive computing. These are
associated with Biotechnology, Nuclear Technology, communication
technology, electronics technology, medical technology, mechanical
technology and materials technology.
Knowledge management has shown to serve the organization in diverse

ways. Employees rely on it as engine oil that greases the effort of task
carried out on daily basis. This has made employees in remaining
steadfast especially in harnessing, acquiring, storing, distributing and re-
use the knowledge they possess in meeting diverse customers, and
individual and organizational needs. Knowledge management has
become a sinequanon in present-day libraries and information centres.
The purpose of this explanation is that, there is no organization
including libraries that could function without knowledge because
invariably all that happens in the organization is all about managing
both explicit and tacit knowledge used to drive organization activities.
Although certain application technological tools have been of great
support through enablers of human knowledge.
45
Self–Assignment Exercise
Attempt these exercises to measure what you have learnt so far. This
should not take you more than 5-10 minutes.
1. List the various kinds of knowledge management components
2. Why do you feel the knowledge management component is of
importance in the present information and knowledge
economy?
2.8 Summary
This unit examined the topology, processes, techniques, tools and

components of knowledge management. The explanation given in this
text is based on how the variables has become usefulness for the
advancement of work operations. The variables should be able to assist
students to understand their studies from a broader perspective of how to
handle their academic work perfectly, because knowledge encompasses
knowledge revitalizations. In strengthening this unit, it could be notice
that, the topology of knowledge management made us to have a clear
look of the anatomy of knowledge management, where issues such as
data, being raw materials not yet processed was discussed. The data later
become information on the basis that, it has the quality for execution of
action irrespective of the contexts, organization and individuals handling
it when it has already been processed. The information when fully
digested, give result to profound and better meaning of decision taken in
the organization with relation to job descriptions. When certain
situations become difficult to handle in the workplace considering the
fluid of experience applied and no way forward, wisdom become the
final alternative to user in focus hence deeper root of knowledge. A
better understanding of wisdom is through its application because
sometimes you tend to know more than expected only when operations
of activities is in place.
Knowledge cannot be quantified because it yields to the results in

wisdom. Wisdom operates within knowledge acquired over a period of
time. This phenomenon gave root to the process of knowledge
management where employees continue to acquire, store, distribute and
re-use the knowledge they possess in meeting diverse users and
organizational needs. Knowledge management processes does not work
in isolation rather in different activities that could assist the
organization. In order to have a more profound knowledge management
processes, application of certain technique of knowledge identification,
capturing, evaluating, retrieving and sharing is of utmost importance.
This will help know what each employee is capable of in terms of their
know-how in the organization.
46
Another discussion had in this unit which is of importance are

knowledge management tools, and components. We were made to
understand a tool means a device or instrument which could be held in
someone hand and used to carry out a specific and general role,
activities and functions in the organization or household. A good
example of a tool is iron, hammer, scissor, needle, shovel, cutlass, a
computer, a car, just to mention but a few. These tools have shown to
accomplish general and specific work operations in the organizations.
The tools are used by individual based on the instruction and directives
given. Tools are very vital in the achievement of certain job description
in the organization. It helps to enhance and facilitate much jobs which
might be difficult to handle with the physical hand or mind. Tools helps
to improve the knowledge of the individual especially when applying
tacit type of knowledge in the execution of jobs in the organizations.
Knowledge management tools have shown to play different roles as

used by employees. Some of the activities or functions which
knowledge management tools could handle are online searching,
information retrieval, knowledge extraction, mining texting,
interpreting, documentation and process modeling. Most of the
knowledge management tools used today by knowledge experts in the
organizations are Wiki, Web 2.0, content repository, social software,
knowledge visualization, decision support and data warehouse. These
have been used in the sustainability of job operations in the
organizations. In conclusion people, processes and technology have
shown to be key components that cannot be undermined in the
sustainability of the organizational growth and transformation. To
advance students’ career pursuits, there is a need to pay close attention
to some of the issues discussed here because they will help pull through
in their academic goals and become sustainable even while in the
workplace.
2.9 Glossary
1. Technologies of artificial intelligence, Robotic Process

Automation ( RPA), Internet of Things (IoT), intelligent Apps,
5G, machine learning, Blockchain, cognitive computing are now
part of knowledge management and libraries
2. Organizational drivers of data, information, knowledge and

wisdom are crucial in the sustainability of job performance
3. The processes of knowledge management vary in context and

range from acquisition, storage, distribution, and use
47
Self-Assessment Exercise
The students should attempt the following questions:

1. Identify the topology of knowledge management and write short
notes on them?
2. What do the processes of knowledge management entail
3. Identify and discuss three (3) techniques that could be applied in
knowledge management in any organization?
3. What are the various knowledge management tools and what use
does it have in library and information centers operations?
4. Identify and discuss three components of knowledge
management?
Cleveland, H (1982). Knowledge Management Topology: The Futurist,

December 1982 p. 34-39,
http://www.ddavid.com/groundzero/km3.htm
Ghani, S. R. (2009). Knowledge Management: Tools and Techniques,

DESIDOC Journal of Library & Information Technology, 29,6,
33-38
https://publications.drdo.gov.in/ojs/index.php/djlit/article/view/27
6
Gonzalez, R. V. D., & Martins, M. F. (2017). Knowledge Management

Process: theoretical-conceptual research. Gestão & Produção, 24,
248-265.http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0104-530X0893-15
Harineeswaran, V., Nithyanandam K., and Muthu, M. (2015).

Knowledge management, components, stages, tools, and their
strategies for academic libraries in modern era, “Knowledge
Librarian”- An International Peer Reviewed Bilingual E-Journal
Of Library And Information Science Volume: 02, Issue: 01,
http://www.klibjlis.com/2.1.1.pdf
Igbinovia, M. O. and Ikenwe, I. J (2017). Knowledge Management:

Processes and Systems, Journal of Information and Knowledge
Management, 8 (3) Pg 26 - 38 ISSN: 2141 – 4297
https://www.academia.edu/79807940/Knowledge_management_
processes_and_systems
Macintosh, A., Filby, I., & Kingston, J. (1999). Knowledge management
techniques: teaching and dissemination concepts. International
journal of human-computer studies, 51(3), 549-566.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S10715819
99902793
48
Ngai, E. W., & Chan, E. W. C. (2005). Evaluation of knowledge

management tools using AHP. Expert systems with
applications, 29(4), 889-899.
https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1016/j.eswa.2005.06.025
Oliva, F. L., & Kotabe, M. (2019). Barriers, practices, methods and

knowledge management tools in startups. Journal of knowledge
management.
https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/JKM-06-
2018-0361/full/html
Omotayo, F. O, (2015). Knowledge Management as an important tool in

Organizational Management: A Review of Literature" (2015).
Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal). 1238.
http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/1238
Rao, M. (2012). Knowledge management tools and techniques.

Routledge. https://www.routledge.com/Knowledge-Management-
Tools-and-Techniques/Rao/p/book/9780750678186
49
2.11 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise
1. The various kinds of knowledge management components are

people, technology, process and strategy
2. The knowledge management component is of importance in the

present information and knowledge economy because without
these there is no organization that could survive. For instance,
people are the carriers and drivers of the organizational products,
services, innovation and sustenance through the information and
knowledge they possess. The technology support and enhance
the services rendered as the employees cannot do many work or
activities with their physical hands. The process entails
application of guidelines, procedures and policy for which they
maintain their job execution. While the strategy connotes
approach for which they success is achieved in the organization.
With all
50
UNIT 3 PRACTICES AND APPLICATION

(ORGANIZATION OR BUSINESS CONTEXT) OF
Unit Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.3 Practices of Knowledge Management
3.4 Application of Knowledge Management
3.5 Summary
3.6 Glossary
3.1 Introduction
In previous unit 2, we considered topology of knowledge management,

processes, techniques, tools, and components of knowledge
management. These are the building blocks through which knowledge
management was formed. These factors cannot be undermined for any
prospective students of library and Information Science. The mentioned
factors are utilized to govern the operations carried out in the
organization, including libraries and information centres. In the present
unit 3, we shall be looking at practices of knowledge management and
its application regarding job specification of librarians and other experts
in information systems. The reason behind this analogy is that, these are
critical factors surrounding the discussion of knowledge management
because most of all the activities in the organization comprises of
managing information and knowledge of the individual and that of the
organization.
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Discuss the practices of knowledge management
• Describe how knowledge management can be applied in the
organization
3.3 Practices of Knowledge Management
The practices of knowledge management (PKM) has to do with putting

into action what has been visualized, learned, stored and known by
employees in the organizations. It means practicing what employees
know in the organization through enabler of their individual tacit
knowledge. Sometimes, it become difficult for employees to practice
51
knowledge management when they do not even understand what it

entails. Drawing analogy from previous discussion made by Agrawal
and Mukti (2020) knowledge management has to do with the principles
of governing the techniques which experts use to meet business
operations. The techniques that experts use involves knowledge
initiatives, time frame, risk, expanding the scope of their task, efficiency
and effectiveness and preparedness of their mind (Agrawal & Mukti,
2020).
Fig 36: Best practices in KM

https://www.google.com/search?q=best+practices+in+knowledge+mana
gement&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjxq8mQhcf5AhUrxIUKHY6vDTE
Q2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=Best+practices+in+Knowledge+M&gs_lcp=CgNpb
WcQARgAMgQIABAYUABY8gVgiyFoAHAAeACAAesCiAGWDJI
BBTItMi4zmAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWfAAQE&sclient=img&
ei=hUn5YrHVAquIlwSO37aIAw&rlz=1C1GCEA_enZA993ZA993#im
grc=wpSofrCZzvMVgM
The idea behind knowledge management is to ensure that the

organization through enabler of tacit and explicit knowledge could carry
out different operations to (Ahammad, 2018; Jokanović, Okanović, &
Lalić, 2018; Agrawal, & Mukti, 2020). The practice of knowledge
management cannot be carried out if users are not sure of what to do
especially applying tacit knowledge which employee possess. Since
knowledge management entails the process that help individuals or
employees to find, select, organize, disseminate and transfer information
and knowledge in the organizations, employees need to learn how these
selection, organization, dissemination and transfer of information and
knowledge take place.
52
A better interpretation of the practices of knowledge management can be

likened to what medical doctors do at the hospital, where they use their
tacit type of knowledge in treating and diagnosing patients having one
ailment or the other. Medical doctors use their tacit type of knowledge
to internalize during when surgery is ongoing in the hospital, even
though they apply some support technique of the use of technologies in
their investigations and analysis of results. The understanding obtained
from this analogy is that, medical doctors are given the opportunity to
call for patient medical files and used the information in the files based
on the complain of the patients, coupled with the tacit knowledge of the
medical doctors to diagnose the symptoms to provide treatment that
could be helpful to the patients.
When this has been done, the doctors would then recommend certain
medications that could assist the patients in getting rid of the symptoms,
or ailment in the patient body. This act could be regarded as knowledge
management because all the medical doctors does is use his tacit and
explicit knowledge to proffer solution to identified problem in patient
body. The same applies to what happened in any other organization,
where staff members use their tacit knowledge in re-organizing and
finding solutions to problem or meeting needs of users on daily basis.
Fig 37: KM analysis through different approaches

https://www.ttec.com/asiapacific/knowledge-management
Another scenario which could be likened to what employees do when

practicing knowledge management in the organization is what lawyers
do in the law court. Having read different or several articles, in
accordance with the stipulated law, they find the most suitable
information, select, organize, and share it to support their client. The
essence is to ensure they win the case before them. It is very important
53
for lawyers to be well informed on best approach to tackle cases that

come to them, otherwise they will remain out of the market, that is, not
getting clint.
To remain relevant is crucial because it will give clients the assurance of

a better verdict when having a case in the law court. One of the ways
through which employees practice knowledge management is assisting
one another to internalize issues difficult to handle. This would help
create new knowledge that could serve a better result any time they are
confronted with certain a decision and not sure who to turn to in the
organization. In so doing, they collect information from different
sources, reorganize and share it to suit their information needs.
Fig 38: Dimension of KM practices

https://www.skyrme.com/kmpractices/index.htm
Knowledge management practices assist the organization in diverse

ways. First, it helps individuals in the organization to learn from each
other during meetings and teamwork. Second, based on aligned policy
and routines decision-making becomes easy to handle. Third, the
practices of knowledge management give employees the required tools
to arm themselves when confronted with certain task difficult to handle.
Third, there are certain dynamism which led to successful
implementation of continuous knowledge sharing even though staff
members were not willing to do so. Fourth, the stored knowledge in the
human brain assist in the execution of task without any compulsion to
do so, because the mind where the tacit dwells is ever ready to engage in
discourse. Fifth, the explicit knowledge found in paper form due to
continuous reading of newspapers and books has made the tacit to
become much richer in terms of knowledge acquisition. This is
associated with many tasks being given to employees because if you do
not engage the brain with so many tasks, there is the tendency that it
may be obsolete and not very active as expected. Therefore, knowledge
54
management practices require continuous engaging of the brain for

several activities and duties. Some of the activities of knowledge
management practices involves identifications, organizing of task to be
carried out, storing of explicit and tacit knowledge and disseminating
knowledge and information among employees.
Other activities that could result to knowledge management practices

according to Agrawal and Mukti (2020) are identification of a problem,
then initiate a program to solve the problem. There is also need to
understand the extent and causes of the problem. When this has been
done, there is need to explore the possible way out, through the scale of
knowledge sharing and the result obtained from other colleagues would
go a long way in finding the solution to the identified problem.
Knowledge management practices helps employees to learn in the
organization because to some employees who are newly recruited, they
need to learn the culture, policy and practices of how operations take
place. This is applicable to undergraduate students, as they are supposed
to follow suit when they are newly registered for any course in the
university. This would help them to adapt to the practices of activities
that take place in the system.
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K-
G_4ZYDinY
2.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2M8N0cBfgN8
3.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hIr6QL47DHo
Ways through which knowledge management is practiced in the

organization
55
Fig.39: Practices of knowledge management

https://www.quandora.com/7-knowledge-management-best-practices-
bring-success-2019/
Fig.40: SECI model of knowledge management practices

https://pt.slideshare.net/hiranabe/agilejapan2010-keynote-by-ikujiro-
nonaka-phronetic-leadership
Fig 40 of SECI model indicate that through the various ways of

socialization, externalization, internalization and combination, the
practices of knowledge management could take place among colleagues
based on the job they are doing in the organization. This model
proposed by Nonaka and Toyama (2003) should not be undermined
when considering the practices that revolves round knowledge
management among staff members.
56
3.4 Application of Knowledge Management
By application we mean the process of acting or responding to needs of

individual or the organization. The ways through which employees act
or respond to certain situation requiring their expertise, tacit and explicit
knowledge is application of knowledge management in the organization
(Garfield, 2018). When employees interact with one another to create a
learning setting such that, they gain from each other through knowledge
sharing approach we could regard it to be the application of knowledge
management (Garfield, 2018). The application in question rotates round
knowledge of the employees depending on what need is mostly
required.
Fig 41: Application of KM

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Application-of-Knowledge-
Management-in-Public-
Wiig/7390988d0ad5d9dbfd18633cdca8fcaaa2b2182c
The need of the organizations varies from social, economic, political,

technological and routine wise. Therefore, irrespective of the clusters of
information needs of the organization, it is expected that employees
should at all times respond to any call no matter the circumstances
surrounding their calls. The essence of the knowledge application is to
enhance and transform the organization for productivity’s sake. The
application of knowledge management ensures that all knowledge
whether tacit or explicit are well managed for better quality service
delivery in the organizations. Application of knowledge management
could be applied into various phases of communities of practice,
methodologies, knowledge creation, knowledge capture, knowledge
reuse, knowledge valuation, lessons learned and proven practices
(Garfield, 2018).
57
Fig 42: Application of knowledge management takes various forms.

Management-in-Management-
Vaezi/46ac1a38a80f0d4f8391d29cd7cbeb18c5a6a0b2
Another good example through which application of knowledge

management could take place are represented in the image below. In this
regard, students could apply their knowledge into many things, such as
study their modules, write examinations, conduct research and develop
themselves more into better promising individuals that would be useful
to the society and their family. The application of knowledge
management cannot be overemphasized because everything that
happens in the organization comprises of application of either tacit or
explicit knowledge as represented in the model postulated by Nonaka
and Toyoma.
Fig 43: Ways of knowledge management application

Management-in-Public-
Wiig/7390988d0ad5d9dbfd18633cdca8fcaaa2b2182c/figure/0
58
Fig.44: Ways of knowledge management application

https://www.google.com/search?q=innovation+lifwe+cycle&tbm=isch&
ved=2ahUKEwjGm839jcf5AhUOKBoKHbJzBWEQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=innovation+lifwe+cycle&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzoI
CAAQgAQQsQM6CAgAELEDEIMBOgUIABCABDoECAAQQzoHC
AAQsQMQQzoLCAAQgAQQsQMQgwE6BAgAEB46BggAEB4QBV
DeC1jYNmDnQmgAcAB4AIAB_QOIAZA-
kgEJMi05LjguNS4xmAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWfAAQE&sclie
nt=img&ei=zVL5YoaBC47QaLLnlYgG&rlz=1C1GCEA_enZA993ZA
993#imgrc=38Vc963UMqQdQM
Fig 45: Application of knowledge management takes different

dimension
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Applications-of-Knowledge-
Management_tbl2_284467919
59
Fig 46: Ways of knowledge management application

https://stangarfield.medium.com/knowledge-reuse-process-
a5ce5e96a37b
Fig 47: Collaboration as knowledge management application

https://attaconsult.com/2015/01/20/collaboration-is-everything/
1.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SvEcTEB9ajQ
There is no way we could substantiate what the practices and

applications of knowledge management entails even if given a longer
and better time. The practices and application of knowledge
management among employees, of which libraries and information
centers are inclusive, the factors of production which now resulted in the
use of tacit and explicit knowledge by workers in the organization have
made the world a better place to live in. Many companies today have
flourished due to the practices of sharing uncommon knowledge which
could have been difficult to harness ordinarily. Reports from different
empirical studies have shown the involvement of the two variables
60
leading to global enterprises where teaching, learning and research

activities, has infiltrated into all sectors, of health, engineering, aviation
among others too numerous to mention.
3.5 Summary
The practices of knowledge management as far the organizational tasks

are considered cannot be measured considering enormous activities that
is ongoing on daily basis. The enormous activities have become lighter
due to application of tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge, which are
even more difficult for employees to practice especially if employees are
not ready to open up to share what they know. The principles behind the
practices of knowledge management were to eradicate risk and expand
knowledge initiatives, scope of task, efficiency, effectiveness and
preparedness of employees’ mind.
It is interesting to note that, the practice of knowledge management

become vague especially if employees do not know what to do. The
reason is that, since knowledge management involves the method which
individuals or employees use to find, select, organize, disseminate and
transfer information and knowledge in the organizations, employees
need to continue to reskill in order to learn and unlearn how this
selection, organization, dissemination, and transfer of information and
knowledge take place. A better interpretation of the practices of
knowledge management could be attributed to what the medical doctors
do at the hospital, where they use their tacit type of knowledge in
treating and diagnosing patients having one ailment or the other.
Medical doctors use their tacit type of knowledge to assume when

surgery is ongoing in the hospital, even though they apply some
techniques of the use of technologies in their investigations and analysis
of results. The understanding here is that medical doctors has the
opportunity to interact with patients and their files, which is similar to
what employees do in the organization applying certain procedure and
policy is discharging their roles. In the same vein, the application of
knowledge management ensures that all knowledge of tacit and explicit
are well managed for better quality service delivery in the organizations.
The rationale of application of knowledge management is to ensure that,
communities of practice, methodologies, knowledge creation,
knowledge capture, knowledge reuse, knowledge valuation, lessons
learned and proven practices are well articulated in the organization.
61
3.6 Glossary
1. Storytelling, teamwork is ways knowledge management could be

applied in the organization
2. SECI model of socialization, externalization, internalization and
combination, are best practices of knowledge management
1. What other practices do you think knowledge management could

be inculcated
2. Has the KM practices improved organizational performance
among colleagues?
Garfield, S. (2018). What are the applications of knowledge

management?https://stangarfield.medium.com/what-are-the-
applications-of-knowledge-management-fcc97da622d4
Igbinovia, M. O. and Ikenwe, I. J (2017). ‘‘Knowledge Management:

