Cla 318

CLA 318
Technical Report Writing
University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

Open and Distance Learning Course Series Development
Copyright © 2017, Reviewed 2023 by Distance Learning Centre, University of
Ibadan, Ibadan
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright
owner.
ISBN: 978-021-837-8
General Editor: Prof. E.B. Omobowale
Universit y of Ib adan Dist ance Learning Centre

University of Ibadan,
Nigeria
Telex: 31128NG
Tel: +234 (8061400584)
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.dlc.ui.edu.ng
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Vice-Chancellor’s Message
The global switch to Open and Distance Education (ODE) is gaining considerable
acceptance in Nigeria. The Distance Learning Centre, over three decades of its
existence, has consistently built a system that makes Distance Education a viable
alternative for the teeming populace of Nigeria, seeking emancipation through
University education. The Distance Learning mode of study is not second-rated at the
University of Ibadan. Therefore, the university is committed to providing access to
higher education for many deserving Nigerians, especially those who because of
sundry reasons do not have the luxury of full time education in face-to-face setting.
The changing demographics of relatively young people seeking admission into the
UIDLC, which is engendered by the admission gridlock occasioned by minimal
access to the face-to-face mode of study has also contributed to the University’s poise
to give the Distance Learning Centre the full complement of support to make it a true
flag bearer of ODL solution in Nigeria. Younger candidates are now being given
access to leverage on the distance learning mode of study as an alternative to the face -
to-face mode of study.
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One of the ways of ensuring that actual learning takes place is the production ODL
compliant course materials by writers who are specially trained in ODL course
delivery. They have made good efforts in providing up-to-date information, knowledge
and skills in the different disciplines and at the same time making them user-friendly.
In addition to the provision of course materials in print and e-format, a lot of

Information Technology input has also gone into the deployment of the course
materials. Most of which can be downloaded from the UIDLC Learning Management
System (LMS) platform while some are also available as Open Educational Resources
(OERs). They are also available in audio format downloadable to mobile phones, IPod,
MP3 among other devices to allow learners listen to the audio study sessions. We will
continue in our efforts to provide and review course materials for our courses.
Nevertheless, to take advantage of these formats, learners will need to improve on

their digital competencies and develop requisite distance learning culture which
requires them to be self-paced and self-learning. These course materials afford learners
the opportunity to learn at their own individual pace, space and time.
I hereby urge you to put these course materials to the best use.
Prof. K.O. Adebowale

Vice-Chancellor
Foreword
In fulfilment of its mandate to emancipate Nigerians through widening access to
tertiary education, the University of Ibadan, Distance Learning Centre has been
making intentional efforts to reposition its distance education delivery for more
effectiveness. It aims at embracing a holistic and all-encompassing approach to the
delivery of its Open Distance Learning (ODL) programmes and making it more
seamless for its learners.
The administrative and academic framework and support given to our learners are
tailored toward a sustainable drive for effective continuous learning. Besides this, we
are committed to providing educational course materials for the use of our learners to
fulfil the ideals of distance education. Without up-to-date, learner-friendly and ODL
compliant course materials, there can be no basis to assert that the Centre is a provider
of distance learning education that conforms to global best practice. Therefore,
provision of appropriate course materials in multiple formats is at the forefront of the
UIDLC drive to be the flagship of distance Education in Nigeria.
From the foregoing, the Centre has made the provision for credible, learner -friendly
and interactive course materials for all its courses a priority. Authoring of, and review
of course materials are commissioned to a team of ODL experts who have been trained
in-house. Professional consultation is also done from time to time to ensure that the
outputs of these course materials are subjected to rigorous peer review so that high
standards are maintained. This approach not only emphasizes cognitive knowledge,
but also, skills which are at the core of education, even in an ICT age.
The development of the materials which is on-going also has input from experienced
editors and illustrators who have ensured that they are accurate and current. They are
specially written and graphics are deployed with the distance learner in mind. It is
important to note that, for a distance learner to excel, there is the need to read relevant
materials apart from this course materials. Therefore, adequate supplementary reading
materials, as well as other information are suggested in the course materials.
Learners are advised to seek the assistance of course facilitators, especially academic
advisors during their study of the course material, even before physical interactive
session which is designed for revision. Academic advisors will assist them in using
convenient technology application tools which include: Google Hang Out, YouTube,
Talk Fusion, etc. among others. It is also going to be of immense advantage if they
complete their assignments as and when due so as to have necessary feedbacks as
guide.
Nonetheless, a learner has the responsibility to develop requisite distance learning

culture which includes diligence, discipline and consistent self-study habit in order to
maximize this mode of study. They can also seek available administrative and
academic support made available by the Centre. This is why they are encouraged to
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develop their computer skills by availing themselves the opportunity of basic computer
training which the Centre’ provides.
Consequently, it is envisaged that the course materials would also be useful for the
students in the face-to-face mode of study. This underpins the parity of esteem policy
of the University of Ibadan where particularly, the same facilitators are engaged for the
two modes of study. Therefore, it is a delight to present these modules to both our
distance learners and the university students in the face-to-face mode. We are
confident that the materials will be of immense value to all.
Best wishes.
Professor E.B. Omobowale

Director
Course Development Team
Content Authoring Prof. Ebenezer Oludayo Soola
Babatunde Raphael Ojebuyi,
Obasanjo Joseph Oyedele,
Content Editor Prof. Remi Raji-Oyelade
Production Editor Prof. Omobola Adelore, O.F.W. Onifade Ph.D
ODL Material Converter Folajimi Olambo Fakoya
Managing Editor Ogunmefun Oladele Abiodun
General Editor Prof. E.B. Omobowale

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Table of Contents
About this course manual 1
How this course manual is structured............................................................................................................... 1
Getting around this course manual 4

Margin icons................................................................................................................................................................ 4
Study Session 1 5
Nature of Technical Report Writing ....................................................................................................................... 5
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 5
Terminology ................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Nature of Technical Reports.............................................................................................................. 5
1.2 Attitude to Reports ............................................................................................................................... 6
1.3 Classification and Contexts of Reports........................................................................................... 6
1.3.1 Major Classification and Contexts of Reports.............................................................. 7
1.3.2 Other Criteria for Classifying Reports ............................................................................ 7
1.4 Guidelines for Report Writing .......................................................................................................... 8
Study Session Summary.......................................................................................................................................... 9
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................10
Bibliography..............................................................................................................................................................10
Study Session 2 11
Structure of a Report ...............................................................................................................................................11
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................11
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................11
2.1 Components of a Good General Report .......................................................................................11
2.2 Components of Technical Reports ................................................................................................14
2.2.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................14
2.2.2 Executive Summary............................................................................................................14
2.2.3 Components of Executive Summary .............................................................................15
2.2.4 Methodology or Procedure ..............................................................................................15
2.2.5 Findings ..................................................................................................................................16
2.2.6 Conclusions............................................................................................................................16
2.2.7 Recommendations ..............................................................................................................16
2.2.8 Appendix/Appendices .......................................................................................................17
Study Session Summary........................................................................................................................................17
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................17
Bibliography..............................................................................................................................................................18
Study Session 3 20
The Report Writing Process....................................................................................................................................20
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................20
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................20
3.1 Steps involved in the Packaging of a Report..............................................................................20
3.1.1 Step I: Statement of the Problem and Purpose of the Report ..............................21
3.1.2 Step II: Know the reader or audience of the report (Audience Analysis)........21
3.1.3 Step III: Gathering Materials............................................................................................22
3.1.4 Step IV: Sort, Analyze and Interpret your Data.........................................................23
3.1.5 Step V: Preparing your Drafts and Final Copy...........................................................23
3.2 False Assumptions about Reports and their Audiences ........................................................24
3.3 Report Audience ..................................................................................................................................25
3.3.1 Operational Characteristics .............................................................................................25
3.3.2 Objective Characteristics ..................................................................................................26
3.3.3 Personal Characteristics ...................................................................................................26
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................27
Bibliography..............................................................................................................................................................27
Study Session 4 28
Types of Reports......................................................................................................................................................28
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................28
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................28
4.1 Categories of Reports.........................................................................................................................28
4.1.1 Progress reports ..................................................................................................................28
4.1.2 Periodic Reports ..................................................................................................................30
4.1.3 Field Trips Reports .............................................................................................................30
Planning For Field Trip Reports ................................................................................... 31
Components of Field Trip Reports............................................................................... 31
4.1.4 Investigative Reports .........................................................................................................31
The Role of Evidence in Investigative Reports ........................................................ 32
The Rules of Evidence in Investigative Report Writing ....................................... 32
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................35
Bibliography..............................................................................................................................................................36
Study Session 5 37
Pitfalls in Technical Report Writing ......................................................................................................................37
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................37
5.1 Short-Comings in Report Writing ......................................................................................................37
5.1.1 Ignoring the Audience........................................................................................................37
5.1.2 Writing to Impress..............................................................................................................37
5.1.3 Having more than one Aim ..............................................................................................38
5.1.4 Inconsistency ........................................................................................................................38
5.1.5 Over-Qualifying....................................................................................................................38
5.1.6 Failure to Define ..................................................................................................................38
5.1.7 Improper Introduction ......................................................................................................39