Processes and Systems’’, Journal of Information and Knowledge
Management, 8 (3) Pg 26 - 38 ISSN: 2141 – 4297,
https://www.ajol.info/index.php/iijikm/article/view/167179
62
1. Considering the diversity of knowledge management discipline, it

can be inculcated into other fields like law, engineering,
medicine, music among others. The reason is that, what makes it
interesting is the tacit and explicit knowledge utilized for every
activity in each of these field of study mentioned.
2. KM practices has improved organizational performance among

colleagues because intuitive knowledge of individuals is tapped
and shared among colleagues and when there are challenges,
colleagues brainstorm to see what the problem is and quickly
resolve it.
63
MODULE 2 KNOWLEDGE SHARING IN LIBRARIES
Unit 1 Definition, Objectives, and Methods of

Knowledge Sharing
Unit 2 Techniques (Capturing/Acquiring,
Organising, Distributing) and Tools of Knowledge Sharing
Unit 3 Implications of Knowledge Sharing In
Libraries
UNIT 1 DEFINITION, OBJECTIVES, AND METHODS OF

KNOWLEDGE SHARING
Unit Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.3 Definition of Knowledge Sharing
1.4 Objectives of Knowledge Sharing
1.5 Methods of Knowledge Sharing
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.1 Introduction
In the previous unit 3, we considered practices of knowledge

management and application of knowledge management with regards to
job specification among employees, librarians and other information
systems experts.
In the present module 2, unit 1, we shall be looking at definition of

knowledge sharing, its objectives and methods through which
knowledge sharing take place. Knowledge sharing has become a key
factor where employees express their thought and understanding based
on the years of experiences, knowledge, skills and attitude towards their
job description. Organizations have shown to benefit from employees
sharing what they know best and competing over their competitors or
counterpart.
By the end of this unit, students registered for this course should be able
to:
• Define knowledge sharing
64
• Explain the objectives of knowledge sharing

• Identify and discuss the methods of knowledge sharing
1.3 Definition of Knowledge Sharing
Knowledge sharing is not a new phenomenon globally, although still

new to some developing nations of the world and individuals working in
certain organizations, hence the need for this discussion. Empirical
studies have substantiated the definition of knowledge sharing and why
it is imperative for individuals and organizations to employ its practices.
Even the term knowledge sharing is now common among individuals
and organizations, its practices are rigorous to imbibed.
Fig 48: Knowledge sharing

https://slideplayer.com/slide/8331154/
Knowledge sharing could be seen as a common entity for people (Ipe,

2003) but looks intricate and complicated when addressed. For this
reason, it is expected that students should have different reasons for
which they would like to share their knowledge with each other,
especially during the cause of their studies and research activities.
65
Fig 49: Goal/approach of Knowledge sharing

The understanding surrounding knowledge sharing implies that certain

processes are involved especially since it is between two or more
people, where the individual ideas are converted to suit the purpose for
which they get involved. Individuals share their knowledge to meet
different information needs. Without this understanding, knowledge
sharing cannot hold effect among people in the organization. Some of
the purposes for which people share knowledge is for communication
with two or more people, advancement of work performance, personal
development, team work, training and support for others.
Fig 50: Another dimension of Knowledge sharing

https://www.google.com/search?q=concept+of++knowledge+sharing&t
bm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiap5a3k8f5AhUNxhoKHV0-CzQQ2-
66
cCegQIABAA&oq=concept+of++knowledge+sharing&gs_lcp=CgNpb
WcQAzIECAAQGDoECAAQQzoFCAAQgAQ6BggAEB4QBzoICAA
QHhAIEAc6BggAEB4QCFDYC1iXQWCxRGgAcAB4AIABmwOIAb
kfkgEHMi03LjUuMZgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclie
nt=img&ei=hFj5YprVBY2Ma938rKAD&bih=597&biw=1242&rlz=1C
1GCEA_enZA993ZA993
Ipe (2003) notes that the converted knowledge of one individual could
form another new knowledge which could be used to solve certain
problem in organizations. Knowledge sharing has shown to assist
individual with different task because in the cause of sharing
(Cummings, 2004), those concerned must have gained from one another
the knowledge they needed at that point in time. It could be envisaged
that knowledge sharing lead to collaboration with others to solve
difficulties, advance innovative ideas, and plan the processes of work
activities (Cummings, 2004).
Previous studies by Cummings (2004); Janz and Prasarnphanich, (2003)

and Gray (2001) were of the view that, certain element that could
encourage knowledge sharing among people in the organization and
these are: contextualization, motivation, core factors, mutuality,
relationship, training programs, team works, technology-based systems,
social networks, and culture. These factors were considered due to their
effect on deploying the individual to unveil what they have in their
mind.
The expectation is that when knowledge is shared, especially transitions

from tacit to form explicit among people based on what they thought in
their minds. The explicit being that it is rooted in organizational
procedures and norms, helps to advance work performance carried out
since the procedures and policy are followed. The recipient is expected
to gain more knowledge since the host of the carrier does know more
than he/she thought they know. These do not unravel until someone is
engaged in discourse and conversations/interactions with people. But
through the effort and support of different technological devices many
of this knowledge could be harnessed and stored.
67
Fig 51: KS brings creativity among colleagues

https://knowledge.insead.edu/leadership-organisations/the-power-of-
knowledge-sharing-3496
Motivation and organizational culture have shown to have a lot of

influence when it comes to knowledge sharing among people in the
organization, because even if the individual does not want to share what
they know, motivation from external factors, either the boss or friends
could propel the individual to share. There are scenario where
organizational culture forces individual to share what they are not
supposed to shared and because they must respond to certain work
activities, what they know are revealed. Bellefroid (2012) is of the view
that codification is very important when it comes to knowledge sharing,
otherwise it would be difficult to attest to what has been shared
considering languages barriers and the recipient of the knowledge.
Bellefroid (2012) consider storage of the shared knowledge so that it
will not get lost hence technological devices is recommended.
Another intriguing point raised by Gaál, Szabó, Obermayer-Kovács &

Csepregi (2015) was societal constituent and personalization which has
relationship with the way people unite and interconnect with one
another. when codification of what the employee knows has taken
effect, through their work performance, personalization is ushered in to
see how the individual is going to apply their knowledge in the
actualization of the task given to them. When these are done, social
networks become the end point through which the knowledge circulates
within the organization among experts. This is usually not common with
those are not members of the organization. Knowledge sharing is very
crucial in every organization irrespective of its type and context. The
effort put in place in sharing what employees has help to advance
competitive advantage over other competitors (Gaál, Szabó, Obermayer-
Kovács & Csepregi, 2015).
68
1.4 Objectives of Knowledge Sharing
Knowledge sharing has become so crucial that it differently should serve

a purpose hence this segment of the objectives of knowledge sharing
among colleagues of different classes in libraries and information
centres and other related corporate organizations. Stringer (2020) refers
to what knowledge sharing is capable of doing among individuals in
their work performance and personal development. Stringer (2020)
notes that when knowledge is shared, it would enhance balancing better
productivity on a continuous basis. The reason is that, the knowledge
shared was based on cooperation and collective effort among
employees.
Another remark made by Postolache (2017) regarding the objectives of

knowledge sharing in the organizations are:
• Organizational problems are solved based on shared tacit and
explicit knowledge
• Shared knowledge is used by employees to carry out their roles
and responsibilities
• Enhanced and better decision made is through uncommon shared
knowledge of employees
• There is overhauling of the systems through shared knowledge
• There is stimulation and application of innovative transformation
in the organization
• There is good result based on customers satisfaction of their
information needs through findings solution to identified problem
of customers
• There is reduction of effort and cost due to application of know-
how of employees
• There is reliance with one another due to openness and
cooperation of employees
• Everybody works together for one purposes and goal even they
might not like each other
According to Gaál, Szabó, Obermayer-Kovács N and Csepregi A.

(2015), social media has facilitated and promoted knowledge sharing in
diverse ways such that employees do not need to struggle to look for
information and knowledge when the need arises. Many shared
information and knowledge are now on open space of cloud computing
where they could be harvested without much stress by employees and
organizations. The understanding surrounding the objectives of
knowledge sharing is that it would help students irrespective of their
various level of study to support each other in sharing what they have
been taught. By this, it is expected that they would excel in their
academic progression.
69
Gaudioso (2020) alludes to the following elements of invention and

development, engagement, alignment of work activities, access to quick
thinking, speedy delivery of timeous job performance, easy and fast
communication among colleagues. There is also a clear indication that
the shared knowledge would help to unveil constraints encountered by
employees and possibly students studying towards their degree
qualifications. Another important factor according to Gaudioso (2020)
regarding the objectives of knowledge sharing is that it gives employees
assurance of the procedures and processes required in carrying out job
descriptions in the organizations.
1.5 Methods of Knowledge Sharing
By methods of knowledge sharing, we imply ways through which

knowledge could be disseminated to others who need it. The
understanding of this segment regarding methods of knowledge sharing
indicates that there are various ways or methods through which
knowledge could be shared among staff members.
Chau, Maurer & Melnik (2003) assert that some of the methods through
which knowledge sharing could be carried out are storytelling,
mentoring, coaching, and action reviews. These have become so crucial
that individuals could learn from each other.
Another view made by Fernie, Green, Weller, and Newcombe (2003)

regarding the methods of knowledge sharing is that, it varies from one
individual to another and from one context to the other. It could be
envisaged that the purpose might differ too, as some individuals do not
want to share what they know with others. In this regard, the manager of
the organization based on the organizational culture could instruct
people to work together as team members and in that process, they have
no choice but to contribute their portion as a way of sharing what they
know. There are some essential and hidden ideas which unveil in that
process.
The approach that the manager or boss of the organization might adopt
could differ considering factors of seniority and policy as a way to
transform the organization. The method adopted by any individual does
not really matter, provided the purpose of carrying out such practices is
achieved (Fernie, Green, Weller, and Newcombe (2003). Therefore, as
student continue to pursue their academic desire, the need to adopt and
apply certain method of sharing knowledge becomes important as it
would help to support them throughout their stay at the higher institution
of learning.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0N-p0NirwCY
70
Fig 52: Storytelling as ways of sharing knowledge in the

organization
http://storytellinginorganizations.com/
This figure represents a practical story telling method of sharing
knowledge among colleagues.
71
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v3VCFuxz0l8
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2M8N0cBfgN8
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_JKLdPbABIQ
It was established in this segment that knowledge sharing has become a

panacea to meeting organizational needs. This results when employees
share their thoughts and ideas to solve an organizational problem. The
expectation of this unit is to encourage and promote continuous
knowledge sharing among students and colleagues in the organization.
We could establish that the practices and application of knowledge
sharing among employees are difficult especially when people who
work in the organization are from different backgrounds, races,
religions, and belief systems. Nonetheless, when there is mutual
understanding among colleagues, it is expected that knowledge sharing
could be attained. The report of the unit expects that no matter the
circumstances surrounding what happens, students and colleagues
working in the different sectors should be innovative in their thoughts to
support one another through knowledge-sharing practices.
1.6 Summary
The practices surrounding knowledge sharing, its objectives and

methods of sharing cannot be overemphasized. Knowledge sharing has
become a global phenomenon that cannot be avoided in the
organization. This implies that for individuals, organization and any
economy to grow they need to use their intellectual capital to grow and
sustain the activities of continuous buying and selling where information
and knowledge are required for the production of good and services.
Empirical evidence established that, there is no living entity in this
world that could survive on his/her without establishing the sharing of
their personal knowledge with others. Therefore, in this regard
knowledge sharing should be a normal culture among individual in all
works of life.
The reason that necessitates application of this concept of knowledge

sharing in this unit is that, it would assist students irrespective of their
background to share together what they have learnt, such that, advancing
in their studies would not be a difficult thing for them. Without
72
knowledge sharing students would not know where they are wrong or
right, especially having to do with critical issues under discourse in their
studies. The principles behind the practices of knowledge management
are for individuals to share their knowledge to enhance their personal
and organizational growth. The desire to share what you know would
enrich and eradicate uncertainties and increase knowledge initiatives, for
task efficiency and effectiveness.
1.7 Glossary
1. Knowledge sharing are the apparatus for strengthening

transformation and growth in the organization
2. SECI model of socialization, externalization, internalization and
combination, are best practices of knowledge management
1. How do you see knowledge sharing in the organization.
2. In what ways has knowledge sharing supported you as a student in
your career pursuit at the National Open University of Nigeria?
Assignment File
1. Discuss what you understand about knowledge sharing in the
context of library and information centres?
2. Identify and write short notes on five (5) objectives of knowledge
sharing
3. What are the various methods through which knowledge sharing
could be carried out among employees in library and information
centres?
Chau, T., Maurer, F., & Melnik, G. (2003, June). Knowledge sharing:
Agile methods vs. tayloristic methods. In WET ICE 2003.
Proceedings. Twelfth IEEE International Workshops on Enabling
Technologies: Infrastructure for Collaborative Enterprises,
2003. (302-307). IEEE.
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Knowledge-sharing%3A-
agile-methods-vs.-Tayloristic-Chau-
Maurer/26cc18a8fca7dfbc7563a7605fd698416be64feb
73
Coffey, J. W., Hoffman, R. R., Cañas, A. J., & Ford, K. M. (2002). A

concept map-based knowledge modeling approach to expert
knowledge sharing. Proceedings of IKS, 212-217.
https://www.ihmc.us/users/acanas/Publications/IKS2002/IKS.ht
m
Cummings, J. N. (2004). Work groups, structural diversity, and

knowledge sharing in a global organization. Management
science, 50(3), 352-364.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/30046072#metadata_info_tab_conte
nts
Fernie, S., Green, S. D., Weller, S. J., & Newcombe, R. (2003).

Knowledge sharing: context, confusion and
controversy. International Journal of project management, 21(3),
177-187.
https://researchportal.hw.ac.uk/en/publications/knowledge-
sharing-context-confusion-and-controversy
Gaál Z, Szabó L, Obermayer-Kovács N and Csepregi A. 2015.

“Exploring the role of social media in knowledge sharing” The
Electronic Journal of Knowledge Management, 13 (3), (185-197)
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289991763_Exploring_
the_Role_of_Social_Media_in_Knowledge_Sharing
Gaudioso, K 2020. 6 benefits of knowledge sharing in your enterprise

organization, https://www.easy.movie/blog/benefits-of-
knowledge-sharing-in-your-enterprise-organization
Gray, J. R. (2001). Emotional modulation of cognitive control:

Approach–withdrawal states double-dissociate spatial from
verbal two-back task performance. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: General, 130(3), 436.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11561919/
Ipe, M. (2003). Knowledge sharing in organizations: A conceptual

framework. Human resource development review, 2(4), 337-359.
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1534484303257985
Janz, B. D., & Prasarnphanich, P. (2003). Understanding the antecedents

of effective knowledge management: The importance of a
knowledge‐centered culture. Decision sciences, 34(2), 351-384.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1540-
5915.02328
74
Nonaka, I., o Nonaka, I., Ikujiro, N., & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The
knowledge-creating company: How Japanese companies create
the dynamics of innovation (Vol. 105). OUP USA.
https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-knowledge-
creating-company-9780195092691?cc=za&lang=en&
Polányi, M. (1966). (1983) The Tacit Dimension. Gloucester, MA: Peter

Smith.
https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/T/bo6035368.
html
Postolache A. (2017). 5 Benefits of Knowledge Sharing within an

Organization, https://www.quandora.com/5-benefits-knowledge-
sharing-organization/
Stringer G. (2020) 7 reasons why knowledge sharing is important

https://gethownow.com/blog/7-reasons-why-knowledge-sharing-
is-important/
75
1. Knowledge sharing is very important and it is every day activities

in the organization. The moment employees enter into the office
in the morning to when they close for the day, they share
knowledge with one another irrespective of their different
routines and positions occupied. Through this act of sharing their
tacit knowledge and consultation they interact by way of gaining
and renewing what they already know to unknown.
2. Knowledge sharing has supported students in diverse ways even in

their career pursuit at the National Open University of Nigeria.
The ways differ in their interactions with fellow students, during
group discussion and attending classes, engaging with their
supervisor in research project work among other factors. The
extent to which students share their knowledge with one another
cannot be quantified especially in this era of digital technologies
where diverse technological tools facilitate such practices.
76
UNIT 2 TECHNIQUES (CAPTURING/ACQUIRING,

ORGANISING, DISTRIBUTING) AND TOOLS OF
KNOWLEDGE SHARING
Unit Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.3 Techniques of Knowledge Sharing
2.4 Tools of Knowledge Sharing
2.5 Summary
2.6 Glossary
2.1 Introduction
In the previous module 2, unit 1, we considered the definition of

knowledge sharing, objectives and methods of knowledge sharing
among employees in the organizations. The need for this discussion
becomes imperatives considering the nature of work performance
requiring infusing diverse skills and knowledge of employees to
transform the workplace. The implication of this analogy is that it would
help students to deepen their thoughts and imagination on application of
sharing what they knowledge in order to acquire new knowledge in their
academic pursuit.
In the present module 2, unit 2, we shall be looking at the techniques

and tools used in knowledge sharing. Knowledge sharing is a factor that
enhances production of goods and services in any corporate world. It has
become a useful tool through which every individual could grow and
become independent in the organization, as such, the need to emulate
sharing what we know to acquire new knowledge become essential. On
this basis organizations should encourage the practices of knowledge
sharing among employees as it has a lot of benefits towards
organizational growth and transformation and becoming globally
competitive with your competitors sharing what they know best and
competing over their competitors or counterpart.
to:
• Explain the techniques of knowledge sharing
• Discuss how the various knowledge sharing tools are used in
different platform
77
2.3 Techniques of Knowledge Sharing
By techniques we imply strategies through which knowledge sharing

could be employed. Techniques vary from one individual to another and
organization to another because the technique that might work best for
one individual might not be the same that could work best for another
individual. Navimipour and Charband (2016) note that a comprehensive
and systematic experiences among senior colleagues is very important
technique used to share knowledge.
The reason is that, this class of individuals has a lot of exposition and
knowledge to share based on the number of years they have work in the
organization. Another remark made by Razzak and Ahmed (2014) refer
to distributed agile projects which employees are involved in. With
these in mind, they share what they know with each other as a team
member ensuring that they support each other till the project is
completed. Irrespective of the challenges faced but because the team is
working together, the project is expected to be completed. This
technique is such a unique one as everyone is involved in sharing what
they know best and they do not work in isolation.
Fig 53: Methods of Knowledge Sharing

https://www.thecloudtutorial.com/knowledge-sharing-methods/
Another point raised which is also very useful and crucial in the present
information and knowledge economy is the one by Mayfield (2010)
which relates to where tacit knowledge is shared among colleagues to
support programs for personal development such as reward programs,
cultural influence in the organization, mentoring, group meeting,
workshop and seminar, and international collaboration. This program is
believed to equip colleagues, especially by sharing professional ethics
and value-added information on how best to do their jobs and render
services.
78
The value placed on some of these techniques is crucial because most of

the time, facilitators and consultants are invited to come and speak and
their quality and experiences are worth sharing with one another. The
feedback obtained from these techniques of sharing knowledge has
helped colleagues in diverse ways, especially in areas where they are
having difficulty with their work practices. It is therefore important that
students should emulate these types of programmes, especially with the
ones outside their school environment. It is believed that when these
techniques are judiciously applied it would enhance and broaden
student’s horizon and career pursuit globally.
Fengjie, Fei and Xin (2004) allude different application of management

theories which is based on competition among colleagues. The essence
of this approach is that when colleagues compete it is expected that their
best would be provided given the fact that certain attributes or benefits is
attached (Fengjie, Fei & Xin (2004). Khan and Vorley (2017) were of
the view that the idea of capturing, organizing and distributing could be
another form through which knowledge are shared among colleagues in
the organization. Most of the activities of work performance come in
this diverse form. The form of technique indicate that what is not
captured cannot be shared and what is not organized will also be
difficult to share as well. Same with distributing because what has been
captured from individuals and or through the system could only be
validated, organized, and distributed among people for the purpose of
use to meet organizational needs.
Fig 54: Increase KS in the organization

https://www.thecloudtutorial.com/knowledge-sharing-methods/
2.4 Tools of Knowledge Sharing
Tools are very important in any task that needs to be accomplished. The
term tools could be regarded as an instrument that could be held and
used to carry out specific and general functions in the organization.
79
Although several tools exist worldwide. For the purpose of this segment
and unit, we shall be considering the tools for knowledge sharing and
this comprises of the following
Tools have been shown to improve the knowledge-sharing practices

among individuals, especially when applying the tacit type of
knowledge in the execution of jobs in the organization. The rationale of
the use of tools in knowledge sharing would assist students in a diverse
way, especially using tools such as the computer system, pen, ruler,
marker, and drawing board to support their teaching and learning and
research interface in the university.
Craig (2015) establishes that there are various types of tools that can be
used for the sharing of knowledge in the organization. This depends on
the type of knowledge that needs to be shared and its purpose. The
knowledge mostly shared among individuals is tacit and explicit dues to
the value attached and the tasks that require accomplishment. Some of
the tools mentioned which could be used according to Craig (2015) are
intranet and extranet normally used within the organization for
interaction and communications. The intranet is very useful because it
serves as a social platform for service delivery within and outside the
organization.
Most of the communications that take place inside organizations today

use mostly the intranet and extranet. There were other types of tools
used for knowledge sharing today and they comprise collaborative
online applications technologies (Bowley, 2009), web-based tools
(Storey et al, 2014), web 2.0 (O'Reilly & Battelle, 2009), social
networking tools (Storey et al, 2010); Blogs, SlideShare, Skype, Google
Docs, Facebook, LinkedIn, YouTube, and video sharing (Carnagey,
Anderson & Bartholow, 2007; Bowley, 2009; Storey et al, 2010; Vuori,
2011; Jalonen, 2001; Kaplan and Haenlain, 2010; Denyer et al, 2011;
Kietzmann et al, 2011; Fournier and Avery, 2011).
80
Fig 55: KM Tools and Techniques

https://monday.com/blog/monday-workdocs/knowledge-management-
tools
Some other tools which could be used for knowledge sharing according
to Jalonen, (2014) are google drive, cage, Mash-ups, Microsoft one
drive, zoho, slack, concept board, momentum, Wikis, groupware/shared
workspaces. The various types of tools mentioned which are now used
for knowledge sharing offer opportunities of participation, socialization,
and accountability with colleagues based on the connection established
(Bonson and Flores, 2011; Postman, 2009; Kaplan and Haenlain, 2010;
Denyer et al, 2011; Kietzmann et al, 2011; Fournier and Avery, 2011).
The expectation of this segment in the unit is for students studying
towards their degree in library and information science and other related
courses/program should endeavour to familiarize themselves with the
use of some of these tools especially sharing their knowledge with their
fellow students and friends.
In this unit, it was established that different techniques relate to different

purposes of sharing knowledge among colleagues. The essence of
applying some of the identified techniques in this unit is to meet
different organizational needs. It could be seen that some of the
techniques vary from one context to another and organizations because
organizations have or apply different goals in order to have diverse
results as well. It was also found that the sharing of knowledge has been
made easier through application of different tools of intranet, extranet,
collaborative online applications technologies, web-based tools, web
2.0, social networking tools, Blogs, SlideShare, Skype, Google Docs,
Facebook, LinkedIn, YouTube, and video sharing. These have support
individual in their personal desires to that of organizational growth thus
81
resulting to transformation and ease of access and quality service

delivery. With this in mind, users of libraries in present information and
knowledge economy and other corporate organization do not need to
struggle to reach out to buying of products and offer services due to the
use of some of these tools globally. Students are encouraged to practice
the use of these tools to market and share information and knowledge
among their folks.
2.5 Summary
The observation towards the application of the techniques discussed in

this unit and tools show that certain performance is required in order to
achieve the goal of this unit. The understanding which surrounds the
application of the technique of knowledge sharing and tools used for the
same sharing cannot be quantified due to the evolving nature of
activities of the two variables. The value positioned towards the time
consciousness, facilitators, consultants, quality assurance, and
experiences are worth more than what they were supposed to do for the
individual in sharing what they know to enhance their job descriptions.
As techniques of personal development which include reward programs,
cultural influence, mentoring, group meetings, workshops and seminars,
and international collaboration differ within and between the
organizations, so the tools used for sharing individual and organization
knowledge. The reason is that, these are meant to serve different
purposes and programs in the organization, thus professional ethics and
value on the staff members.
2.6 Glossary
1. Tools are important in accomplishment of task in the

organization and they vary with job description
2. Techniques are the act of brainstorming applied by employee in

ensuring job descriptions are harness and delivered.
1. How can some of the identified knowledge sharing tools be used for
academic purposes at the National Open University of Nigeria?
2. Why is the knowledge of the use of the knowledge sharing tools
important to student academic pursuit
82
2.7 Tutor-Marked Assignment
1. Discuss some of the techniques that could be used in

understanding and applying knowledge sharing in the context of
libraries and information centres?
2. Identify and discuss the various tools of knowledge sharing that
you are most comfortable with in this unit?
Bonsón, E., & Flores, F. (2011). Social media and corporate dialogue:
the response of global financial institutions. Online information
review, 35 No. 1, 34-49, DOI 10.1108/14684521111113579,
https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/emerald-publishing/social-media-
and-corporate-dialogue-the-response-of-global-financial-
XwNbq2lvGH
Bowley, R. C. (2009). A comparative case study: Examining the

organizational use of social networking sites (Doctoral
dissertation, The University of Waikato).
https://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/handle/10289/3590
Carnagey, N. L., Anderson, C. A., & Bartholow, B. D. (2007). Media

violence and social neuroscience: new questions and new
opportunities. Current Directions in Psychological
Science, 16(4), 178-182.
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-
8721.2007.00499.x
Craig W. (2015). 3 Tools to Encourage Knowledge Sharing at your

Company https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/252486
Denyer, D., Parry, E., & Flowers, P. (2011). “Social”,“open” and

“participative”? Exploring personal experiences and
organisational effects of enterprise2. 0 use. Long Range
Planning, 44(5-6), 375-396.
11000483
Fengjie, A., Fei, Q., & Xin, C. (2004, September). Knowledge sharing
and web-based knowledge-sharing platform. In IEEE
International Conference on E-commerce Technology for
Dynamic E-business (pp. 278-281). IEEE.
_sharing_and_individuals'_effectiveness_in_educational_instituti
ons
83
Fournier, S., & Avery, J. (2011). The uninvited brand. Business

horizons, 54(3), 193-207.
11000024
Jalonen, H. (2014, November). Negative emotions in social media as a

managerial challenge. In European Conference on Management,
Leadership & Governance (pp. 128-135). Academic Conferences
International Limited.
https://www.academia.edu/9489776/Negative_emotions_in_socia
l_media_as_a_managerial_challenge
Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M. (2010). Users of the world, unite! The
challenges and opportunities of social media. Business
horizons, 53(1), 59-68.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222403703_Users_of_t
he_World_Unite_The_Challenges_and_Opportunities_of_Social
_Media
Khan, Z., & Vorley, T. (2017). Big data text analytics: an enabler of
knowledge management. Journal of Knowledge Management.
https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/101046/2/Big%20Data%20Text%
20Analytics%20an%20enabler%20of%20knowledge%20manage
ment%20JKMfinalpost-review.pdf
Kietzmann, J. H., Hermkens, K., McCarthy, I. P., & Silvestre, B. S.

(2011). Social media? Get serious! Understanding the functional
building blocks of social media. Business horizons, 54(3), 241-
251.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227413605_Social_Me
dia_Get_Serious_Understanding_the_Functional_Building_Bloc
ks_of_Social_Media
Mayfield, M. (2010). Tacit knowledge sharing: techniques for putting a

powerful tool in practice. Development and Learning in
Organizations: An International Journal.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240257784_Tacit_kno
wledge_sharing_Techniques_for_putting_a_powerful_tool_in_pr
actice
84
Navimipour, N. J., & Charband, Y. (2016). Knowledge sharing

mechanisms and techniques in project teams: Literature review,
classification, and current trends. Computers in Human
Behavior, 62, 730-742.
_sharing_mechanisms_and_techniques_in_project_teams_Literat
ure_review_classification_and_current_trends
O'Reilly, T., & Battelle, J. (2009). Web squared: Web 2.0 five years on.
O'Reilly Media, Inc. https://www.kimchristen.com/wp-
content/uploads/2015/07/web2009_websquared-whitepaper.pdf
Postman, J. (2009). Social Corp: social media goes corporate. Peachpit

Press. https://www.peachpit.com/store/socialcorp-social-media-
goes-corporate-9780321580085
Razzak, M. A., & Ahmed, R. (2014, September). Knowledge sharing in

distributed agile projects: Techniques, strategies and challenges.
In 2014 Federated Conference on Computer Science and
Information Systems (pp. 1431-1440). IEEE. https://annals-
csis.org/proceedings/2014/pliks/280.pdf
Storey, M. A., Singer, L., Cleary, B., Figueira Filho, F., & Zagalsky, A.
(2014). The (r) evolution of social media in software
engineering. Future of software engineering proceedings, 100-
116.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264159722_The_REvol
ution_of_Social_Media_in_Software_Engineering
Vuori, V. (2011). Social media changing the competitive intelligence

process: elicitation of employees’ competitive knowledge.
https://trepo.tuni.fi/handle/10024/114537
85
1. Some of the identified knowledge sharing tools such as

groupware, data warehouse, intranet, document management,
decision support systems, work flow, can be used for academic
purposes of capturing information and data, storage of your
module, sharing of information and data with your fellow
student, network/communication with friends within and outside
and interact with supervisor at the National Open University of
Nigeria. The capacity of the tools is such that, it can
accommodate large volume of information.
2. The knowledge of the use of knowledge sharing tools is

important to students’ academic pursuit because it will help them
to navigate in the ambiance of that environment. Basic and
advance knowledge and skills of ICTs is crucial in order to use
any of the mentioned knowledge sharing tools for academic
purposes.
86
UNIT 3 IMPLICATIONS OF KNOWLEDGE SHARING IN

LIBRARIES
Unit Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.3 Main Content
3.4 Implications of Knowledge Sharing in Libraries
3.5 Summary
3.6 Glossary
3.1 Introduction
In the previous module 2, unit 2, we considered techniques and tools

used in knowledge sharing. The reason was due to how useful some of
these techniques and tools have played in facilitating knowledge sharing
is a factor of production of goods and services in the context of
corporate organization. In present module 2, unit 3, we shall be
considering the implication of knowledge sharing among employees in
the organization.
to:
• Explain the implications of knowledge sharing
• Discuss how knowledge sharing are used to foster transformation
among staff members
3.3 Implication of Knowledge Sharing in Libraries
By implications we refer to the influence or impact which knowledge

sharing could have on libraries and information centres and possibly the
staff members willing to share their knowledge with one another.
Knowledge sharing as a concept resonated from the broad field of
knowledge management and due to how important knowledge
management is to organization, colleagues have no choice other than to
share their knowledge to improve job performance. The implications of
knowledge sharing vary in context and content. Gregson, Brownlee,
Playforth and Bimbe (2015) indicate that knowledge sharing irrespective
of the organization is believed to enhance creativity, learning and work
performance.
87
Gregson, Brownlee, Playforth and Bimbe (2015) explained that when

colleagues share what they know together, certain uncertainty which
they are not sure of are resolved. The essence of the creativity, learning,
and work performance resulting from sharing knowledge was to bring
about the infusion of all their tacit knowledge to form new knowledge.
The implication of knowledge sharing brings impact on climate change

on the environment and how things are handled in the economy. It has
also brought changes to societal and individual career growth in the
organizations. Lam, Nguyen, Le, and Tran (2021) indicates that
knowledge sharing gave credence to building collective knowledge and
collaborative effort of colleagues, such that they would accomplish
many tasks in the organization. Another factor envisages as stipulated
by Lam, Nguyen, Le, and Tran (2021) is that it brings a better
understanding of how to handle things among people. This implies that
through community effort and learning culture that exists among
colleagues in the organization, there is the creation of better knowledge
retention practices leading to why to want to share. Through these
knowledge retention practice, people, connect to one another
unknowingly to them. Another fact is the sense of belonging seen
among the staff members. This sense of belonging shows they live
together as one person in the same family.
Note that, when looking at the implications of knowledge sharing, its

quantification cannot be exhausted because what happens at that point in
time is transferring tacit knowledge from one individual to another
(Ogiela, 2015). The fact that the transferred knowledge is
undocumented, you cannot tell the extent to which it is exhausted
because staff members continue to discuss it to infinity. Interestingly,
when this discussion is ongoing, salient words are shared which is
believed not to come out easily if colleagues are on their own. The
salient point raised or words heard when the discussion is ongoing or
knowledge shared are what is considered and used to solve a critical
problem which could have been difficult to handled ordinary. The
shared knowledge result to increased productivity, efficiency and
effectiveness of jobs performance.
88
Fig 56: Implication of Knowledge Sharing (Jae-Nam Lee, 2001)

44?via%3Dihub
Gregson, Brownlee, Playforth and Bimbe (2015) allude to increase

professional development of librarians in most academic library services
in Nigerian universities. This was on the basis that librarians choose to
share and work together as team members. Due to working together as
team members, collaboration is form among staff members even though
it was not part of their plan initially. This implies that, libraries being
knowledge mediators should work together and lead by example to form
encouragement to other staff members such that inclusivity is ensured in
the organization. Knowledge sharing has brought about using different
approaches to solving organizational problems and discoverability of
what colleagues are capable of doing and having exposition of known to
unknown things in the organization.
Hosseini and Hashempour (2012) refers to the use of Web 2.0 tools for
promoting and sharing knowledge among librarians in university
libraries. Most technological tools have begun to pave way for the
support of knowledge sharing such that, even while librarians are in
different geographical region, they could still reach each other through
this Web 2.0 tools. The use of Web 2.0 tools and other related digital
tools are new innovation in libraries today. Other points which could be
considered in this regard towards implications of knowledge sharing
according to El Harbi, Anderson and Amamou (2011) and Sitlington
(2012) is access to each staff member, restructuring, organizational
efficacy, efficiency and effectiveness of work performance, networking,
attribution of knowledge initiatives, among other factors has already
89
been established among staff members in the organization. In this

regard, students should not undermine the implication of knowledge
sharing as its attributes are unquantifiable in the present information and
knowledge economy.
The implications of knowledge sharing cut across diverse context,

organizations, climate change, how things are done, and the economy.
The reason that necessitates this is that changes have evolved in society
where human beings are involved and there is no way individual could
grow in their career progression when they do not share knowledge in
the organizations. This affords building collective knowledge that leads
to collaborative effort of colleagues based on the accomplishment of
many tasks in the organization. Therefore, as people continue to
understand each other better, the culture of knowledge sharing is
cultivated in the organization and society where we found ourselves.
3.4 Summary
The observation had towards the implication of knowledge sharing has

brought a lot of impact to climate change, societal and individual career
growth in the organizations. When people share their knowledge
together, it is expected that the collective and collaborative effort of
colleagues are ensured. Knowledge sharing brings knowledge retention
practices where people connect with one another even when it is not
planed. The implications of knowledge sharing leads to timeous transfer
of tacit knowledge from one individual to another. Interestingly,
outstanding words shared leads to accountability and solving critical
problem which could have been difficult to handled ordinary.
3.5 Glossary
1. Knowledge sharing has diverse implication but its practices are

important in the organization as its user growth and
transformation no matter the circumstances
2. Individual and environment serves as factor to climate change on
how knowledge sharing could be sustained
1. How will the implication of shared knowledge curb uncertainties
in the organizations?
2. Has knowledge sharing be sustained among staff members?
90
Assignment File
1. Discuss the implications of knowledge sharing in the context of

libraries and information centres?
2. who are the main people involved in knowledge sharing in
organization?
El Harbi, S., Anderson, A. R., & Amamou, M. (2011). Knowledge

sharing processes in Tunisian small ICT firms. Library Review.
https://rgu-repository.worktribe.com/output/248131/knowledge-
sharing-processes-in-tunisian-small-ict-firms
Gregson, J., Brownlee, J. M., Playforth, R., & Bimbe, N. (2015). The
future of knowledge sharing in a digital age: Exploring impacts
and policy implications for development (No. IDS Evidence
Report; 125). IDS.
https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/handle/20.500.12413/5946
Hendriks, P. (1999). Why share knowledge? The influence of ICT on

the motivation for knowledge sharing. Knowledge and process
management, 6(2), 91-100
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/%28SICI%2910
99-1441%28199906%296%3A2%3C91%3A%3AAID-
KPM54%3E3.0.CO%3B2-M
Hosseini, E., & Hashempour, L. (2012, September). The status of

librarians’ knowledge sharing by the usage of Web 2.0 tools: a
case study of central libraries of Tabriz governmental
universities. In International Symposium on Information
Management in a Changing World (pp. 128-137). Springer,
Berlin, Heidelberg.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280386723_The_Status
_of_Librarians'_Knowledge_Sharing_by_the_Usage_of_Web_20
_Tools_A_Case_Study_of_Central_Libraries_of_Tabriz_Govern
mental_Universities
Lam, L., Nguyen, P., Le, N., & Tran, K. (2021). The relation among
organizational culture, knowledge management, and innovation
capability: Its implication for open innovation. Journal of Open
Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity, 7(1), 66.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349465446_The_Relati
on_among_Organizational_Culture_Knowledge_Management_a
nd_Innovation_Capability_Its_Implication_for_Open_Innovation
91
Sitlington, H. (2012). Knowledge sharing: implications for downsizing

and restructuring outcomes in Australian organizations. Asia
Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 50(1), 110-127.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1744-
7941.2011.00003.x
92
1. The implication of shared knowledge is believed to curb

uncertainties in the organizations because what each employee
possess differs and by way of brainstorming and tackling the
problem together such challenges is resolved. Uncertainties are
bound to be in any organization but what is most interesting is
ability to resolve those challenges through acquired tacit
knowledge of the employees.
2. Knowledge sharing can be sustained among staff members if

there is openness, one mind and team work undermining the
context, race, religion and position which staff members occupy.
93
MODULE 3 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND

STRATEGIES
Unit 1 Concept and objectives of Knowledge

Unit 2 Types and functions of Knowledge
in libraries
Management Systems and Strategies in Libraries
UNIT 1 CONCEPT AND OBJECTIVES OF KNOWLEDGE

MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND STRATEGIES
Unit Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.4 Concept of Knowledge Management Systems and Strategies
1.5 Objectives of Knowledge Management Systems and Strategies
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Tutor-Mark
1.1 Introduction
In the previous module 2, unit 3, we considered implication of
knowledge sharing among employees in the organization. The reason
was due to how useful some of these techniques and tools have played
in facilitating knowledge sharing is a factor of production of goods and
services in the context of corporate organization.
In the present module 3, unit 1, we shall be looking at concept of

knowledge management systems and strategies, and methods of
knowledge management systems and Strategies.
to understand:
• Define the concept of knowledge management systems and

strategies
• Explain the objectives of knowledge management systems and
strategies
94
1.3 Concept of Knowledge Management Systems and Strategies
In order for prospective and resident students to understand and

appreciate the concept of knowledge management systems and
strategies, there is need to go back to the drawing board where we
considered knowledge management and from there, we should be able
to ascertain the various systems that could be used to manage
knowledge management and strategies through which they are applied
in the organizations. Therefore, on this note, we shall unveil the various
variables of knowledge management, systems, and strategies one after
the other.
Knowledge management is a multi-interdisciplinary field that cut across

science, business management, human resources, organizational
development, change management, information technology among
others (Serban & Luan, 2002). Serban and Luan (2002) relate it to
managing individual and organizational knowledge. To this end, the
author affirms that the processes through which knowledge within the
organization is captured, distributed, and used to maximize work
performance vary in context and content.
Fig 57: Organizational KM system

http://www.tlainc.com/articl83.htm
Agrawal and Mukti (2020) conceded knowledge management to the

principles that govern the techniques which experts use to meet business
operations. Ahammad (2018); Jokanović, Okanović, & Lalić (2018);
Agrawal and Mukti (2020) gave their views to how organization run
their operations using tacit and explicit knowledge. Ahammad (2018)
alludes to the process design to recognize, capture, structure, value,
influence, and share the organization's intelligent assets for enhanced
95
work performance of staff members. Jokanović, Okanović and Lalić