5.1.8 Dazzling the Audience with Data ...................................................................................39
5.1.9 Failure to Highlight .............................................................................................................39
5.1.10 Failure to Re-write ...........................................................................................................39
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Assessment................................................................................................................................................................40
Bibliography..............................................................................................................................................................40
Study Session 6 41
Writing Proposal........................................................................................................................................................41
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................41
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................41
6.1What are Proposals?............................................................................................................................41
6.1.2 The Need for Proposal .......................................................................................................42
6.1.3 Types of Proposal ................................................................................................................42
6.2 Components of a Proposal ...............................................................................................................43
6.2.1 Title Page ................................................................................................................................43
6.2.2 Abstract/Summary .............................................................................................................43
6.2.3 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................43
6.2.4 Resources (Human and Material)..................................................................................43
6.2.5 Methodology .........................................................................................................................44
6.2.6 Budget .....................................................................................................................................44
6.2.7 Benefits of Accepting the Proposal................................................................................44
6.2.8 Appendix.................................................................................................................................45
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................45
Bibliography..............................................................................................................................................................46
Study Session 7 47
Language Use in Report Writing........................................................................................................................47
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................47
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................47
7.1 Report Writing Style...........................................................................................................................47
7.1.1 Clarity ......................................................................................................................................47
7.1.2 Precision .................................................................................................................................48
7.1.3 Economy .................................................................................................................................49
7.1.4 Formality of Tone ................................................................................................................49
7.1.5 Paragraph...............................................................................................................................49
7.1.6 Beyond the Paragraph .......................................................................................................50
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................51
Bibliography..............................................................................................................................................................52
Study Session 8 53
Writing Memos..........................................................................................................................................................53
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................53
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................53
8.1 Defining a Memo..................................................................................................................................53
8.1.1 Subject Matter of Memos ..................................................................................................54
Reporting decisions .......................................................................................................... 54
Response to a memo from someone else .................................................................. 54
Reporting (documenting) understanding reached in meetings or
conversations ...................................................................................................................... 54
Directions of memos ......................................................................................................... 54
8.2 Organizing the Memo.........................................................................................................................55
8.2.1 The Content of Memos .......................................................................................................55
8.2.2 Format of Memos.................................................................................................................56
8.2.3 Language of Memos ............................................................................................................59
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................60
Bibliography..............................................................................................................................................................60
Study Session 9 61
Writing Letters ...........................................................................................................................................................61
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................61
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................61
9.1 Letters .....................................................................................................................................................61
9.1.2 Types of Letters....................................................................................................................62
9.1.3 Components of the letter ..................................................................................................62
9.2 Format of a Letter ...............................................................................................................................63
9.2.1 Language ................................................................................................................................65
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................67
Bibliography..............................................................................................................................................................67
Study Session 10 68
Writing Minutes of Meetings.................................................................................................................................68
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................68
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................68
10.1 Summarizing Information .............................................................................................................68
10.1.1 Summary Writing Skills ..................................................................................................69
10.1.2 Strategies for Summarization.......................................................................................69
10.2 Writing Minutes ................................................................................................................................69
10.2.1 Language Use in Taking Minutes.................................................................................70
10.2.2 Structure of Minutes ........................................................................................................70
10.2.3 Language watch in minutes taking .............................................................................72
10.3 Types of Minutes ...............................................................................................................................73
10.3.1 Resolution minutes ..........................................................................................................73
Advantages of Resolution Minutes .............................................................................. 73
Disadvantages of Resolution Minutes ........................................................................ 74
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................74
Bibliography..............................................................................................................................................................74
Notes on Self Assessment Questions 76
References 81
About thisNature of Technical Report Writing
About this
Technical Report Writing CLA 318 has been produced by University of
Ibadan Distance Learning Centre. All s produced by University of Ibadan
Distance Learning Centre are structured in the same way, as outlined
below.
How this is structured

The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.
Information contained in the course overview will help you determine:
 If the course is suitable for you.
 What you will already need to know.
 What you can expect from the course.
 How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.
The overview also provides guidance on:
 Study skills.
 Where to get help.
 Course assignments and assessments.
 Margin icons.
We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

starting your study.
The course content

The course is broken down into Study Sessions. Each Study Session
comprises:
 An introduction to the Study Session content.
 Study Session outcomes.
 Core content of the Study Session with a variety of learning activities.
 A Study Session summary.
 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.
 Bibliography
Your comments
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CLA 318 Technical Report W riting
After completing Technical Report Writing we would appreciate it if you

would take a few moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this
course. Your feedback might include comments on:
 Course content and structure.
 Course reading materials and resources.
 Course assignments.
 Course assessments.
 Course duration.
 Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this
course.
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Getting around this
Margin icons
While working through this you will notice the frequent use of margin
icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text, a new
task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to find
your way around this .
A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize
yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.
Activity Assessm ent Assignm ent Case study
Discussion Group Activity Help Outcomes
Note Refl ection Readi ng Study skills
Summary Terminology Time Tip
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Study Session 1Nature of Technical Report Writing
Study Session 1
Nature of Technical Report Writing

Introduction
Technical report writing is significantly different from other forms of
writing. This is because of its nature, different approaches for writing it
and the strategies it requires. In this lecture, we present the nature of,
approaches to, and strategies adopted for writing effective technical
reports.
Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
1.1 define technical report
1.2 discuss the possible effect of attitude on writing technical reports
Outco mes 1.3 list and apply the guidelines for writing technical reports.
Terminology
Report An informational work made with the specific intention of
relaying information or recounting cert ain events in a way
that is concise, factual and relevant to the audience at
hand.
Technical report A document that describes the process, progress, or

result s of t echnical or scientific research or the state of a
technical or scientific research problem.
1.1 Nature of Technical Reports

By report writing, we mean a formal account of the proceedings,
decisions and conclusions of a person or members of some group of
people who are charged with the responsibility of presenting a report or
documentation on an assigned topic of interest and concern. By their
nature, reports are distinctive and specialized. Reports are designed and
packaged with a view to enabling an individual or group to make an
informed decision(s). They are often structured and presented to facilitate
the decision-making process of an organization. A report is expected to
be an objective, authoritative document that recounts, in a clear and
readable manner, the various dimensions of what is investigated or
executed. It must be presented in a truthful and fair manner as possible.
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Reports are, however, susceptible to the so-called Rashomon effect or

phenomenon (or how different vested interests or parties to an event give
different and often contradictory accounts of what has transpired), a
factor that makes us aware that it is often difficult to find out the truth
about what happened when questioning witnesses and parties involved in
an incident. Objectivity is also often threatened, moderated or even
undermined by the way those who report on events interpret the evidence
they elicit from witnesses or suspects. Nevertheless, we can, and should,
make our reports as truthful as possible by avoiding being lied to by
suspects and witnesses involved in some incident, as well as by avoiding
injecting partisan perspectives into our interpretation of the information
we obtain.
1.2 Attitude to Reports

It is interesting and instructive to note that attitudes differ with regard to
reports, particularly reports that are investigative in nature. Generally,
however, report writing must be seen as a very serious, even scared
responsibility. This is because; our reports may provide the sole basis for
far-reaching decisions that may determine the fate of others. The report
writer needs not to worry, however, provided he has carried out his
assignment with utmost sense of responsibility, objectivity and fairness.
Report writing tasks are usually assigned to men and women of
considerable organizational writing experience, skills and proven
integrity. These are personnel with keen and balanced sense of judgment
whose evaluation of people, situations and circumstances can be relied
upon to make informed judgements.
ITQ
Question
Disciplinary reports and situation reports are examples of ………….
A. Authorized reports
B. Occasional Reports
C. Informal Reports
D. Progress Reports
Feedback
The correct answer is option B.
Disciplinary reports and situation reports are examples of occasional
Reports.
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1.3 Classification and Contexts of Reports