(2018) allude to the performance enabled through the application of tacit
and explicit knowledge utilization. The various analogies indicate that
the procedures, processes, practices, and policies guiding the knowledge
management actualization require certain systems that could help to
store and preserve the individual and organizational knowledge used for
work performance and progression of tasks in the organization. The
interpretation given regarding knowledge management brings us to
knowledge management systems and strategies required of its practices.
By systems, we imply the various form of tools and or technologies that

could be used to manage knowledge management from individual to
organizational level. A good example of some of those technologies or
systems are online community forums, research and insight forums,
enterprise-wide knowledge management systems among others. Maier
and Hadrich (2011) refer to knowledge management system as element
that could be used to manage knowledge capital. What is being manage
in this regard is the people, procedures and skills utilized by the
individuals. Chait (1999) alludes to the enablers of tools or technologies
strategically applied to help support individuals and organizations to
create an environment where knowledge management could be
sustained. There is no extent to which the effort of the systems could be
quantified on how many roles it plays in managing knowledge
management.
Tiwana (2000) gave credence to the kind of information technology (IT)

system that help to store and retrieves knowledge harvested from
individual and the organization. The information technology (IT) system
is built such that it could help to understand, process and collect various
form of tacit and explicit knowledge from members and other routines
in the organization. The knowledge management systems could
sometimes centres on activities carried out in the organization (Tiwana,
2000).
96
Fig 58: Types of KMS

https://www.thecloudtutorial.com/types-of-knowledge-management-
systems/
Another important point raised by Akhavan, Jafari and Fathian (2005)

note that machines and equipment’s could be used to manage
intellectual property of employees in the organization. The reason for
the use of these machines and equipment was based on the multifarious
tasks and responsibilities that employees are confronted with on daily
basis. Sharma, Wickramasinghe and Gupta (2005) refer to knowledge
management systems as different form of information technology tools
that could be used to harvest and stored knowledge of different kinds.
The essence of harvesting and storing knowledge of different kinds is
based on the information needs of the organizations. The different form
of information technology tools is believed to coalmine hidden
knowledge, then capture and use it to solve problems.
The understanding obtained from the various authors in this segment

indicate that, the usefulness of knowledge management systems cannot
be quantified. Collins, Huttunen, Evans and Robertson (2007) note that
the organization is not about information technology used to capture,
store and transfer knowledge but it is about the people and the
knowledge they carry. The knowledge they carry is what enables them
in actualizing their task. Although it is difficult to do away with the
information technology as it plays a significant role in the organization
and supports employees too in accomplishing their obligations. Some
knowledge management technologies that have supported individuals in
the organizations are groupware, intranet, and extranet, data warehouse,
and decision support systems, artificial intelligence, simulation tools,
and content management systems (Bali, Wickramasinghe & Lehaney,
2009). The process regarding the application of knowledge management
systems was on the understanding that staff initiatives and work
performance cannot be wasted, aborted, and undermine hence the use of
knowledge management to sustain the created knowledge in the
organization.
97
Fig 59: Types of knowledge management systems

https://paginas.fe.up.pt/~als/mis10e/ch11/chpt11-2bullettext.htm
The understanding of knowledge management strategy according to Earl

(2001) unveils a plan that describes the various ways through which an
organization could manage the available information and knowledge in
the organization such that the organization become more transform in
whatever the staff members are doing. This strategy is aligned with the
organization objectives and goals (Greiner, Böhmann, & Krcmar, 2007).
Fig 60: Knowledge flow process

https://www.searchunify.com/blog/7-ways-to-future-proof-your-
knowledge-management-strategy/
Desouza and Evaristo (2003) and Schulz and Jobe (2001) refer to the
use of codification strategy as a means of transferring tacit knowledge
into explicit. The reason for such codification strategy application was
for employees to have a grasp of the required knowledge needed to
execute task in the organization. Evidence based research has indicated
that this form of approach is very useful to employees and organization,
98
as it helps to solve problem of uncertainties. In knowledge management

strategies, the application of the following components or element is
very important. The need to motivate staff members, network to reach
out for easy accessibility to each other, analyze, disseminate, demand,
act upon instruction, invent ideas and augment different knowledge
management actions that were supposed to be carried out (Garfield,
2018).
Fig 61: Strategies of KM

https://sites.google.com/site/teacherknowledgeexchange/km-to-promote-
learning/strategies-and-models
The use of strategy is believed to provide an opportunity where

colleagues could learn from each other and at the same time create
awareness for better decision making and planning. Maier and Hadrich
(2011) note that the application of knowledge management strategies
has brought collaboration and dialogue through socialization emphasis.
It also leads to a change of individual mindset, centralization of
information and knowledge within the organization, and essential
motivation. In this regard, students should imbibe the culture of using
different systems and strategies to manage the available information and
knowledge they possess and the once in their institution, which is
embedded in their different study modules, procedures, policy, and
practices they are involved in the institution.
99
Fig 62: process of KM system

https://iso-docs.com/blogs/iso-concepts/knowledge-management-
system-iso-30401
1 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1K3mUa0-1Js
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SvEcTEB9ajQ
3 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RXbb87_M3vc
1.4 Objectives of Knowledge Management Systems and

Strategies
The objectives of knowledge management systems and strategies has to

do with the purpose for which knowledge management systems (KMS)
is used in the organization and strategies through which application of
initiatives was employed in execution of tasks to managed activities.
The reason that necessitates this analogy was due to the role each of the
identified knowledge management systems play and capability of the
systems, as not all knowledge management systems could function the
same way. Garfield (2018) states that, application of knowledge
management systems and strategies could help to discovery of new
100
talents of employees having diverse skills and know-how, which were

not seen with the naked eyes in the organization. This would lead to the
collection of various data and information already created by employees.
In the course of performing different tasks assigned to employees, they
end up creating new knowledge. The created knowledge is assessed,
validated and shared for application of work performance in the
organization (Garfield, 2018).
du Plessis (2008) established that knowledge management systems and

strategies lead to community of practice, achievement of different goals
irrespective of the culture that exist in the organization. Implementation
of successful knowledge management program was also mentioned
during du Plessis 2008) research activities. The successful knowledge
management program leads to answering employees’ questions
regarding some of the process, techniques and technology required in
ensuring optimum alignment of business operations and organizational
goals. The availability of process, techniques and technology assisted
employees to participate more in the activities ongoing in the
organizations.
Jokanović, Okanović and Lalić (2018) refer to successful knowledge

management project in the organization due to the support of the
available systems and strategies which employees applied in working
together as team. The knowledge management available systems and
strategies resulted in the development of a conceptual framework that
guided employees in most of the work they do in the organization.
Although certain challenges were experience considering the complexity
of the systems, but because they supported each other in putting together
those tacit and explicit knowledge, those challenges were resolved. This
implies that, a well-established organization is believe to flourish when
they were able to synthesize the understanding of how the knowledge
management systems and strategies were applied. Although the
formulation of strategies could differ from one individual to another.
There were other factors such as motivations, taking of inventory,

analyzing of job description, networking, codification of knowledge
among others that necessitated knowledge management systems and
strategies in present-day organizations, where information and
knowledge are key resources to achievement of their tasks or work
performance (Garfield, 2018).
Knowledge management systems and strategies are pivotal because it

can be used for the collection of various data and information already
created by employees. The tasks through which the knowledge
management systems and strategies could function are diverse in their
capability considering the performance of different tasks assigned to
101
employees. This has created more opportunity of acquiring new

knowledge, required to sustain and maintain their job profession.
1.5 Summary
It can be deduced from the unit that the concept of knowledge

management systems and strategies, can be drawn from a broad
perspective of scholars who have carried out diverse research practices.
It was established that knowledge management systems and strategies
are systems used for the processing, capturing, distributing, and
maximizing work performance in the organization. There is no
organization in present day context that can do without the use of
knowledge management systems and strategies. The understanding here
indicates that, the usefulness of knowledge management systems cannot
be quantified. It has helped organization to be more stable and versatile
based on what they have used it for in the organization. The reason is
that, the technologies can be used to capture, store and transfer
knowledge among employees. With this in mind, it is worth mentioning
that, the objectives of knowledge management systems and strategies
has helped the organization and colleagues to discover new talents of
employees having diverse skills and know-how, which were not
common among peers in the organization.
1.6 Glossary
1. Different technologies of online community forums, research and

insight forums, enterprise-wide are now used to support the
operations and services
2. People, procedures, strategies and skills utilizations are the
enable of the use of these technologies
3. The application of knowledge management systems and
strategies serve the purpose of discovery of new talents of
employees
1. As a library and information science student, what can you say about
your understanding of knowledge management systems and strategies
2. What are the objectives of knowledge management systems and
strategies in the organization.
Assignment File
1. Discuss the concepts of knowledge management systems and
strategies based on 3 authors’ point of view
102
2. Why do you think knowledge management systems and strategies

are of importance in the organization?
Agrawal, A., & Mukti, S. K. (2020). Knowledge Management & It's

Origin, Success Factors, Planning, Tools, Applications, Barriers
and Enablers: A Review. International Journal of Knowledge
Management (IJKM), 16(1), 43-82. https://www.igi-
global.com/article/knowledge-management--its-origin-success-
factors-planning-tools-applications-barriers-and-enablers/243638
Ahammad, S. K., & Rajesh, V. (2018). Image processing base

segmentation techniques for spinal cord in MRI. Indian Journal
of Public Health Research & Development, 9(6).
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326230121_Image_Pro
cessing_based_Segmentation_Techniques_for_Spinal_Cord_in_
MRI
Akhavan, P., Jafari, M., & Fathian, M. (2005). Exploring the failure
factors of implementing knowledge management system in the
organizations. Journal of knowledge management practice, 6.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255859037_Exploring_
the_Failure_Factors_of_Implementing_Knowledge_Management
_System_in_the_Organizations
Alavi, M., & Leidner, D. E. (2001). Knowledge management and

knowledge management systems: Conceptual foundations and
research issues. MIS quarterly, 107-136.
https://www.scirp.org/(S(351jmbntvnsjt1aadkposzje))/reference/r
eferencespapers.aspx?referenceid=1909976
Alavi, M., & Leidner, D. (1999). Knowledge management systems:

issues, challenges, and benefits. Communications of the
Association for Information systems, 1(1), 7.
https://aisel.aisnet.org/cais/vol1/iss1/7/
Bali, R. K., Wickramasinghe, N., & Lehaney, B. (2009). Knowledge

management primer. Routledge.
https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9780203894
712/knowledge-management-primer-rajeev-bali-nilmini-
wickramasinghe-brian-lehaney
103
Bukowitz, W., & Williams, R. L. (1999). The knowledge management

fieldbook. London, UK: Prentice-Hall.
https://www.scirp.org/(S(i43dyn45teexjx455qlt3d2q))/reference/
ReferencesPapers.aspx?ReferenceID=913169
Chait, L. P. (1999). Creating a successful knowledge management

system. Journal of Business Strategy.
https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/eb039991/
full/html
Collins, M., Huttunen, J., Evans, I., & Robertson, J. (2007). Illicit drug
profiling: the Australian experience. Australian Journal of
Forensic Sciences, 39(1), 25-32.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/246477593_Illicit_drug
_profiling_The_Australian_experience
Davenport, T. H., De Long, D. W., & Beers, M. C. (1998). Successful
knowledge management projects. MIT Sloan Management
Review, 39(2), 43. https://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/successful-
knowledge-management-projects/
Desouza, K., & Evaristo, R. (2003). Global knowledge management

strategies. European management journal, 21(1), 62-67.
https://econpapers.repec.org/article/eeeeurman/v_3a21_3ay_3a20
03_3ai_3a1_3ap_3a62-67.htm
du Plessis, M. (2008). The strategic drivers and objectives of

communities of practice as vehicles for knowledge management
in small and medium enterprises. International Journal of
Information Management, 28(1), 61-67.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223566075_The_strate
gic_drivers_and_objectives_of_communities_of_practice_as_veh
icles_for_knowledge_management_in_small_and_medium_enter
prises
Earl, M. (2001). Knowledge management strategies: Toward a

taxonomy. Journal of management information systems, 18(1),
215-233.
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07421222.2001.11
045670
Garfield, S. (2018), 10 Types of Knowledge Management Strategies,

https://stangarfield.medium.com/10-types-of-knowledge-
management-strategies-f947f28599a7#:~:text=Summary-
,Motivating%2C%20networking%2C%20supplying%2C%20anal
yzing%2C%20codifying%2C%20disseminating%2C,be%20com
municated%20to%20your%20organization
104
Greiner, M. E., Böhmann, T., & Krcmar, H. (2007). A strategy for

knowledge management. Journal of knowledge management.
https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/13673270
710832127/full/html
Jokanović, B. T., Okanović, A. V., & Lalić, B. (2018). Knowledge

management diagnosis in Vojvodina firms by using Bukowitz
and Williams model. Industrija, 46(4).
https://aseestant.ceon.rs/index.php/industrija/article/view/17740
Lin, C., & Tseng, S. M. (2005). The implementation gaps for the
knowledge management system. Industrial Management & Data
Systems. https://researchoutput.ncku.edu.tw/zh/publications/the-
implementation-gaps-for-the-knowledge-management-system
Maier, R., & Hadrich, T. (2011). Knowledge management systems.
In Encyclopedia of Knowledge Management, Second
Edition (779-790). IGI Global.
https://www.scirp.org/(S(czeh2tfqw2orz553k1w0r45))/reference/
referencespapers.aspx?referenceid=2907591
Schulz, M., & Jobe, L. A. (2001). Codification and tacitness as

knowledge management strategies: an empirical exploration. The
Journal of High Technology Management Research, 12(1), 139-
165.
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Serban, A. M., & Luan, J. (2002). Overview of knowledge

management. New directions for institutional
research, 2002(113), 5-16.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ir.34
Sharma, S. K., Wickramasinghe, N., & Gupta, J. N. (2005). Knowledge

management in healthcare. In Creating knowledge-based
healthcare organizations (pp. 1-13). IGI Global. https://www.igi-
global.com/chapter/knowledge-management-healthcare/7222
Tiwana, A. (2000). The knowledge management toolkit: practical

techniques for building a knowledge management system.
Prentice hall PTR.
https://www.scirp.org/(S(351jmbntvnsjt1aadkposzje))/reference/
ReferencesPapers.aspx?ReferenceID=684782
105
1. Knowledge management systems has to do with the application

of certain systems of enterprise-wide systems, knowledge work
systems and intelligent technologies in support of the
organizational performance. In carrying out this work
performance the tacit and explicit knowledge are mostly required.
These KMS help to design, recognize, capture, structure, value,
influence, and share the organization's intelligent assets for
enhanced work performance among staff members.
2. The objectives of knowledge management systems and strategies

in the organization is to help staff members discover of new
talents, skills, innovation, know-how, which were difficult
ordinarily in the organization.
106
UNIT 2 TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF KNOWLEDGE

MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND STRATEGIES IN
LIBRARIES
Unit Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.3 Types of Knowledge Management Systems and Strategies in
Libraries
2.4 Functions of Knowledge Management Systems and Strategies in
Libraries
2.5 Summary
2.6 Glossary
2.1 Introduction
In the previous module 3, unit 1, we considered concept of knowledge

management systems and strategies and their objectives. The reason was
due to how useful the knowledge management systems and strategies
has been used over time in supporting the staff members in carrying out
their tasks and at the same time, giving the organization a sense of
direction with global practices.
In the present module 3, unit 2, we shall be looking at the types of

knowledge management systems and strategies, and functions for which
the knowledge management systems and strategies are applied.
to:
• Explain the types of knowledge management systems and

strategies in libraries
• Discuss the functions which knowledge management systems and
strategies
2.3 Types of Knowledge Management Systems and Strategies in

Libraries
By types of knowledge management systems and strategies we imply or

refers to the various categories, kinds and nature of knowledge
management systems and strategies that could be used to support and
107
enhance knowledge management activities in the organization. The

types and use of the various types of knowledge management systems
discussed in this unit vary in context and purpose for which they would
be used for in the organization growth and transformation. The use of
knowledge management systems and strategies has become a panacea
through which the organization flourish in present information and
knowledge economy.
There are different types of knowledge management systems and

strategies used to carry out job descriptions assigned to colleagues. The
types of knowledge management systems and strategies according to
Cloud Tutorial (2022) are enterprise-wide knowledge management
systems, knowledge work systems, and intelligent techniques. These are
the major knowledge management systems designed for specific work
activities in corporate organization (Cloud Tutorial, 2022). The
operations of these knowledge management systems indicate that they
are used for diverse functions leading to creation, managing, and
distributing information and knowledge in the organization (Cloud
Tutorial, 2022). The knowledge management systems make use of the
intranet and extranet and website in most cases to execute their
operations.
2.3.1 Enterprise-wide knowledge management systems
According to Cloud Tutorial (2022) the enterprise-wide knowledge

management systems is a system used for general purpose. By this we
imply using the enterprise-wide knowledge management system to
collects, stores, distributes, manage and use digitized information for
related knowledge applications. Some of the organizational learning
which the enterprise-wide knowledge management systems are used for
comprises of portals, search engines, collaboration tools, learning
management systems. It could be established that some of these systems
help to deliver tools, online directories, and locating specialized
knowledge of colleagues or staff members (Cloud Tutorial, 2022).
According to Botha et al, the enterprise-wide knowledge management
systems work best where experienced professionals apply their tacit type
of knowledge in using the systems to handle task. With this in mind,
searching relevant information to perform task becomes easier for both
structured and unstructured format.
108
Fig 63: Enterprise-wide knowledge management system

https://prezi.com/l1ugl4o8dyf9/enterprise-wide-knowledge-
management-systems/
2.3.2 Knowledge work systems
When addressing knowledge work systems, it was established that the

system is such a specialized management system designed for people
like scientists, engineers, medical doctors, architectural among other
experts (Cloud Tutorial, 2022), using it for knowledge management
program in the areas of online directory, corporate company specific
work performance. With the help of this standardized expert systems,
employees have a lot of assistances of finding accurate information and
knowledge required in carrying out their future work practices. The use
of the knowledge work systems is tacit in nature when it comes to the
experiences required. The learning by tacit experience involves using
the knowledge work systems to perform group work, access
information, implement knowledge management practices, and using
search engine to retrieve information of related taxonomy (Cloud
Tutorial, 2022).
Fig 64: Examples of Knowledge work systems

109
2.3.3 Intelligent techniques
The intelligent techniques are one among other types of knowledge

management systems used to collect, store, and manage knowledge in a
smart way (Cloud Tutorial, 2022). The reason for using it to manage
knowledge in a smart way was due to the intelligent agent embedded
that help people predict task success, business processes and other
things connected to systems and software applications (Cloud Tutorial,
2022). The reason why it is important to have predictive knowledge of
intelligent techniques is that it helps employees or staff members to
make use of recent systems like artificial intelligence. The reason of
using artificial intelligence is to synthesize raw data which are valuable
knowledge management systems was based on the need to capture,
transfer, store and acquire more valuable knowledge required to support
staff members in their daily obligations.
Fig 65: Intelligent techniques

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Intelligent-Techniques-in-
Decision-Making-%3A-A-
Das/621a729c708b13515048c4a6a1d9d90f85a80e00
The most intriguing thing about the knowledge management system is

that, it uses systems such as deep learning, machine learning, big data
techniques that focuses on designs and networks. These information
systems help organization re-organize massive data sources that quickly
retrieve required information for work operations. Another point to note
regarding the knowledge management system is that it permits
organizations and individuals to manage much volumes of communities,
groups and webinars of optimize effort of knowledge management.
Beside all that has been mentioned, easy articulation, codifications,
storage and accessibility of explicit knowledge is certain, hence the
interest of many businesses information system expert using it as a
knowledge management software in their organizations (Cloud Tutorial,
2022).
110
It could be observed in this unit that the mentioned knowledge

management systems have the following features. The features comprise
of internal and external maintenance of team members, customization of
full options support, notable analytic and reporting features and
functions, systems software integration, efficient content management
(Cloud Tutorial, 2022). In light of this emphasis, student registered for
this course or module should have at the back of their mind that, there is
need to understand the knowledge management systems and strategies
and how it has helped to strengthen individual work performance in the
organizations. Presently, there is no viable and reliable compromising
organization that could do with the use of knowledge management
systems and strategies in executing their daily tasks.
There are other knowledge management systems that could be classified

under IT-based systems (Alavi, & Leidner, 1999). These are developed
and used to sustain and improve organizational procedures leading to
knowledge creation, storage, retrieve, transfer and application for best
work practices (Alavi, & Leidner, 1999). The essence of having to
improve organizational procedures was based on plans to use online
directories and search databases for distributing knowledge and
accomplishing other tasks of different project’s management in the
organizations. Previous studies by Manasco (1996) and Wiig (1997)
allude to different types of knowledge management strategies that could
be used to support the organizations and this include knowledge strategy
in business intelligent asset management strategy, personal knowledge
asset accountability strategy, knowledge conception strategy, knowledge
transmission strategy, customer-focused knowledge strategy, emerging
and relocating performance, generating new industry from entrenched
knowledge, determining corporate strategy, and encouragement of
commercialized origination.
2.4 Functions of Knowledge Management Systems and Strategies