Reports are as varied as situations and circumstances. But for our purpose
in this course, we will classify reports into three groups, though these are
not necessarily mutually exclusive, nor are they exhaustive. Rather, the
list is selective.
Let us look at the parameters for classifying reports:
1.3.1 Major Classification and Contexts of

Reports
The major classifications and context of reports are:
1. Regular and Routine reports: periodic reports and progress reports.
2. Occasional reports: disciplinary reports, situation reports.
3. Special reports: policy formulation reports, investigative reports, field
trip reports and proposal reports
1.3.2 Other Criteria for Classifying Reports

Other criteria for classifying reports include:
1. Source: Reports may also be classified according to source-
authorized or voluntary. Authorized reports are requested for or
demanded by an individual, a boss or corporate organization. When it
is voluntary or unsolicited, it is self-initiated. The source of a report
may determine its content or even its style of presentation because
some organisations impose a house style on the mode of presentation
of reports.
2. Function: Reports are designed and packaged to perform specific
functions. Some reports are written specifically to inform the
reader(s). Others are written to analyze, interpret or evaluate issues,
situations and circumstances. Whatever, their function, reports must
be seasoned with facts, evidence, data, exhibits. Some of these may
be sourced directly or surreptitiously, without a person being
investigated knowing that a dossier is being prepared on him. Many
individuals being investigated often marvel at, or even break down
when confronted with reports that detail information concerning
them, particularly when such information has not been volunteered
by the person or people being investigated.
3. Frequency: Reports may also be classified according to the frequency
with which they are written. There are progress, special, periodic, and
occasional reports. Briefly stated:
a. Progress or interim reports are written between the
commencement and completion of an operation, an
investigation, a task, a project or an assignment.
b. Periodic reports, on the other hand, are written at regular
intervals—hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, annually, and so
on. They are usually written to monitor unfolding events.
c. Special reports are usually written at irregular intervals. They
are often written in response to non-routine occurrences or
needs.
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d. Occasional reports are often written once a while, as occasion

demands.
4. Formality: Reports can be formal or informal. Most institutional
reports are formal in style, structure and mode of presentation. Most
formal reports deal with complex issues and are, therefore, elaborate
in scope and structure. They are, thus, sectionalized broadly into
prefatories and supplemental. Prefatories include cover page, title
page, authorization, acceptance, letter/memo of transmittal,
acknowledgements, table of contents. List of tables, abstract or
summary. Supplementals are appendices, references/bibliography.
Informal Report: In institutional/organisational interactions and activities,
there is room for on-the-spot, informal, unwritten reports. Some of these
are given preparatory to a written report later, if and when it is deemed
necessary to do so. An informal, written report is usually characterized by
single-issue coverage; it is thus often less elaborate than formal reports.
ITQ
Question
……. are requested for or demanded by an individual, a boss or
corporate organization.
A. Authorized reports
B. Informal Reports
C. Routine Reports
D. Progress Reports
Feedback
The correct answer is option A.
Authorized reports are requested for or demanded by an individual, a
boss or corporate organization.
1.4 Guidelines for Report Writing

Technical reports have specific guidelines that their writers must follow
to the letter. This is because it a serious venture and an investment with
short-term and long-term consequences. We present these guidelines in
this section. As stated earlier in this course, report writing is a serious
affair. It must be judiciously planned and executed. To this end, the report
writer must bear in mind a number of guidelines:
1. Adopt a formal impersonal style: it is not a report to your friends and
relations so don’t use a loose style of writing.
2. Avoid emotion- laden language: there is no need for introduction of
emotion or personal feelings because you are dealing with facts.
Emotions undermine the effectiveness and integrity of the report and
its writer. A report is expected to be an objective and reasoned
document, backed by necessary information, data and evidence from
which conclusions are drawn and recommendations made. The
dictum is, “show, don’t tell”!
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3. Provide evidence to support conclusion: before you conclude, you