In Libraries
The discussion associated with the functions of knowledge management

systems and strategies imply the roles which the knowledge
management systems and strategies could play in the organizations or
libraries. Hameed and Badii (2012) mentioned the following as the
functions which the knowledge management systems and strategies has
over the different tasks in the organizations. These comprise of training
expansion among colleagues, enforcing the sharing knowledge of staff
members, establishing research practices, documenting information
accessed online, answering customers quarries and that of employees,
intimacy among staff members, alignment of goals to company sales of
products and services, use of marketing research strategy, management
of deep thoughts and insights for business process practices.
111
Fig 66: Functions of KMS

https://phantran.net/what-is-the-role-of-knowledge-management-
systems-in-business/
There were other functions which the knowledge management systems

and strategies could be used for in the organization. The said functions
are to harness, collect, process, store, retrieve, and use knowledge for
improved service delivery. The service delivery was based on the
understanding of collaboration and alignment of the knowledge
management systems. As earlier discussed the knowledge management
systems could exist among team members in the organization, users or
customers initiates based on the desire to grow or support the
organizations (Digmayer & Jakobs, 2014).
Maier and Hadrich (2011) explained that, the knowledge management

systems and strategies have the potentials of finding, mapping,
gathering, filtering, and developing information and knowledge that
could be used for best practices of work performance in the
organization. This resonated from identification of shared knowledge
seen among staff members. Maier and Hadrich (2011) further note that,
issues such as robust searching of information in online is ensured,
which could be used to respond to assessment of reports made in
analytic of data in the systems. It is believed that, through this measure
there could be knowledge flow for work operations among staff
members (Maier and Hadrich (2011). It could be recall that imaginative
thought of staff members could lead to having the ability to proffer
solution for business operations whereby work flow is not hindered.
Buřita (2010) notes that other functions for which knowledge

management systems could be used comprise of organization of
information, user awareness, creation of residual knowledge, investing
in community of practices, staff training, processing of tasks,
112
operational efficiency, teaching and learning, research development,

personal work practices, project management, and integrated work
among colleagues. Content management and creating ideas where staff
members could use the knowledge management systems and strategies
to manage, distribute, publish, retrieve and distribute information and
knowledge among other colleagues, was also identified.
Fig 67: Function of KMS

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Functions-of-knowledge-
management-systems-15_fig1_228818669
The insight obtains from this unit indicate that the types knowledge
management systems and strategies in libraries and other organization
vary in context and content due to the consideration of job description
for which the knowledge management systems and strategies were
proffered. It could be established that the functions which the
knowledge management systems and strategies are crucial in any
workplace or environment. The knowledge management systems and
strategies play significant role in the achievement of the goal of the
institution for which they are acquired.
2.5 Summary
This unit established that different types of knowledge management

systems and strategies are pivotal because it can be used for the
collection of various data and information already created by employees.
The tasks through which the knowledge management systems and
strategies could function are diverse. Therefore, the need for employees
to upskills become significant as it would enable them to navigate
within the ambiance of the knowledge management systems and
changing nature of the work ethic and environment. The various types of
knowledge management systems have the capability of equipping staff
members to accomplish their task on a regular basis. This has created
113
more opportunity of acquiring new knowledge, required to sustain and

maintain their job profession.
2.6 Glossary
1. Different types of knowledge management strategies include

knowledge strategy in business, intelligent asset management,
personal knowledge asset accountability, knowledge conception,
knowledge transmission, customer-focused knowledge, emerging
and relocating performance, generating new industry from
entrenched knowledge, determining corporate, and
encouragement of commercialized origination.
2. Knowledge management system systems are used for deep

learning, machine learning and big data techniques that focuses
on designs and networks.
1. Why do you think the different type of knowledge management
systems and strategies vary in context and content
2. What other functions apart from the ones mentioned could it be
used for in any growing organization like libraries
Assignment File
1. Discuss the various types of knowledge management systems and
strategies
2. What are the various functions through which knowledge
management systems and strategies could be applied in the
organization?
Alavi, M., & Leidner, D. (1999). Knowledge management systems:

issues, challenges, and benefits. Communications of the
Association for Information systems, 1(1), 7.
https://aisel.aisnet.org/cais/vol1/iss1/7/
Buřita, L (2010). Structure and functions of the knowledge management

system, 2nd special focus symposium on IKS, ZAGREB,
November 2010
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288445884_Structure_a
nd_Functions_of_the_Knowledge_Management_System
114
Cloud Tutorials 2022. Major Types of Knowledge Management

Systems Explained, https://www.thecloudtutorial.com/types-of-
knowledge-management-systems/
Digmayer, C., & Jakobs, E. M. (2014, October). Corporate lifelong

learning 2.0: design of knowledge management systems with
social media functions as learning tools. In 2014 IEEE
International Professional Communication Conference
(IPCC) (pp. 1-9). IEEE.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271986915_Corporate_
Lifelong_Learning_20_Design_of_Knowledge_Management_Sy
stems_with_Social_Media_Functions_as_Learning_Tools
Hameed, S., & Badii, A. (2012). Effectiveness of knowledge

management functions in improving the quality of education in
higher education institutions. International Journal of
Information and Education Technology, 2(4), 319,
http://www.ijiet.org/papers/141-T030.pdf
Maier, R., & Hadrich, T. (2011). Knowledge management systems.

In Encyclopedia of Knowledge Management, Second Edition (pp.
779-790). IGI Global.
https://www.scirp.org/(S(czeh2tfqw2orz553k1w0r45))/reference/
referencespapers.aspx?referenceid=2907591
Manasco B., 1996, Leading Firms Develop Knowledge Strategies,

Knowledge Inc., October.
510590101/full/pdf?casa_token=uLkXsoK8nbUAAAAA:TDBC
MF2cBtI8xSs-pLQxoo_AXv-
QYmvQ8lxuV6jrkxE7x5DFUTufbutX8QP9qPTarZFxViEwWO
6IIhOlesDwArfQextJ7aoWgs9f9FyGIN_Jo24oeGBf
Wiig, K. M (1997). Knowledge Management: Where Did It Come From

and Where Will It Go?, Expert Systems with Applications, 13, 1,
1-14.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S09574174970
00183
115
1. The different type of knowledge management systems and

strategies vary in context and content because they are not
created to work in the same job functions and users need. The
capability of each of the KMS would determine what it is capable
of doing irrespective of the context and content.
2. Knowledge management systems and strategies could also

function in industries such as automobile and hospital apart from
the ones earlier mentioned.
116
UNIT 3 FORMULATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND
STRATEGIES IN LIBRARIES
Unit Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.3 Formulation of Knowledge Management Systems and Strategies
in Libraries
3.4 Implementation of Knowledge Management Systems and
Strategies in Libraries
3.5 Summary
3.6 Glossary
3.1 Introduction
In the previous module 3, unit 2, we considered the types of knowledge

management systems and strategies, and functions for which the
knowledge management systems and strategies are applied.
In the present module 3, unit 3, we shall be looking at the formulation

and implementation of knowledge management systems and strategies
in libraries
to:
• Discuss the formulation of knowledge management systems and
strategies in libraries
• Explain the implementation of knowledge management systems
and strategies in libraries and related corporate organization.
3.3 Formulation of Knowledge Management Systems And

Strategies In Libraries
By formulation we refer to the design, preparation and invention by

which knowledge management systems and strategies could be aligned
with organizational goals. The reason why formulation of is important is
that it help the individual to be well guided based on the architectural
designed put in place to run the system. Formulation of knowledge
management systems and strategies serves as blueprint that must be
followed for organizational success.
117
In present day economy, where information and knowledge have

become panacea to users’ information needs, organizations need to plan
ahead to be at the forefront and same page with individual interest in
ensuring their needs are met. This is due to competitions and diversities
of activities of tasks and work performance that need to be attended to
on achievement of organization growth. Firestone and McElroy (2005),
noted that, the formulation of knowledge management systems and
strategies require adequate learning and understanding procedures,
policy and practices of the organization in order to determine what is
expected and how to go about it. This would help to foster alternate
resolutions of errors that has been made in time past. Besides, the
formulation of knowledge management systems and strategies entails
reclaiming and validating the knowledge that needs to base on emphasis
of what the formulation entails.
Fig 68: Formulating/design of KMS

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Developing-the-Knowledge-
Management-Strategy-Riley-2002_fig3_257922672/download
118
Another point raised according to Dayan, Heisig and Matos (2017)

regarding the issue of formulation of knowledge management systems
and strategies is that, the organization has to ensure the formulation is
tested to find out its sustainability in the organization, because it is
going to play key roles in the assessment of work activities and
organizational dynamism. Some of the proposed formulated knowledge
management systems and strategies are meant for specific and general
work practices and ethical value in the organization. They are planned
such that it would not jeopardize standards and value systems. Firestone
and McElroy (2012) have also referred to key issues regarding some of
the new adaptive complex systems used for modeling formulation of
knowledge management systems and strategies in the organization. This
resonated from knowledge management life cycle framework.
The knowledge management life cycle framework enables the

application of strategies that could draw the management of the
organization to apply the best option of business strategies that would
bring result and formulation of good ideas (Dayan, Heisig and Matos
(2017). It is important to know that some of these have their positive and
negative part of it, considering the procedures of pragmatism in the
organizations. This shows that, the need to have a proposal that could
guide the organizations is important in this world of uncertainty and
diversities. The essence of the proposal is to see that every indicator of
the formulation of knowledge management systems and strategies are
included on the manuscript of the proposal.
Carneiro (2000) notes that the formulation of knowledge management

systems and strategies is important because it has a lot of influence over
the innovation of competitors due to the advancement of diversities of
ideas that developed and wrote the proposal for the organization. The
effort put in place in arriving at the proposal cannot be undermined due
to different areas of expertise of scholars from different background
(Cuthbertson, & Farrington, 2002). Therefore, the situation of the
organization should be managed such that it does not lead to having
catastrophe of continuous disarray of learning that should have brought
innovation of quality service delivery. This shows that knowledge
management systems and strategies require where professionals learn
together to unveil what is hidden in the organization.
Another school of thought by Sveiby (2001) and Dayan, Heisig and

Matos (2017), is that, the formulation of knowledge management
systems and strategies is based on epistemic approach of expanding
what practical approach is expected and required in this regard. It is
imperative to know that the purpose of the formulation of knowledge
management systems and strategies could be that, different collections
of employee’s knowledges are essential based on the implication of
119
what the formulation of knowledge management systems and strategies

meant to serve in the organization. The implication is that, first it has a
variety and dimensions of ensured strategies, second, it has the chance
to improve the success in altering and competition, third, it has a global
knowledge management world view expert, fourth, its methodology and
context differs, fifth, it can be integrated into any organizations.
3.4 Implementation of Knowledge Management Systems and

Strategies in Libraries
The discussion surrounding the implementation of knowledge

management systems and strategies in libraries denotes that, for every
formulated, designed and prepared proposal or invention meant to
support the goals and objectives of knowledge management systems
must be aligned with organizational structure. In the actual sense, there
is nothing that could work without following the laid down rules and
regulations that govern the staff and activities of knowledge
management practices in the organization.
Drawing analogy from some of the emphasis made in the formulated

knowledge management systems and strategies, before its
implementation, indicate that, such formulation that covers underlaying
learning, understanding procedures, policy and practices, fostering
alternate resolutions to eradicate errors, maintaining standards and value
systems, and adhering to new adaptive complex systems used for
modeling formulation of knowledge management life cycle require deep
thought and implementation in order to sustain and better the
organization for international standards.
Feng, Chen and Liou (2005) addressed the implementation of

knowledge management systems in corporate firm based on work
performance indicate that, there is need to adopt new strategies of
knowledge management systems that should impact the organization
even though many organizations have tried it and it did not work for
them. The new strategy could lead to finding out what other measures fit
the organizational approach and structure especially now that
technologies have been infiltrated into the organization.
Chalmeta and Grangel (2008) mentioned some methodology through

which the implementation of knowledge management systems could be
actualized and this comprised of identification, extraction,
representation, processing and utilization. These variables serve as
blueprint of the methodology required to implement knowledge
management systems and strategies (Chalmeta, & Grangel, 2008). The
reason why the use of these variables mentioned are important is that,
the application of knowledge management systems is complex to handle
120
as such, there is need to apply certain approach or methodology which

give a better explanation of how the methodology of the systems could
function, hence the above-mentioned ones. A good representation of the
emphasis is well represented in the figure below.
By identification, we imply generating new knowledge that would not

be too confusing from what is known between information and
knowledge among employees. The reason for the knowledge
identification was based on identified problem that needs to be solved.
Identifying the best knowledge is crucial top organization growth and
individual effort in actualizing established tasks. To identify what
individual in the organization, possess or capable of doing means that
such individual must have avail themselves (Chalmeta, & Grangel,
2008).
By extraction, we refer to the ways through which data, information and

knowledge could be obtained from the different information systems
and individual expertise in the functionality of activities and tasks in the
organization (Chalmeta, & Grangel, 2008). In this regard, the sources
from which we extract documents, data, information and knowledge in
the various knowledge management systems varies in context. The
essence of extraction is to ensure the relevant documents, data,
information and knowledge needed for the organizational growth and
transformation is available. Most of the extraction of documents, data,
information and knowledge relies mostly on tacit type of knowledge due
to the impact it has on the knowledge management systems. Due to how
difficult it is sometimes to extract the tacit type of knowledge from
individual who possess it hence the use of knowledge management
systems (Chalmeta & Grangel, 2008). The reason for this difficulty was
based on belief systems, personal values and cognitive tacit variables.
Representation: Representation is the third phase of the methodology of

knowledge management systems. Usually at this stage, when the
information and knowledge has been identified and extracted from the
different sources, the need for it to be represented becomes essential. In
the representation phase the information and knowledge are represented
to provide a model of knowledge map of the organization (Lin & Hsueh,
2006). The knowledge map is represented at diverse points of thought.
What is meant here is that, a model of knowledge map is being formed
at computation independent model (CIM) level, thereafter, alteration
mechanisms are used to get matching model at Platform Independent
Model (PIM) level. The modelling of knowledge map at the CIM and
the PIM level is accomplished by different set of outlines which are
advanced for the purpose of extension mechanisms on the condition that
the modern version 2.0 of Unified Modelling Language is functional
(UML; Object Management Group, 2004; Chalmeta & Grangel, 2008).
121
Processing: By processing we refer to how the documents, information

and knowledge identified, extracted and represented in the knowledge
map are processed. In the processing phase what happen here is that, the
model helps to execute the running of the documents using a certain
technological platform called Platform Specific Model (PSM) in the
MDA approach (Chalmeta & Grangel, 2008). In this regard, the
processing hat take place in the knowledge map is assisted with a
specific computer platform in the instruction that permit enterprise to
acquire and apply the knowledge where and when it is demanded
(Chalmeta & Grangel, 2008).
By utilization: In the utilization phase, what we imply here is that, the

information, documents and knowledge that has been identified,
extracted from different sources, represented in the knowledge map, and
processed are now given out for use in actualization of the
organizational growth (Chalmeta & Grangel, 2008). Without use the
essence of acquiring, obtaining and creating knowledge and information
is worthless. What makes an individual and organization the way it is
today is based on the utilization of information and knowledge on daily
basis. The information and knowledge are utilized for specific and
general work operations, such that, uncertainties are removed. With the
utilization of knowledge management systems in place, different types
of tasks such as training, planning, development of projects, continuous
reskilling, overhauling, evaluation, work performance and maintenance
could be accomplished within and outside the organization (Chalmeta &
Grangel, 2008). These are mostly followed and guided by the policy and
procedures of self-assessment of the use of the knowledge management
systems. The knowledge management systems have the capability to
execute diverse activities of work performance irrespective of the
volume of task.
122
Fig 69: Methodology of KMS in the organization

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/asi.20785
Fig 70: Transforming data + information+ evidence=impact (KMS)

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Transforming-data-into-
information-and-evidence_fig2_235327884
The formulation and implementation of knowledge management

systems and strategies are crucial in any growing and established
organization because the formulation helps as guide and blueprint which
123
must be followed in order to achieve a milestone in all activities in the

organization. The insights gained from the formulation of knowledge
management systems and strategies serves as guided and bases on the
architectural designed put in place to run the system. Therefore, to
perform work adequately, the support of specialties of knowledge
management systems experts become important as it will help the
systems to serve its purpose and longevity. Relating to the present-day
students at the NOUN, there is the expectation that, performing their
utmost goal require preparedness and continuous upskilling in the
utilization of knowledge management systems. This would ensure their
study roles is attained amidst the curriculum that should guide their
study focus.
3.5 Summary
It was established in this unit that the formulation of knowledge

management systems and strategies are crucial for the transformation of
any organization. In this regard, the formulation connotes designing,
preparing and invention of ideas that could be useful in managing the
knowledge management systems and strategies. The organizational
goals in this case must be put into consideration. The reason why
formulation is of importance is that it could help the individual to be
well guided based on the architectural designed put in place to run the
system. Formulation of knowledge management systems and strategies
serves as blueprint that must be followed for organizational success. As
organization expand in size and shape, information and knowledge
become the ingredients used in solving the implementation of the
formulated policy meant for information needs of individuals.
Therefore, for the formulation and implementation of knowledge
management systems and strategies to become successful, the need to
plan and prepare for the execution of such plan become imperatives.
3.6 Glossary
1. Formulation implies the design, preparation and invention by
which knowledge management systems and strategies could be
aligned with organizational goals.
2. Implementation of knowledge management systems and

strategies involves how the designed preparation proposal or
invention meant to support the goals and objectives of knowledge
management systems must be aligned with organizational
structure.
124
1. How would you formulate knowledge management systems and
strategies that will be relevant for the operationality of the
organization?
2. Why do you think it is imperative to implement the knowledge
management systems and strategies formulated?
Assignment File
1. Discuss the steps involved in formulating management systems
and strategies
2. How can Implementing of a knowledge management systems and
strategies be successful in any organization
Chalmeta, R., & Grangel, R. (2008). Methodology for the

implementation of knowledge management systems. Journal of
the American Society for Information Science and
technology, 59(5), 742-755.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/asi.20785
Carneiro, A. (2000). How does knowledge management influence

innovation and competitiveness?. Journal of knowledge
management.
010372242/full/html
Cuthbertson, C., & Farrington, J. (2002). Methods for knowledge

management strategy formulation: a case study. In Knowledge
Management in the Socio-Technical World (pp. 139-152).
Springer, London. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-
1-4471-0187-1_12
Dayan, R., Heisig, P., & Matos, F. (2017). Knowledge management as a

factor for the formulation and implementation of organization
strategy. Journal of Knowledge Management.
_management_as_a_factor_for_the_formulation_and_implement
ation_of_organization_strategy
125
Feng, K., Chen, E. T., & Liou, W. (2005). Implementation of knowledge

management systems and firm performance: an empirical
investigation. Journal of Computer Information Systems, 45(2),
92-104.
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08874417.2005.11
645835
Firestone, J. M., & McElroy, M. W. (2012). Key issues in the new

knowledge management. Routledge.
https://www.routledge.com/Key-Issues-in-the-New-Knowledge-
Management/Firestone-McElroy/p/book/9780750676557
Kruger, C. J. (2005). Formulation of a strategic knowledge management

maturity model. South African Journal of Information
Management, 7(2).
https://journals.co.za/doi/pdf/10.10520/AJA1560683X_212
Quintas, P., Lefrere, P., & Jones, G. (1997). Knowledge management: a

strategic agenda. Long range planning, 30(3), 385-391.
02521
McElroy, M. W. (2003). The new knowledge management: Complexity,

learning, and sustainable innovation. Routledge.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220468714_The_new_
knowledge_management_Complexity_learning_and_sustainable_
innovation
Sveiby, K. E. (2001). A knowledge‐based theory of the firm to guide in

strategy formulation. Journal of intellectual capital.
110409651/full/html
126
1. The formulation of knowledge management systems and

strategies can be carried out using different guide and relevant
resources/materials that has be developed for the operationality of
the organization. With this the employee is rest assured that what
they are doing is in line with the objectives and goals of the
organization.
2. It is imperative to implement the knowledge management

systems and strategies formulated because employees cannot
work in isolation, rather they must be guided by set rules, and
policy and principles guiding the organization. The
implementation of the knowledge management systems and
strategies formulated showcase that the organization is working
in the direction of their set goals.
127
MODULE 4 KNOWLEDGE ARCHITECTURE, ETHICAL