have to prepare a ground (instances) that will make your conclusion
valid.
4. Detail your decision-making process: give a step-by-step process that
led to the final decision; don’t merely jump into a conclusion without
giving details. Readers are always looking for the procedure or
methodology adopted in writing the report and if you fail to describe
how you arrived at your decision, you would have foisted that
responsibility on your audience who may need an awful lot of time to
figure out how you arrived at your decision. Even when you offer a
detailed explanation of how you did this, most people will still ask
5. Be specific: general statements that cannot be supported by facts
should be avoided. Be specific in details and choice of words. It is
important that you maintain your focus and avoid making
generalizations beyond the limit of your data or evidence. It is
important that we shield ourselves from unnecessary attack and
criticism. Use factual materials, statistical data, quotations from
interested parties and oral evidence, as well as suggestions from
trusted experts to make your case. Avoid platitudes, trite expressions
or cliché and generalizations.
ITQ
Question
Examples of special reports include the following except:
A. Policy formulation reports
B. Investigative reports
C. Informal Reports
D. Field trip reports
Feedback
The correct answer is option C.
Examples of Special reports include policy formulation reports,
investigative reports, field trip reports and proposal reports.
Study Session Summary

In this study session, you observed that reports usually deal with events,
people, issues, problems, progress (or the lack of it), complaints,
investigation and outcomes. They are usually designed, constructed and
Summary
packaged with a view to enabling the receivers to understand and
appreciate important organizational and executive decisions, operational
and technical directives, policies and procedures.
We examined the specific guidelines that report writers must diligently
adhere to in order to produce good reports that meet the universal
standards. For example, the report writers be must formal neutral,
specific, and always provide verifiable evidence to support their
conclusion.
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Assessment
SAQ 1.1 (tests Learning Outcome 1.1)
Briefly state the goal of writing a report.
Assessment SAQ 1.2 (tests Learning Outcome 1.2)
In describing our attitude towards report writing, it has been said that
report writing must be seen as a very serious and sacred responsibility.
Why?
Classify reports based on frequency.
In report writing, what does the dictum “show, don’t tell” mean?
Bibliography
Cunningham, Donald, E.O. Smith, and T.E. Pearsall (2005). How to Write
for the World of Work. Seventh Edition. Boston: Wadsworth
Gerson, J., Sharon and S. Gerson (2006). Technical Writing: Process and
Product. Fifth Edition. NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall
Read ing
VanAlsytne, and Judith (2005). Professional and Technical Writing
Strategies: Communication in Technology and Science. Sixth Edition. NJ:
Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Johnson-Sheehan, R. (undated). Planning and Organizing Proposals and
Technical Reports. Purdue University, Indiana
Krizan, A.C. Patricia, M. and Jones, C.L. (2005). Business Communication.
Sixth Edition. Canada: Thomson South-Western
Morgan, W., McCall, Jr., and Hollenbeck, G.P. (2002). Developing Global
Executives. Boston: Harvard Bus iness School Press
Berger, A.A. (1985). Improving Writing Skills, London: Sage Publication
Cunningham, Donald, E.O. Smith, and T.E. Pearsall (2005). How to Write
for the World of Work. Seventh Edition. Boston: Wadsworth
Evans, D.W. (1983). People, Communication and Organisations. London:
Pitman Polytechnic
Gerson, J., Sharon and S. Gerson (2006). Technical Writing: Process and
Product. Fifth Edition. NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall
Herman, W. and Young, J.M. (1978). Troubleshooting Basic Writing Skills.
New York: McGraw Hill Inc.
Soola, E.O. (1998). Modern Business Communication. Ibadan: Kraft Books
Ltd.
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Study Session 2Structure of a Report
Study Session 2
Structure of a Report
Introduction
A report is structured in a unique way different from the structures of
other forms of writing. The heading and subheadings help to guide the
reader through the report. The structure is like road signs and the report is
expected to be spiced generously in order to achieve the aims. After the
heading and sub-headings, the report is broken into sections for easy
understanding. The heading (title) must encapsulate everything in the
report. Therefore, do not shy-away from using the heading, sub-headings
and sections if you want your report to be easily read, comprehensive and
detailed.
Learning Outcomes
2.1 list and explain the componential structure of a good technical report
Outco mes
Terminology
Title The name of a book, composition, or other artistic work.
Author A person who has written a book or who writes many

books
Summary An overview of content that provides a reader with the

overarching theme, but does not expand on specific
details.
2.1 Components of a Good General Report

The structure of a report will be determined by the length and scope of
the report, as well as by the complexity of the issue examined. A detailed,
full length, formal report is usually divided into many component parts
for ease of presentation and comprehension. It has been stated above that
reports are sectionalized; they are structured and divided into headings
and sub-headings, which serve to signpost the reader through the report.
This structuring is essential because the report reader is like a traveler on
11
a new, unfamiliar road. The heading and sub-headings are like road signs;
they help to signpost the reader through the report. In addition, without
the heading and sub-headings, the report will look like a mass of
undifferentiated, continuous prose, which the reader has to wade through
unguided. The components of a detailed, full report include title page,
author(s), authorization, date of submission, introduction,
abstract/executive summary, problem, purpose, scope, sources, and
limitations. Others are background/history/terms of reference,
methodology/procedure, body of the report, summary of findings,
conclusion, recommendations, appendix, and circulation.
Below is a brief explanation of the components:
 Title: This must be a definitive highlight of the central theme of the
report. It summarizes the content of the whole report.
 Author(s): This is the name or names of the person or people
responsible for putting the report together.
 Authorization: This gives the name(s) of the person(s) or the body
that authorized the report. This is preferably stated in a
conversational tone: “This report is written in response to…”
However, this component needs not appear in self-initiated or
unsolicited reports.
 Summary/Abstract: This must tell the reader, in a brief form, what is
contained in the text of the report. It enables busy executive members
to survey, at a glance, the content of the report. The executive
summary must contain all that is necessary (yet in a brief form) to
make informed decisions based on the report.
Curiously enough, in spite of its coming early in the report, this component
should not be written until the rest of the report has been written. This should
be so because the writer is not likely to be able to anticipate, from the start, all
the possible problem, issue or situation that necessit ated the report.
Not e
 Problem: This deals with the particular problem, issue or situation

that necessitated the report. The statement of the problem should
provide answers to such questions as:
What is the need for this report?
What issue or matter has been addressed or investigated?
What issue is yet to be addressed or investigated?
 Purpose: This is a categorical statement of the report objective or
aim. It is a very important component of the report. It should be
stated in a clear and unambiguous manner: “The purpose of this
report is …” “The objective of this report is …”
 Source(s): This constitutes the source(s) from which information was
drawn in putting the report together. There are both primary and
secondary sources. Some of them are repeated here for emphasis:
observations, experiments/tests, relevant publications, organizational
records, memos, personal diaries, electronic databases, etc.
 Limitations: This is a reference to constraints such as lack of access
to relevant data (in cases of classified data or inaccessible material),
unwholesome interview situation, participant- observation
12
environment, sample/respondent size, and, to a limited extent, limited

funds and time. These factors may influence the findings of an
investigation. They constitute an acknowledgement of the gap
between the ideal research proposal and the practical realities of
fieldwork.
 Background/History/Terms of Reference: This refers to the
preliminary information essential for the understanding of the main
text of the report. It helps to contextualize the report by linking it
with its relevant past so that the reader can understand the present
context of the report.
 Methodology/Procedure: This refers to the method(s) of data
collection and analysis. Some formal and informal reports may be
written without recourse to any external source of information.
However, many extended reports require systematized
methodological procedure for collecting and analyzing data, as well
as for presenting results.
 Body of the Report: This is the longest, most detailed part of the
report. This section is devoted to providing the details that should
help to justify the purpose of the report.
The body of the report must cover the basic elements of who, what,
where, when, why, and how. It should provide answers to such
questions as:
 Who is involved in the matter being investigated or reported
upon?
 What happened?
 When did it take place?
 Why is the matter of concern?
 How did it happen
ITQ
Question
…….. summarizes the content of the whole report.
A. Summary
B. Title
C. Author
D. Purpose
Feedback
Title summarizes the content of the whole report.
Because of the length of the body, the report writ er must give attention to
organisation and sub-headings to signpost the reader through the report.
Not e
13
 Findings: This is the outcome of the data analyzed, the synthesis of