ISSUES AND PROBLEMS IN KNOWLEDGE
MANAGEMENT
Unit 1 Definition, and Purpose of Knowledge Architecture

Architecture
Unit 3 Requirements, Enterprise, Issues in Designing Enterprises
in Knowledge Architecture and implications of ethical
issues in Knowledge Management
UNIT 1 DEFINITION AND PURPOSE OF KNOWLEDGE

ARCHITECTURE
Unit Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.3 Definition and Purpose of Knowledge Architecture
1.4 Summary
1.5 Glossary
1.1 Introduction
In the previous module 3, unit 3, we considered the formulation and

implementation of knowledge management systems and strategies in
libraries. In the present module 4, unit 1, we shall be looking at the
definition, purpose, design/structure and segments of knowledge
architecture.
1.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (Ilos)
to:
Explain the definition, purpose, design/structure and segments of
knowledge Architecture
128
1.3 Definition and Purpose of Knowledge Architecture
The purpose and definition of knowledge architecture are explained as

follows:
1.3.1 Definition: Knowledge Architecture
By architecture, we imply the art and technique through which certain

design and or building is constructed based on the skills of construction
with the intention of creating a picture. In order words, the practice of
creating a representation of certain which someone has in mind (Collins,
2022). A good example is the image of the building below created with
the intention of what the creator or architecture has in mind.
Fig 71: Architecture image

https://www.britannica.com/topic/architecture
With this in mind, it becomes essential and better to have a clear view of
what knowledge architecture is all about. Kesh and Ratnasingam (2007)
allude to knowledge architecture as the knowledge procedures that
recognizes the know-how and requirements needed in forming,
capturing, unifying, editing and using the relevant knowledge assets for
creation of new knowledge for better representation in the organization.
While considering knowledge architecture, it is most essential to note
that, tacit type of knowledge is crucial before the creation of imagination
is fully represented in the physical form that could later be built (Kaipa,
2000). This means that, the tacit type of knowledge could be used to
solve an imaginative problem difficult to handle by individuals in the
organizations. The architectural work is created in the mind of the
individual through the support of the imaginative thought of what is to
be created physically (Kaipa, 2000).
Glossary Gartner (2022) alludes to knowledge architecture as a scenario

where knowledge possessed by certain experts or individuals are
identified and used for the edification of the organization or
environment. What is used for the identification of the knowledge could
129
be regarded as technological devices, thus resulting to the creation of

different design and art work. The process of such knowledge
identification leads to further re-organizing of the imaginative mind,
accessing and utilizing other materials things that could bring out what
is to be built in the organization or systems (Glossary Gartner, 2022).
When dealing with knowledge architecture, those who are involved

ensures that they do all they can to implement application of tacit type
of knowledge in accomplishing the task of the construction. This leads
to specifying the most needed materials required in the construction of
the architectural design in the organization. Knowledge architecture is
not applicable to only building and design but construction of our mind
and intellect such that the mind brings out good result from the use of
tacit type of knowledge in solving organizational and individual
problems. The view made by Wilde (2019) regarding knowledge
architecture is that, nothing is what knowing than it being taught
1.3.2 Purpose of Knowledge Architecture
The purpose of knowledge architecture could be regarded as diverse and

general depending on the approach given to it. Wilde (2019) notes that
since knowledge architecture tries to under-study the technique of
building imaginative knowledge residual in the mind, it therefore means
everything that concerns the purpose of knowledge architecture is for
creation of new knowledge because the created design is from the mind.
The purpose of knowledge architecture is for procedural application of

skills and knowledge, assessment of work practices and productivity,
organizational growth and transformation, expressions, constructions,
environmental beautification, settlement, nomadic practices, three-
dimensional connection, natural world views, societal edifices, climate
change, historical building, ceremonies, and artistic sensibility (Wilde,
2019).
Another point to note according to Wilde (2019) when it comes to

knowledge architecture is the appropriateness of the work through
which human beings make us of it, compliance to human activities,
steadiness and permanence of work’s construction, communication of
experience and ideas, relativity to social role, expressive and immense
usefulness of the mind, and equality of duties. knowledge architecture
expresses concern over systems used in the organization, business
contexts, organizational operations and independent application of tacit
knowledge. Knowledge architecture has resulted in proper
representation of information and knowledge acquisition and utilization
in all sphere of human endeavours.
130
Fig 72: Architecture Based on: (Tucker and Debrosse, 2003).

https://www.scitepress.org/Papers/2016/59160/pdf/index.html
The unit gave insights about the understanding of knowledge

architecture and it made us to know that know-how is fundamental when
dealing with how to create a knowledge architecture. This would help
the creator to form basis of how to capture, unify, edit and use other
team-members relevant knowledge assets for new knowledge meant in
solving the organization problem. The essence of knowledge
architecture is to have a good imaginative representation in the physical
form based on what needs to be built. This result to the use of tacit type
of knowledge in the creation of the organizational structure and work
activities.
1.4 Summary
This unit established that knowledge architecture implies the procedures

which recognizes application of the know-how in forming, capturing,
unifying, editing and using the relevant knowledge assets for creation of
new knowledge for better representation in the organization. Tacit type
of knowledge is crucial when considering the creation of imagination
that is represented in the physical form. Certain purpose of procedural
application of skills and knowledge, assessment of work practices and
productivity, organizational growth and transformation, expressions,
constructions, environmental beautification, settlement, nomadic
practices, three-dimensional connection, natural world views, societal
edifices, climate change, historical building, ceremonies, and artistic
sensibility are most imperative when developing a knowledge
architecture.
1.5 Glossary
1. Knowledge architecture tries to under-study the technique of

building imaginative
2. The purpose of knowledge architecture is for the creation of new
knowledge because the created design is from the mind.
131
1. Identify the KM models
2. How would the KM model support the development of knowledge
architecture?
Assignment File
1. Discuss the definition of knowledge architecture as stipulated by

scholars identified in this unit?
2. Why do you think the purpose of knowledge architecture is
significant?
3. What do you understand by the design/structure of knowledge
architecture?
Babar, M. A., & Gorton, I. (2007, May). A tool for managing software
architecture knowledge. In Second Workshop on Sharing and
Reusing Architectural Knowledge-Architecture, Rationale, and
Design Intent (SHARK/ADI'07: ICSE Workshops 2007) (pp. 11-
11). IEEE. https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1109/SHARK-
ADI.2007.1
Collins P, (2022). Architecture, https://www.coursehero. com/file/

93623178/ Architecturedocx/
Glossary Gartner (2022), Information Technology, Gartner Glossary,

Knowledge Architect,https://www.gartner.com/en/information-
technology/glossary/knowledge-architect
Kaipa, P. (2000). Knowledge architecture for the twenty-first

century. Behaviour & information technology, 19(3), 153-161.
_architecture_for_the_twenty-first_century
Kesh, S., & Ratnasingam, P. (2007). A knowledge architecture for IT

security. Communications of the ACM, 50(7), 103-108.
https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/1272516.1272521
132
Wiig, K. M (1997). Knowledge Management: Where Did It Come From

and Where Will It Go?, Expert Systems,
00183
133
1. The identified KM models is the SECI KM model

2. The KM model uses the KM initiatives deposited in the human
brain in the support of the development of knowledge
architecture
134
UNIT 2 DESIGN/STRUCTURE AND SEGMENTS OF

KNOWLEDGE ARCHITECTURE
Unit Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.3 Design/Structure and Segments of Knowledge Architecture
2.4 Summary
2.5 Glossary
2.1 Introduction
In the previous module 4, unit 1, we considered the definition, purpose,

design/structure and segments of knowledge architecture. In the present
module 4, unit 2, we shall be looking at the design/structure and
segments of knowledge architecture
to:
Describe the Design/Structure and Segments of Knowledge Architecture
2.3 Design/Structure and Segments of Knowledge Architecture
The design/structure and segment of knowledge architecture vary in

context, content and what it hopes to achieve. Some of the
design/structure and segment of knowledge architecture represented
below vary on what neds to be accomplished in the organization. The
nature of knowledge architecture brought about the different kinds of
design and representation of knowledge in this unit.
This is in relation to the present goals of the organization
Fig 73: Fact Information Knowledge
135
Therefore, what students should understand in this segment is how can

they represent knowledge in diverse form taking examples from the
representation of image we have in this unit. This would help them
understand and appreciate the design/structure and segment of
knowledge architecture.
Fig 74: From Data to Knowledge

https://caminao.blog/knowledge-architecture/
Fig 75: Signals are physical events with open-ended interpretations

136
Fig 76: Information must be timely, understandable, and relevant

Knowledge management are mapped such that knowledge form the
information footprint in terms of reliability (source, accuracy,
consistency, obsolescence, etc) and risks.
From information to knowledge
Fig 77: Standard Rules

Fig 78: Knowledge of Architectures, Architecture of Knowledge

Fig 79: Knowledge Architecture and Shearing Layers: strategy at

leisure, time for plans, real-time operations
137
Fig 80: Observed facts (1), deductions (2), projections (3), transposition
(1b) and hypothesis (4).
Fig 81: Capabilities can be defined across architecture layers with

regard to business, engineering, and operational processes
Fig 82: How to bridge the gap between big data and enterprise
information models
138
Fig 83: The Pagoda Architecture Blueprint is derived from the

Zachman’s frameworks
https://caminao.blog/2019/01/02/squared-outline-layers/
Fig 84: Ontologies: Purposes & Targets

https://caminao.blog/enterprise-architecture/ea-maps-
territories/caminao-unified-architecture-framework-profile-uafp/
Fig 85: Ontologies, capabilities (Who,What,How, Where, When), and

architectures (enterprise, systems, platforms).
https://caminao.blog/enterprise-architecture/ea-maps-
territories/caminao-unified-architecture-framework-profile-uafp/
139
From data analysis to deep learning
Fig 86: Knowledge is the ability to make differences

Architectural knowledge comprises of architecture design along with

design decisions, expectations, context, and other influences that
regulate why a particular solution is the way it is. Most architectural
knowledge typically remains hidden, since tacit in the heads of the
architects. Knocking organized relates to different ontologies and the
reason the types of architecting tasks can be supported, and how this can
be done.
Interesting it could be deduced that the design/structure and segment of

knowledge architecture cannot be overemphasized considering varied
context, content of knowledge that need to be built and work description
that should be accomplished. It is important to note that the role played
by the design/structure of the knowledge architecture is what brings the
beauty of the knowledge already built. The library and information
center or organization where the knowledge architecture resides indicate
the high-quality of tasks or performs required of the architectural display
position. This implies that there is need for proper harnessing to have all
necessary facilities to have a resounding and strong architectural design.
2.4 Summary
It was established in this unit that the design/structure and segment of

knowledge architecture vary in context, content and what it hopes to
achieve. The reason is that, architectural knowledge has shown to
comprises different design created to influence and regulate finding
solution to how knowledge grow. It can be deduced from the different
image of knowledge architecture created that the information passed in
the architecture work is hidden if it is not well studied to see what it
portrays. Therefore, architectural knowledge should naturally showcase
hidden treasure that must be appreciated irrespective of the
140
circumstances. This would help understand the different ontologies

represented in the architectural tasks.
2.5 Glossary
1. The design/structure and segment of knowledge architecture are

the design/structure used in different architectural representation.
2. Architectural knowledge remains hidden until proven into action
as tacit is the heads of the architects.
1. Why is the development of the design of knowledge
architecture is important in the organization?
2. How should the structure of the knowledge architecture look
like when designing
Hameed, S., & Badii, A. (2012). Effectiveness of knowledge

management functions in improving the quality of education in
higher education institutions. International Journal of
Information and Education Technology, 2(4), 319
http://www.ijiet.org/papers/141-T030.pdf
Collins P, (2022). Architecture,

https://www.coursehero.com/file/93623178/Architecturedocx/
Kaipa, P. (2000). Knowledge architecture for the twenty-first

century. Behaviour & information technology, 19(3), 153-161.
_architecture_for_the_twenty-first_century
Babar, M. A., & Gorton, I. (2007, May). A tool for managing software
architecture knowledge. In Second Workshop on Sharing and
Reusing Architectural Knowledge-Architecture, Rationale, and
Design Intent (SHARK/ADI'07: ICSE Workshops 2007) (pp. 11-
11). IEEE. https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1109/SHARK-
ADI.2007.1
Kesh, S., & Ratnasingam, P. (2007). A knowledge architecture for IT

security. Communications of the ACM, 50(7), 103-108.
https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/1272516.1272521
141
Glossary Gartner (2022), Information Technology, Gartner Glossary,

Knowledge Architect,https://www.gartner.com/en/information-
technology/glossary/knowledge-architect
Wilde, O (2019). Knowledge architecture,

142
1. The development of design/structure of knowledge architecture is

important in the organization because it helps to bring about a
transformative architectural design required in functional
operation ability of employee.
2. The structure of the knowledge architecture should look like a

better design that capture the logo or representation of what the
organization entails.
143
UNIT 3 REQUIREMENTS, ENTERPRISE, ISSUES IN

DESIGNING ENTERPRISES IN KNOWLEDGE
ARCHITECTURE AND IMPLICATIONS OF
ETHICAL ISSUES IN KNOWLEDGE
MANAGEMENT
Unit Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.3 Requirements, Enterprise, and issues in Designing Enterprises in
Knowledge Architecture and implications of Ethical issues in
Knowledge Management
3.4 Summary
3.5 Glossary
3.1 Introduction
In the previous module 4, unit 2, we considered the definition, and

purpose of knowledge architecture. In the present module 4, unit 3, we
shall be looking at the requirements, enterprise, issues in designing
enterprises in knowledge architecture and implications of ethical issues
in knowledge management.
to:
• Explain the requirements, Enterprise, and Issues surrounding the
designing of enterprises in knowledge architecture
• Discuss the implication of ethical issues in knowledge
management
3.3 Requirements, Enterprise, Issues in Designing Enterprises In

Knowledge Architecture And Implications Of Ethical Issues
In Knowledge Management
3.3.1 Requirements in Knowledge Architecture
By requirements we imply the expectation, and determinants of what

needs to be in place before knowledge architecture could be
accomplished or carried out in the organization. Xia and Rao (1999),
established that, the intelligent operation support systems that is
embedded in the application systems should align with the system
144
architecture before the system could work properly. van Gent, Aigner,
Beijer, Jepsen and La Rocca (2020) refers to the capability of the
knowledge architecture having future and prospect to sustain any
organizational structure provided the architectural design has such
strength. This whole process is evolving based on the requirement of
generating new knowledge.
Li (2020) advices that, without a suitable knowledge architecture, user’s

requirement on how the systems would function cannot be determined.
This result to output expected when information and knowledge has
been gathered for its development or constructed. van Gent, Ciampa,
Aigner, Jepsen, La Rocca and Schut (2017 underline the structure of the
knowledge architecture, because certain framework of planning and
execution of blueprint, where the use of tools, methods and structure are
used before a suitable and sustainable knowledge architecture could be
made. The reason for this analogy was based on the construction that
made up the knowledge architecture.
Technology play a key role when it comes to building a knowledge

architecture considering the dynamism across all sphere of human
endeavours (Liang & Avgeriou, n.d). The reason technology plays a
key role in building a knowledge architecture was due to complex
activities and broad nature of the system having voluminous
architectural structure and design (Liang & Avgeriou, n.d). Some of the
technologies are developed such that, they could be used off-the-shelf
while others are applied within the experimental setting. The reason for
using some off-the-shelf while others are within the experimental setting
was based on the features of the knowledge architecture (Liang &
Avgeriou, n.d).
3.3.2 Issues in Designing Enterprises in Knowledge Architecture
To understand the issues surrounding designing enterprises in

knowledge architecture very well, it is imperative we grasp the meaning
of enterprise knowledge architecture. By enterprise knowledge
architecture, we refer to the part of enterprise architecture procedure that
defines the set of necessities, values and models of the knowledge
architecture. With this in mind, consideration to the present and future
exchange of knowledge becomes the priority of constructed architecture.
Other issues surrounding designing enterprises in knowledge

architecture are represented in the image or diagram below.
145
Fig 87: EA process by Armour et al. (1999b)

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/EA-process-by-Armour-et-al-
1999b_fig1_220893843
Designing enterprises in knowledge architecture require a holistic

approach where the knowledge model capture the tacit type of
knowledge required for the layout. In the holistic approach, there is a
reflective view that has to do with how knowledge is processed, and
used to solve organizational problem. This brought about integration,
management and re-use of the created knowledge architecture in the
knowledge systems. Some of the issue’s worth mentioning regarding
designing enterprises in knowledge architecture is strengthening
research so as to broaden the scope of how the structure is built (Gregor
& Legény, 2019). There were issues of structure, models, people, stream
of symbols, design, invention, teamwork, construction, interpretation
(Shishkov, Bogomilova, & Garvanova, 2020) among other factors.
These are all inclusive in designing enterprises in knowledge
architecture. Based on the connotation given to knowledge architecture
being tactical management style used for data resources in context-aware
framework, there is the provision for connection between explainable
view of organization and how data, information and knowledge are used
for improved decision-making among employees.
146
Fig 88: The FEAF EA process model (Chief Information Officer

Council, 2001)
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-FEAF-EA-process-model-
Chief-Information-Officer-Council-2001_fig2_220893843
Franklin (2019) refers to the following as consideration for designing

enterprises in knowledge architecture are: recognizing big data as a
priority in the organization, need not to lose sight of increasing
complexity, getting fused with the mission of the organization,
understanding and applying different datasets, appropriating clarity in
decision making. These are bound to afford knowledge workers the
opportunity supports each other without necessarily informing them.
There is the tendency that when these issues in designing enterprises in
knowledge architecture are fully considered, certain knowledge would
be unlock, resulting to discovery of unexpected trends of innovation
(Franklin, 2019). Therefore, employees should talk to each other to
understand what enterprises in knowledge architecture entails and apply
existing source of data to discover how the knowledge architecture
works. The reason was based on the enormous task the knowledge
architecture is capable of doing in the organization.
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Fig 89:: TOGAF ADM (The Open Group, 2009)

file:///C:/Users/USER/Downloads/EnterpriseArchitectingProblemsRevie
w-v8r4-FINAL.pdf
Fig 90: EA process model by Lankhorst (2005)

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/EA-process-model-by-Lankhorst-
2005_fig4_220893843
148
Fig 91: Categorization of Enterprise Architecting Issues

Figure Categorization attempt of concepts emerging from identified
codes
file:///C:/Users/USER/Downloads/EnterpriseArchitectingProblemsRevie
w-v8r4-FINAL.pdf
3.3.3 Implications of Ethical issues in Knowledge Management
By implications of ethical issues in knowledge management, we refer to

some of the suggestions through which harnessing, harvesting,
processing, storing and sharing of knowledge could be improved among
employees in the organization. The implication of ethical issues in
knowledge management according to Rechberg and Syed (2013) implies
deceasing the effort of sharing information and knowledge.
By this we are protecting the privacy of the intellectual capital of the

knowledge carriers. The essence of such protection is to have access to
the knowledge when it is most needed being that the drivers of the
organization and work productivity depends largely on the tacit type of
knowledge in knowledge management.
There are other forms of ethical issues associated with knowledge

management and this comprises of fight about knowledge ownership, as
many have claimed that knowledge is power (Akhavan, Ramezan, &
Moghaddam, 2013), therefore having its ownership become important as
the owner believed he/she would use it to advance his position and way
of life. Knowledge has proven to occupy 80% of the organization asset
in whatever they do KPMG (2003: 8). It is regarded as a strategic asset
that cannot be undermined. Most of the created knowledge are used by
others for one purpose or the other (Baird & Henderson, 2001; Teece,
1998). Therefore, there is need to consider its value, since most of how
149
it is evolved is rooted in patent. The issue of copyrights, and

organizational entities are very important because many people claim to
possess knowledge when they do not have such right.
One other important factor which is crucial in this regard is having a

standardized policy that aligns with the ethical issues associated with
knowledge management. Policy is crucial to guide against misuse and
abuse of the knowledge of patent and copyright. The consideration to
social settings, databases, software and research and development
(Granstrand, 1999), required to bring about infiltration of employee
innovations is crucial when dealing with ethical issues of knowledge
management (Dzinkowski, 2000), since knowledge remain the
brainpower of individuals and the organization (Stewart, 1997).
The requirements, enterprise and issues surrounding the designing of

enterprises in knowledge architecture is crucial in the organization. The
requirements of enterprise and issues surrounding designing the
enterprises in knowledge architecture are significant in relation to the set
objectives which the organization profess considering the diversities of
skills expertise of staff members. It is important to note that designing
enterprises in knowledge architecture require a holistic approach where
tacit type of knowledge and model are for the underlining mechanism
used to process, store and solve organizational problem. This brought
about some of the integration, management and re-use of created
knowledge architecture in the knowledge management systems in
organization. It was established that the implication of ethical issues in
knowledge management emphasis that owners of created knowledge
where able to refer to some of the suggestions through which
harnessing, harvesting, processing, storing and sharing of knowledge
could be improved among employees in the organization.
3.4 Summary
This unit established that the requirements surrounding the enterprise,

and issues of designing enterprises in knowledge architecture cannot be
devoid in any organization because those requirement serves as
determinants towards knowledge architecture. The intelligent operation
carried out in the organization result to the support system which
employees offer in relation to embedded application systems used to
administer job description. The functionality surrounding tasks depends
on the capability of the knowledge architecture having futuristic vision
to sustain the organizational structure based on the provision of the
architectural design in the knowledge architecture. Therefore, it
becomes imperative to take the design enterprises in knowledge
architecture seriously. This is because the implication is design
enterprises in knowledge architecture considering the knowledge model
150
used to capture the tacit type of knowledge required for the layout.
Another thing worth looking at is knowledge strength which the
structure of the knowledge architecture has in relation to its built. This
unit concludes that, the ethical issues associated with knowledge
management gave credence to the contest about knowledge ownership,
used as s power over others in the organization.
3.5 Glossary
1. The consideration for designing enterprises in knowledge

architecture are recognizing big data as a priority in the
organization, need not to lose sight of increasing complexity,
getting fused with the mission of the organization, understanding
and applying different datasets, appropriating clarity in decision
making.
2. Ethical issues associated with knowledge management comprises

the fight about knowledge ownership, as many have claimed that
knowledge is power
1. Why do you feel it is important to have the requirement of
sound enterprise knowledge architecture in the organization?
2. What is the requirement of enterprise knowledge architecture
Assignment File
1. Discuss the issues associated with having enterprises in
knowledge architecture?
2. What is the implication of ethical issues in association to
knowledge management?
Akhavan, P., Ramezan, M., & Moghaddam, J. Y. (2013). Examining the

role of ethics in knowledge management process: Case study: An
industrial organization. Journal of Knowledge-Based Innovation
in China.
https://www.academia.edu/10225280/Examining_the_role_of_et
hics_in_knowledge_management_process
Franklin T (2019). What Are the Costs of Not Investing in Knowledge

Architecture? https://towardsdatascience.com/knowledge-
architecture-the-path-to-better-decisions-d376ccd423f2
151
Gregor, P., & Legény, J. (2019). Role of research in architectural

education at FA-STU. World Trans. Eng. Technol. Educ, 17,
140-145.
http://www.wiete.com.au/journals/WTE&TE/Pages/Vol.17,%20
No.2%20(2019)/03-Gregor-P.pdf
Li, Z. (2020, December). On a Factorial Knowledge Architecture for

Data Science-powered Software Engineering. In 2020 The 4th
International Conference on Software and e-Business (pp. 20-
24).
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349727740_On_a_Fact
orial_Knowledge_Architecture_for_Data_Science-
powered_Software_Engineering
Liang P and Avgeriou, P (n.d). Chapter 6 Tools and Technologies for

Architecture Knowledge Management,
https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.471.9
632&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Shishkov, B., Bogomilova, A., & Garvanova, M. (2020, April). Four

enterprise modeling perspectives and impact on enterprise
information systems. In World Conference on Information
Systems and Technologies (pp. 660-677). Springer, Cham.
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-45688-7_66
Rechberg, I., & Syed, J. (2013). Ethical issues in knowledge

management: conflict of knowledge ownership. Journal of
Knowledge Management.
2013-
0232/full/html?casa_token=vDpGsl_O9qYAAAAA:pLE5AEQD
MD8REawvJ5iIpq2kL5FvzbkYtn6HB8g3z2Jdp0FLcZqPtucKffc
yQb4smAViRD5-
9PLdA03atxJfvEwBZCNu0i08Jd3fi8ODSrbzKZAcSXE
van Gent, I., Aigner, B., Beijer, B., Jepsen, J., & La Rocca, G. (2020).
Knowledge architecture supporting the next generation of MDO
in the AGILE paradigm. Progress in Aerospace Sciences, 119,
100642.
00543
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Xia, Q., & Rao, M. (1999). Knowledge architecture and system design
for intelligent operation support systems. Expert Systems with
Applications, 17(2), 115-127.
00299
Van Gent, I., Ciampa, P. D., Aigner, B., Jepsen, J., La Rocca, G., &
Schut, J. (2017). Knowledge architecture supporting
collaborative MDO in the AGILE paradigm. In 18th
AIAA/ISSMO multidisciplinary analysis and optimization
conference (p. 4139). https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/abs/10.2514/6.2017-
4139
Rechberg, I and Syed, J. (2013). Ethical issues in knowledge

management: Conflict of knowledge ownership, Journal of
Knowledge Management, 17(6), 10.1108/JKM-06-2013-0232,
2013-
0232/full/html?casa_token=VQkmnLRM4MUAAAAA:JRMYk
N7-01ecA38S-
3zjzP_F7bZJQEuT3_zNXQdUpkaGqLwUfTm7wVVkk86t9J7sz
Ie1RTwef9AKCuc5yLQ1qdrypQXx878miWm0kAU_jBx55JT2y
F8
153
1. Having a resounding enterprise knowledge architecture is

important in the organization because it helps to build a
knowledge architecture due to the dynamism across all sphere of
human endeavours. This is in accordance with the complexity of
activities and broad nature of the system having voluminous
architectural structure and design.
2. Planning and making use of tools, methods and structure before

execution of the blueprint are suitable and sustainable of
knowledge architecture.
154
MODULE 5 MEASUREMENT OF THE IMPACT OF

PROGRAMMES
Unit 1 Overview of knowledge measurement and purpose of

measurement of the impact of Knowledge Management
Unit 2 Implementing Knowledge Management Projects
Unit 3 Practical work in knowledge management
UNIT 1 OVERVIEW OF KNOWLEDGE MEASUREMENT

AND PURPOSE OF MEASUREMENT OF THE
IMPACT OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
Unit Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.3 Knowledge measurement
1.4 Purpose for measuring the impact of knowledge management
1.5 Summary
1.6 Glossary
1.1 Introduction
In the previous module 4, unit 3, we considered the requirements,

enterprise, and issues in designing enterprises in knowledge architecture
and implications of ethical issues in knowledge management.
In the present module 5, unit 1, we shall be looking at knowledge

measurement and purpose for measuring the impact of knowledge
management.
to:
• Explain knowledge measurement and purpose for which it is
being measured since the impact of knowledge management is
most significant in the organization
• Implication of measuring knowledge management in the
organization
155
1.3 Knowledge Measurement
Drawing analogy from the emphasis had in this module based on the
exposition of different authors from diverse context and research
background, it could be reiterated that, knowledge Management (KM) is
not a new phenomenon globally. The understanding surrounding what
knowledge Management is capable of doing brought its measurement in
the organization.
Knowledge measurement has to do with the act of measuring the

practices of individual and organizational knowledge in the organization
with regards to placing numerical value on it (Ragab, & Arisha, 2013).
Ahmed, Lim & Zairi (1999) note that knowledge measurement implies
measuring the impact of the evidence, applied knowledge and extent to
which knowledge has been used in diverse context and content.
Fig 92: Measuring knowledge and understanding the context

https://understandingcontext.com/2014/12/measuring-
knowledge/measuring-knowledge-6/
What is being measured in the organization could be regarded as work
performance, procedures used in carrying out the act, policy and tools
that enable the functionality of the activities (Ragab, & Arisha, 2013).
Therefore, in order to measure knowledge, we should be able to see the
impact it has made in the organization and employees based on what it
has been used for within and outside. Sometimes, it might be difficult to
measure knowledge from the ordinarily human perspectives but having
evaluated the extent to which knowledge has been acquired, processed,
stored, harvested and used for accomplishment of tasks, we are able to
tell its useful and what it has been used for in the organization (Kianto,
Ritala, Vanhala, & Hussinki, 2020). Issues surrounding, job description,
developing policy, work plan, evaluation and monitoring of staff jobs,
156
organizing of meetings among others could be seen from the

perspectives of what knowledge has been used for in the organization
(Kianto, Ritala, Vanhala, & Hussinki, 2020). Having accomplish some
of these tasks, knowledge is measured in this regard.
Fig 93: Measuring knowledge, skills and abilities

https://www.questionmark.com/measure-knowledge-skills-and-abilities-
before-during-and-after-learning/
The measurement of knowledge cannot be removed from any

organization and activities of work processes globally. This implies that
the validation and reliability of innovation, tasks, emphasis made among
colleagues, condition of services that propel further strengthen and result
accounted are surrounded by the measurement had from organizational
products and services. A clear picture of another scenario when it comes
to knowledge measurement according to Lopez, Hartz, Sammis, Hofer-
Alfeis, Wilson, and Raybourn (2001) is the determining the universality
and impact which employees has made in the organization based on
their contribution and work performance. Without the effort of
employees, every organization would not have been where they are
today globally, hence the need to recognize and appreciate extent to
which employees push to sustain organization through their personal
tacit knowledge application.
157
Fig 94: What Knowledge measured could do

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-concept-of-knowledge-and-
how-to-measure-it-Hunt/d9d90efecf1d59e8a0c8f39be453d94589c6a605
The measurement of knowledge in the organization has created a

different scenario, where employees have to put in more than expected
before their work performance are usually monitored to ascertain if they
have performed to expectation (Kimberly Lopez et al, n.d). This
indication implies that for everything that happens in the organization it
is being measured hence employees are able to determine the extent to
which the organization have transformed from where they started from
to present condition. The measurement of knowledge involves
application of initiatives, evaluation, assemble resources, and create a
conducive atmosphere to work.
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ez-1zBgCm8E
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YIMulToefqk
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H8tuH4LT7js
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tCFONOAPM4s
158
1.4 Purpose for Measuring the impact of Knowledge

Management
The purpose for measuring the impact of knowledge management differ

from one organization to another based on the product and services
which the organization are faced with on daily basis. Ahmed, Lim and
Zairi (1999) note that organization measure their knowledge based on
set objectives and goals. The reason that made Ahmed, Lim and Zairi
(1999) aligns the measurement of knowledge to the set objectives and
goals is that, it would make the organization and those working under it
to be more focused, such that, achieving greater heights become the
priority of the organization.
When addressing the measurement of knowledge, there are certain

element that comes to mind and these comprises of size in terms of work
or tasks carried out by employees, what the knowledge was used for in
the organization and change management that has taken place in the
organization (Al Ahbabi, Singh, Balasubramanian, & Gaur, 2018).
These are various effect on the procedures which employees used in
responding to the organizational needs in the system.
Fig 95: Purpose of measuring knowledge

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Measuring-the-Performance-of-
Knowledge-Management-
Resatsch/578e570a50722b1820bbeea487b11dee1296725d/figure/4
The measurement of knowledge in the organization draw inference to

control, evaluation, and improvement of documents and records used on
daily basis. When issue with knowledge measurement is discussed in the
organization, what come into mind is expression of numbers which
employees are certain about and can be substantiated in numeral
(Kianto, Ritala, Vanhala, & Hussinki, 2020). Another route through
which it could be figured out is based on evidence or result seen in what
employees have done in the organization. When action of job done is
159
unsatisfactory it therefore means no knowledge is shown to be

measured. It is imperative to note at this point that, when quantifying
knowledge among colleagues, what comes into mind is strategy,
performance, increase, satisfaction, reducing cost, customers need
among others.
Zhou and Fink (2003) and Capezzuoli and Jolly (2019), allude that, the
purpose for measuring the impact of knowledge management is to find
out the contribution which employees has made in the organization. It
was further deduced that collaboration; response period accountability
and various activities of work performance were part of the reasons to
which the purpose of measuring the impact the knowledge management.
In line with the above emphasis, Lindsey (2002), Chen, Huang and
Cheng (2009) and Fard and Selseleh (2010) attest to tasks, capabilities,
training, innovation, performance, and operation-ability and knowledge
management systems. These are measured using multiple‐choice test
and or epistemetric method.
Fig 96: Impact of Knowledge measurement

https://www.apqc.org/blog/why-and-how-measure-your-knowledge-
management-programs-performance
The essence of measuring tasks, capabilities, training, innovation,

performance, and operation-ability and knowledge management systems
as stipulated by Lindsey (2002), Chen, Huang and Cheng (2009) and
Fard and Selseleh (2010) is to ascertain the effort which employees put
into the organization throughout their years of working in the
organization. What happens in this case is to determine what each
employee is capable of doing through their tacit type of knowledge.
Therefore, the purpose for which measuring the impact of knowledge of
employees is significant because someone could determine what they
160
are able to do or accomplish in the transformation of the organization.

The essence of the diagram below is to attest to the work performance
which employees have been involved.
Knowledge measurement is most significant in the organization because

it measures the practices of work performance from inputting data,
harnessing information and applying tacit and explicit knowledge to
accomplish tasks in the organization. This implies there is need to attach
much importance to measuring individual and organizational
knowledge. What is considered when measuring knowledge is the
numerical value place on it. The numerical value emphasis on evidence,
work performance, procedures used in carrying out the act, policy and
tools that enable the functionality of the activities and extent to which
knowledge has been created and used in the organization. Therefore, the
purpose for measuring the impact of knowledge management cannot be
undervalued because it differs from one organization to another based
on different product and services faced with on daily basis.
1.5 Summary
This unit established that knowledge measurement encompasses

measuring the practices of individual and organizational knowledge in
the organization with regards to placing numerical value on it. What is
being measured is the evidence, or result of tasks accomplished in
relation to the exerted tacit and explicit knowledge used on daily basis
by employees. There is no way knowledge measurement cannot be
avoided in the organization because at the end of the day, the
organization would like to assess whether their set goals and objectives
are met. This is accordance with responsibility place on employees’
hand to handle. For knowledge measurement task or function to be
accomplished certain tools of people, policy, technologies, procedures
would be required. These help in ensuring the evaluation of the extent to
which knowledge has been acquired, processed, stored, harvested and
used for accomplishment of tasks are sustained and become useful in the
organization. Nonetheless the purpose for measuring the impact of
knowledge management differ between individuals and organization
since individuals and organization might not have the same
organizational pursuit and goals.
1.6 Glossary
1. Knowledge measurement is most significant in the organization
because it measures the practices of work performance from
inputting data, harnessing information and applying tacit and
explicit knowledge to accomplish tasks in the organization
161
2. The essence of measuring tasks, capabilities, training, innovation,

performance, and operation-ability and knowledge management
systems is to ascertain the effort which employees put into the
organization
1. What implication does knowledge measurement has over
colleagues in the organization?
2. How can staff members knowledge be measured over a period
of time
Assignment File
1. Discuss knowledge measurement and the purpose for which
measuring the impact of knowledge management is significant in
the organization
2. What is the implication of measuring knowledge management in
relation to tasks executed in the organization
Acosta-Prado, J. C., Severiche, A. K. R., & Tafur-Mendoza, A. A.

(2020). Conditions of knowledge management, innovation
capability and firm performance in Colombian NTBFs: A
measurement scale. VINE Journal of Information and Knowledge
Management Systems.
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09-2019-0142/full/html
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m_NLqNQnA0LWiudU5si_Salt0huKm01EtzbP6ql12KhsQUJP
VABERVrODNX2r0_wiDh-PzkXVOk1masaL9uG0iT-
zOG6hcpfaBncp2Qti1MUeu6M
Ahmed, P.K., Lim, K.K. & Zairi, M. (1999), Measurement practice for
knowledge management, Journal of Workplace Learning, Vol. 11
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html?casa_token=3KocgtBvgYYAAAAA:UWni6i9NtUnrOVSh
162
PiTOpQ_abVhvMWY68xRDWbDKzFsKfh4v6C5vSLLO3aj6Q
Q9c5QuZayct_6alyrsN3zfV2x1GUypeONn_kDJlHzGkGIVW9N
wg9dc
Al Ahbabi, S. A., Singh, S. K., Balasubramanian, S., & Gaur, S. S.

(2018). Employee perception of impact of knowledge
management processes on public sector performance. Journal of
knowledge management. https://dspace.adu.ac.ae/handle/1/1627
Anantatmula, V., & Kanungo, S. (2005, January). Establishing and

structuring criteria for measuring knowledge management efforts.
In Proceedings of the 38th annual Hawaii international
conference on system sciences (pp. 251b-251b). IEEE.
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Anantatmula, V. S. P. (2004). Criteria for measuring knowledge

management efforts in organizations. The George Washington
University.
https://www.proquest.com/docview/305183185/previewPDF/84F
12B69E6F74BF7PQ/1?accountid=14648
Bose, R. (2004). Knowledge management metrics. Industrial

management & data systems.
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MrMljog3UTGgMNuAPCIijp7kjKnF8HvPtBt1aUtkh1m6Jk3PcF
b4Re82Z8-
ckxhzh2DFG4BSWDxTvIK73KUO4MNP0CBhgWBr4gDyz0n
Q-FWLaM18
Capezzuoli, S., & Jolly, R. (2019). Measuring knowledge management:

evidence essentials in purpose-driven organizations. Knowledge
Management for Development Journal, 14(2), 5-20.
https://km4djournal.org/index.php/km4dj/article/view/385
Chen, M. Y., Huang, M. J., & Cheng, Y. C. (2009). Measuring

knowledge management performance using a competitive
perspective: An empirical study. Expert systems with
applications, 36(4), 8449-8459. https://www.s ciencedirect. com/
science/article/pii/S095741740800763X
163
Fard, H. D., & Selseleh, M. (2010). Measuring knowledge management

cycle: Evidence from Iran. European Journal of Scientific
Research, 41(2), 297-309.
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Minoo-
Selseleh/publication/228482904_Measuring_Knowledge_Manag
ement_Cycle_Evidence_from_Iran/links/604653b7299bf1e07865
f0da/Measuring-Knowledge-Management-Cycle-Evidence-from-
Iran.pdf
Kianto, A., Ritala, P., Vanhala, M., & Hussinki, H. (2020). Reflections
on the criteria for the sound measurement of intellectual capital:
A knowledge-based perspective. Critical Perspectives on
Accounting, 70, 102046.
01576
Lindsey, K. (2002). Measuring knowledge management effectiveness: A

task-contingent organizational capabilities perspective. AMCIS
2002 Proceedings, 285.
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=amcis2002
Lopez, K., Hartz, C., Sammis, S., Hofer-Alfeis, J., Wilson, J., &
Raybourn, C. (2001). Measurement for knowledge
management. Knowledge Management, 1-8.
http://www.providersedge.com/docs/km_articles/Measurement_f
or_KM.pdf
Lopez et al., K, October (2001). American Productivity & Quality

Center
http://providersedge.com/docs/km_articles/Measurement_for_K
M.pdf
Ragab, M. A., & Arisha, A. (2013). Knowledge management and

measurement: a critical review. Journal of knowledge
management.
2012-0381/full/html?queryID=15%2F5412930
Shannak, R. O. (2009). Measuring knowledge management

performance. European Journal of Scientific Research, 35(2),
242-253. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rifat-
Shannak/publication/235930491_Measuring_Knowledge_Manag
ement_Performance/links/09e41514629faaf3d1000000/Measurin
g-Knowledge-Management-Performance.pdf
164
Vestal, W. (2002). Measuring knowledge management. Retrieved

July, 7, 2003.
http://www.providersedge.com/docs/km_articles/measuring_km.
pdf
Zhou, A. Z., & Fink, D. (2003). The intellectual capital web: a

systematic linking of intellectual capital and knowledge
management. Journal of intellectual capital.
310455379/full/html?casa_token=erDVt-
TH_50AAAAA:nU7EKihY1qK1dZRRR3euEc7HoPVRHkZ919
9aCGURppU3asQkdsqnjoh1W2ZwY6Dg02rJvZwzydi4MYJ6IR
ZLQCBgYLfnU76LFSuXLC_H3Y1iKOxtEyU
165
1. The implication which knowledge measurement has over

colleagues in the organization is that, it helps to measure what
each employee are capable of doing in strengthening the work
force and how much they have also contributed leading to
transformation or growth of the organization, this implies that if
employees do not put in much of their time and expertise, the
result of the organization will be minimal.
2. Staff members knowledge can be measured over a period of time

based on the tasks they have performed. This task is measured
with other responsibility assigned to them which is in accordance
with getting the best out of them.
166
UNIT 2 IMPLEMENTING KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

PROJECTS
Unit Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.3 Implementing knowledge measurement projects
2.4 Summary
2.5 Glossary
2.1 Introduction
In the previous module 5, unit 21 we considered knowledge

measurement and purpose for measuring the impact of knowledge
management.
In the present module 5, unit 2, we shall be looking at implementing

knowledge measurement projects, which is most significant for the
organization, because projects are what sustain organization in terms of
getting incentives.
to:
Explain how to implement knowledge measurement projects in the

organization
2.3 Implementing Knowledge Measurement Projects
By implementing knowledge management projects, we imply strategies

which could be applied in accomplishing certain projects that staff
member is saddled with on daily basis. De Long, Davenport and Beers
(1997) allude to different knowledge management project such as
developing a framework, review of policy, aligning work performance
of staff members with objectives, training and retraining of staff
members where skills are transferred require the use and support of
people, technology, and adherence to procedures. There is no
organization that could function without implementation of knowledge
management projects. Therefore, the initiatives of employees and
technology play a significant role in accomplishment of knowledge
management project in the organization. Knowledge management
167
projects comprises of unit of activity in the organization. The

organization uses these projects to analysis cost of knowledge assets
possess my employees or individuals (Pereira, Santos, Dias, & Costa,
2021). The essence of knowledge management project is to generate or
create an environment where improvement of work performance is
attained. Certain companies such as Skandia, Bank of Montreal,
Hewlett-Packard corporation, and Dow Chemical have involved in
different knowledge management project (Pereira, Santos, Dias, &
Costa, 2021).
Fig 97: Implementing knowledge management projects in action

https://www.emergentworks.net/sites/default/files/ikmemergent_archive
/090817-ikm-working-paper-3-monitoring-and-evaluation-in-
knowledge-management-for-development.pdf
There are several knowledge management projects such as information

management project, consultancy research project, operational
management project, training and innovation projects among others too
numerous to mentioned. The mentioned knowledge management
projects could involve in different activities that may help their
organization. For example, a satellite communications company would
like to find out how to diminish its cycle time for manufacturing new
cable launch vehicles through the re-use of pertinent pieces of prevailing
product designs. Another knowledge management project which could
be referred to Hewlett-Packard corporation is established on the basis
that; they try to improve the superiority of the function of information
technology such that employees or staff members could carry out their
work operations very well. A Japanese competitor company created was
meant to underpin the creation of auto parts suppliers of intelligence
system, which are significant to the cost benefit business. The
underlying principles of incorporating knowledge management projects
in the organization is to ensure that knowledge is shared among
colleagues or staff members. The shared knowledge helps to
reinvigorate activities of work performance carried out by staff
168
members, where they apply their tacit type of knowledge (Davenport,

De Long & Beers, 1998).
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XPdOeNcvBo0
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T4kfPtObJ1k
Fig 98: Implementing knowledge management projects

https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/project-knowledge-management-
life-cycle-7137
Fig 99: Implementing knowledge management projects

https://www.ownerteamconsult.com/knowledge-management-in-
projects-based-organisations-part-2-exploiting-knowledge-capital/
169
The essence of the above-mentioned knowledge management projects is

to unravel what each knowledge worker is capable of doing and how
they would use their knowledge to improve and develop ideas. Cost
benefits analysis was part of the discussion surrounding the reason why
knowledge management project is important because in that regards,
instead of hiring an expert to come do the work, colleagues with open
hearts and willing to share their knowledge are able to solve such
problem and other surrounding circumstances. The reason is that,
usually when staff members are involve in different knowledge
management projects they contribute their quota in terms of sharing
responsibility and by so doing they unveil their knowledge unknowing
to them. This has a lot of implication in the organization and to the staff
members because that is also another way of marketing their capability
in the organization. Knowledge initiatives are not easy to come by as
such, it is in this kind of forum that colleagues share what they never
thought about and it give a lot of credibility to both he staffs members
and the organization.
There were other factors that could be attributed to why knowledge

management project become significant in the organization and this
comprises of the need to establish a goal and objectives that will guide
the project appropriately, advance a change management plan,
determine the process that could lead to having a success and better
foundation of the knowledge management project, the need to get
leaders involve in the project, assess the current state of the project,
create the condition where colleagues capability would resonate, build
an operational roadmap, thereafter implement the knowledge
management project, assess its efficiency and find out modality for a
continuous improvement of the projects (Fitzhugh, 2020).
170
Fig 100: Appendix Knowledge Management Projects in Study

https://www.google.com/search?q=Examples+of+knowledge+managem
ent+projects&rlz=1C1GCEA_enZA993ZA993&source=lnms&tbm=isc
h&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjbiMv0tMP5AhXBnVwKHfngDfYQ_AUoA
XoECAEQAw&biw=1366&bih=657&dpr=1#imgrc=yPVToMNrWwA
CPM
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wERiFFjkQ5Y
2.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OsrGRU62yB4
Implementing knowledge management projects require certain strategies

which could be used in accomplishing certain projects that staff member
is saddled with on daily basis. There are different knowledge
management projects such as information management project,
consultancy research project, operational management project, training
and innovation projects, developing a framework, review of policy,
aligning work performance of staff members with objectives, training
and retraining of staff members where skills are transferred require the
use and support of people, technology, and adherence to procedures.
The mentioned knowledge management projects could involve in
different activities that may help their organization. There is no
organization that could function without implementation of knowledge
171
management projects. Therefore, the initiatives of employees and

technology play a significant role in accomplishment of knowledge
management project in the organization.
2.4 Summary
This unit emphasizes that to implementing knowledge management

projects, several strategies are required or considered and this vary from
one organization or individual to another. Certain projects require
application of policy, technological tools and knowledge workers to
apply their tacit type of knowledge in carrying out the functionality of
the project. There are some projects that needed a formulated framework
based on a review of policy, which aligns with work performance of
staff members and objectives that drives training and retraining of staff
members where skills required for transfer in the organization. There are
several types of knowledge management projects such as information
management project, consultancy research project, operational
management project, training and innovation projects among others too
numerous to mentioned. These knowledge management projects involve
in different activities that may help the individual and organization.
2.5 Glossary
1. Knowledge management projects unravel what each knowledge
worker is capable of doing and how they use their knowledge to
improve and develop ideas.
2. Organization cannot function appropriately without
implementation of knowledge management projects
1. Develop similar knowledge management projects as identified
in this unit?
2. What is the significant of knowledge management projects
Assignment File
1. Discuss implementing knowledge measurement projects in the
organization.
2. Which approaches do you think would be most suitable in
implementing knowledge measurement projects
172
Fitzhugh, A (2020). 10 Tips for Implementing a Knowledge

Management System https://www.easyvista.com/blog/10-tips-
for-implementing-a-knowledge-management-system
Davenport, T. H., De Long, D. W., & Beers, M. C. (1998). Successful

knowledge management projects. MIT Sloan Management
Review, 39(2), 43.
https://www.proquest.com/docview/224965392?pq-
origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true
De Long, D., Davenport, T and Beers, M. (1997). What is a Knowledge

Management
Project?,http://www.providersedge.com/docs/km_articles/what_i
s_a_km_project.pdf
Pereira, L., Santos, J., Dias, Á., & Costa, R. (2021). Knowledge
management in projects. International Journal of Knowledge
Management (IJKM), 17(1), 1-14. https://www.igi-
global.com/article/knowledge-management-in-projects/269380
173
1. A similar knowledge management projects which could be

likened to the ones in this unit where university website is built,
library webpages and architectural design on the beautification of
the organization environment are some identified projects in this
unit
2. The significant of knowledge management projects is that it helps

the organization to be well position through generating of
revenue as source of income and the strength where infusion of
new knowledge is captured through knowledge sharing.
174
UNIT 3 PRACTICAL WORK IN KNOWLEDGE

MANAGEMENT
Unit Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.3 Practical Work of Knowledge Management
3.4 Summary
3.5 Glossary
3.1 Introduction
In the previous module 5, unit 2, we considered implementing

knowledge measurement projects, which is most significant for the
organization, because projects are what sustain organization in terms of
getting incentives and enforcing innovation.
In the present module 5, unit 3, we shall be looking at practical work of

knowledge management, being drivers of organizational projects and
work performances.
to:
Explain the practical work of knowledge measurement in the
organization
3.3 Practical Work in Knowledge Management
Practical work in knowledge management has to do with the actual work

performance where knowledge, either tacit and or explicit are exerted or
applied in the organization. This implies the application of knowledge
by employees in carrying out their job description on daily basis. It is
through the effort of these knowledge, tacit and or explicit that the
organization is sustained. Upadhyay and Kundu (2020) note that without
tacit knowledge management employees cannot function as that is the
bedrock of building development and transformation.
175
Fig 101: Practical works of KM

https://www.edrawmind.com/article/knowledge-management-
examples.html
What so ever that happens in the organization, either building model,

administrative learning, training and development, review of policy
among others are strengthened through the support of continuous use of
tacit and explicit knowledge. Therefore, on this note, the need to value
and sustain the work of knowledge management in the organization
become essential. The essence of this practice was to brings a
connection between the structured organization and their members such
organizational culture and goals are maintained.
Fig 102: Routine which KM is used for in the organization

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Knowledge-Management-for-
Routine-and-Structured-Information-Processing-MODEL-
1_fig1_228585526
Another view from extant literature of knowledge management indicate

that, the practical work of knowledge management is to establish the
transformation and improvement of the capability of the employees such
that, there will not be gap on the practices of job performance (Boamah,
Zhang, Wen, Sherani, Hayat & Horbanenko, 2021).). It is believed that
employees would do better when they have the right tools, procedures
176
and right class of team-players. This could be resounded from the

understanding that skills, capabilities, experience, technologies, routines
and norms are pivotal to the achievement of all practical works of
knowledge management (Boamah, Zhang, Wen, Sherani, Hayat, &
Horbanenko, 2021).
A practical experience or real-life situation which we can learn from

regarding the work of knowledge management could be seen from what
happens in Toyota company where cars are manufactured. Another
example is forest product. What happens in this enterprise is that, the
tacit type of knowledge is used to handle all the production of the
various parts and how the car are equally assembled. It was in line with
this emphasis that resonated to the debate regarding the work of
knowledge management being contextually and contently different
based on organizational goals and objectives.
Fig 103: Activities surrounding KM

https://www.scnsoft.com/blog/how-to-work-your-way-through-
knowledge-management
Rocha and Pinheiro (2021) allude to application of employee wisdom in

supporting the practice of knowledge management irrespective of the
circumstance such that, building organizational knowledge would not be
difficult. With this in mind, employees are able to understand the
activities and what each individual is capable of doing in the
organization. Ferreira, Mueller and Papa (2018) refer to the procedures,
strategies, theory and infrastructure used in the organization as
determinants in accomplishing the work of knowledge management.
These have served as components on reorganizing the work force such
that all set goals and objectives are met.
Meeting this goal and objectives requires critical planning and execution
of aligned policy that has been formulated (Probst, 1998; Tiwana, 2000;
Meri, 2020). The practical work of knowledge management varies in
177
context and content considering the products and services which the
organization is saddled with on daily or regular basis.
Fig 104: KM practices to follow

https://www.thecloudtutorial.com/advantages-of-knowledge-
management-system/
Tutorial (2022) alludes to factors such as low cost, cross fertilization of

employees’ ideas, documents and data harvesting, enhanced decision
making, balancing and restraining brain drain, learning from
experiences, Inspiration of Progress and Invention, Regulate Procedures,
offer Improved Service to Workers and Clients such that the easy of
finding of information is ensured. These necessitated the different
practical knowledge management work presented below.
Fig 105: thecloudtutorial.com/advantages-of-knowledge-management-

system/
management-system/
178
Fig 106: thecloudtutorial.com/advantages-of-knowledge-management-

system/
management-system/
Fig 107: Building block of Km

Arthur D. Little, https://www.thecloudtutorial.com/advantages-of-
knowledge-management-system/
179
Fig 108: https://www.thecloudtutorial.com/advantages-of-knowledge-

management-system/
Fig 109: Representation of the process underlying eligibility criteria

screening
https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/2001/2001.09795.pdf
180
Fig 110: Knowledge Portal

Fig 111: Architecture of the Stroke Portal StroPoS

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K-G_4ZYDinY
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pF_vtsVC3PY
3.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J1UIAfJH7Ps
The practical work of knowledge management is essential in at all

organization irrespective of its goals and objectives. It plays a vital role
in the accomplishment of the organizational goal considering the
181
complexity of tasks which employees are faced with on daily basis.

With such practical practices of work carried out, diversities of
initiatives are unfolded, bringing specialty of the individual handling
such tasks, as such colleagues in the organization should continually
promote and perform practical work in knowledge management where
they would have to come up with different projects that is intriguing and
dependable for a long-life learning practices in the organization.
3.4 Summary
It was established in this unit that, the practical work in knowledge

management encompasses a lot of issues ranging from development of
initiatives which later became projects in the organization, to actual
work performance. The most intriguing thing that brings about the
accomplishment of the whole tasks is the use of either tacit and or
explicit knowledge. With this in mind it is expected and encourage that
colleagues in the organization should have open mind to work together
in their various jobs speciation, such that having outstanding results
becomes a practical practice. Most of the practical work of knowledge
management attained was based on the effort of staff members willing
and ever ready to sacrifice their time and initiatives in sustaining the
organization.
3.5 Glossary
1. Knowledge management projects involves a scenario where staff

members cross fertilization ideas, documents and data harvesting,
enhanced decision making, balancing and restraining brain drain,
and learning from experiences.
2. Employee wisdom has become more useful as it helps in the

management and building organizational knowledge.
1. Mention some knowledge management practical work
2. Why do you feel knowledge management practical work is
important?
182
Assignment File
1. Discuss your understanding of the practical work in knowledge
management
2. How do staff members get involved practical work in knowledge
management
Boamah, F. A., Zhang, J., Wen, D., Sherani, M., Hayat, A., &
Horbanenko, O. (2021). Enablers of knowledge management:
practical research-based in the construction
industry. International Journal of Innovation Science.
https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJIS-09-
2020-
0142/full/html?casa_token=9fmV8rN1_LoAAAAA:eo9SEg_ldF
TyTrMfzm1RV9udzUxOlBLbw_V_bw4H9by1xoa1KAqRmyA-
U_Tjs-qXDZsnPVwNrL9e7Q-
VnQ24LEXHcpqtWVaVqESTRRBrk8mCS56ML2A
Ferreira, J., Mueller, J., & Papa, A. (2018). Strategic knowledge

management: theory, practice and future challenges. Journal of
knowledge management.
2018-0461/full/html
Probst, G. J. (1998). Practical knowledge management: A model that

works. PRISM-CAMBRIDGE MASSACHUSETTS-, 17-30.
Gilbert-
Probst/publication/271508998_Practical_Knowledge_Manageme
nt_-
_A_Model_That_Works/links/5864da2008ae8fce490c1a63/Practi
cal-Knowledge-Management-A-Model-That-Works.pdf
Meri, M. (2020). New Trends in HRM & Knowledge Management in

the Health Sector beyond COVID-19-A Practical
Model. Business Excellence and Management, 10 (SI 1), 5-21.
https://beman.ase.ro/special_issue_1/1.pdf
Rocha, R. G., & Pinheiro, P. G. (2021). Organizational spirituality and

knowledge management supporting organizational practical
wisdom. Spirituality Studies, 7(1), 68- https://www.spirituality-
studies.org/dp-volume7-issue1-
spring2021/files/assets/common/downloads/files/7-1-raysa-
geaquinto-rocha.pdf
183
Tiwana, A. (2000). The knowledge management toolkit: practical

techniques for building a knowledge management system.
Prentice hall PTR. https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.5555/323909
Tutorial C (2022). Advantages of Knowledge Management System: 10

Benefits to Consider,
management-system
Upadhyay, P., & Kundu, A. (2020). Linkage between business

sustainability and tacit knowledge management in MSMEs: A
case-based study. VINE Journal of Information and Knowledge
Management Systems.
https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/VJIKMS-
08-2019-0133/full/pdf?casa_token=BYp6-
p_GHzkAAAAA:ROGKqTnBon-
afe9PSsbNtoH7PqcFFMe6skhwyyt0DrTQ7ytW56pSWVc0Pa66
dxd5ftN4BmEBzeOYQdzCPVN43BJ6ctHD1CfD8gD0A9vbqH
wKttPjvdU
184
1. The knowledge management practical work represented in this

unit are important because it helps to determine the
operations/functionality which the organization are known for
and capable of accomplishing in present knowledge economy.
2. Some knowledge management practical work comprises of

building model, administrative learning, training and
development, review of policy, support to younger staff members
and sharing of tacit and explicit knowledge
185

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COURSE

Course Team Dr. Rexwhite Tega Enakrire (Course

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

© 2022 by NOUN Press

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any

Welcome to LIS 406: Knowledge Management. A two-unit credit

The concept of ‘knowledge management’ has attracted several

The reason that necessitates knowledge management in libraries and other

modules and fifteen units such that it would enhance student

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

In order for students to have a comprehensive understanding of this

It is expected that at this point students should read and acquaint

The course materials for this module LIS 406 ‘‘Knowledge

The course materials of knowledge management module, LIS 406

Module 1 Knowledge Management in Libraries

Unit 1 Overview/Definition, Objectives, Scope, and Models of

Module 2 Knowledge Sharing in Libraries

Unit 1 Definition, Objectives, and Methods of Knowledge Sharing

Module 3 Knowledge Management Systems and Strategies

Unit 1 Concept and objectives of Knowledge Management

Module 4 Knowledge Architecture, Ethical Issues, And Problems

Unit 1 Definition, and Purpose of Knowledge Architecture

Module 5 Measurement of the Impact of Knowledge Management

Unit 1 Overview of knowledge measurement and purpose of

In order to have a clear understanding of what the course entails, a

of students in their portfolio consists of the notes or jotting made during

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

COURSE MARKING SCHEME

This table represent the layout of total course marks

Assessment 30% (Undergraduate) 40% (Postgraduate)

Final Examination 70% (Undergraduate) 60% (Postgraduate)

Total 100% course work

HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THE COURSE

This could be strengthened through a thorough hard work of preparedness

It is expected that, students should work round all self-assessment

For the synchronous:

• When you do not comprehend any part of the units or the

• Have any questions or issues with an assignment or your tutor ‘s

Students are expected to read all recommended reading materials, make

Lastly, facilitator or course lecturer should respond to the questionnaire

Module 1 Knowledge Management in Libraries ………….. 1

Unit 1 Overview/Definition, Objectives, Scope,

Module 2 Knowledge Sharing in Libraries ……………….. 64

Unit 1 Definition, Objectives, and Methods of

Module 3 Knowledge Management Systems and

Unit 1 Concept and objectives of Knowledge

Module 4 Knowledge Architecture, Ethical Issues,

Unit 1 Definition, and Purpose of Knowledge

Module 5 Measurement of the Impact of Knowledge

Unit 1 Overview of knowledge measurement

MODULE 1 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN

Unit 1 Overview/Definition of Knowledge

UNIT 1 OVERVIEW/DEFINITION OF KNOWLEDGE

In module 1, unit 1, we shall be considering the overview and definition

knowledge management for better service delivery and work

1.3 Overview and Definition of Knowledge Management

Knowledge management has to do with the mechanism or capability by

Take for an instance, a student who registered for a certain course or

Knowledge management could be seen from the perspective of how

There are several reasons why knowledge sharing being part of