literature, the scrutiny of evidence received and the interviews
conducted. This is what the reporter has come up with or found out.
Here, as a report writer, you need to clearly signpost your important
findings and emphasize by prominently displaying your points, using
boldface, underlining and capitalization. While you may choose to
present your findings in continuous discourse, it is advisable to
itemize them so that ach stands out clearly.
 Recommendation(s): This serves to suggest the best course of action
in view of the evidence available in the report. While being
categorical, it must at the same time be persuasive; it must urge,
suggest or advise rather than threaten the report user. Thus, this
section may carry a sub-heading as suggested course of action.
 Appendix: This is the storehouse of information, which is not of
immediate and practical relevance to the report. The section tucks
away materials- questionnaire, photographs, memoranda, excess
data- for occasional reference and update of the content.
 Circulation: (Not often specifically stated in long formal reports with
authorization and/or letters of transmittal). Circulation lists the
personnel, officials, bodies or organisations, which must receive
copies of the report.
2.2 Components of Technical Reports

There are myriads of components that make up a technical report. As
much as they are all essential to a report, we will be limited to some of
them. Among them are the ones discussed in this section.
2.2.1 Introduction
This global statement opens the window into a report. It provides what
the reader is expected to find in the report. It is an overview and not the
specifics for the reports. It does not deal with the specific items in a
report but a general caption. It is not stringing together of the table of
contents. In some reports, executive summary precedes the introduction.
2.2.2 Executive Summary

Although it is located very early in a report, (even before the
introduction), it is not written until the final report is prepared or end of
the report. This is because the writer will not be able to anticipate what
digressions, investigations, modifications and activit ies would be
involved at the beginning. Executive summary is a quick decision aider
and it helps in understanding the entire report in a brief manner.
Executive are busy people who do not have time to read the whole report
but a summary; at most two paragraphs. Therefore, effective skills of
summary writing will be needed here.
14
ITQ
Question
…….. is a categorical statement of the report objective or aim.

A. Summary
B. Title
C. Author
D. Purpose
Feedback
The correct answer is option D.
Purpose is a categorical statement of the report objective or aim.
2.2.3 Components of Executive Summary

Because an executive summary is essential and brief (one to two pages
maximum), it must contain:
1. The problem that the report addressed must be highlighted in a clear
manner.
2. The method used in sourcing materials or data must be clearly stated.
3. The findings or the outcome of the method used should be clearly
presented.
4. The conclusion must be stated in a clear manner.
5. Finally, there is the recommendations section, which must come last
in a report.
ITQ
Question
………. provides what the reader is expected to find in the report.
A. Executive summary
B. Procedure
C. Introduction
D. Findings
Feedback
Introduction provides what the reader is expected to find in the report.
2.2.4 Methodology or Procedure

Here, methodology or procedure is about the techniques, steps, and
methods used in solving or investigating a problem. Where did the writer
go, which questions were asked, who were the respondents and their
variables, why did the writer use the technique? All these questions are
answered under the methodology.
15
2.2.5 Findings
The results of the methodology are the findings. The findings must not be
lumped-up in the write-up or subsumed under a section. It must stand out,
be well numbered, labelled and placed for everybody to clearly see. They
must not be in a paragraph but itemized numerically. Because they
essentially weigh the research efforts, findings must not contain anything
outside of, or extraneous to, the report. They are different from
recommendations in that findings stem from the body of the report while
recommendations stem from the findings.
2.2.6 Conclusions
As much as the introduction as a global statement leads the reader to a
report, the conclusion as a complete picture of the report evaluates or is
an evaluative account of the demand of the report. This explains the final
decision or outcome of the writer after serious investigation,
interpretation, and resolution. Do not lump conclusion with
recommendations. They are two separate items which must be separately
highlighted. Therefore, do not say conclusions and recommendations.
2.2.7 Recommendations
This section is advisory and not threatening which in other word means
“suggested lines of actions”. This is what the writer offers the
commissioner(s) as solutions to be implemented if the problem will be
solved. Know that the commissioner has the prerogative to adopt, take a
portion, or reject the suggested lines of action. Therefore, your job starts
from the commissioning and ends at the submission stage: it is possible
your report is not used for the next three years. They must be put together
to meet the view that reports are written to enhance rational decision
making. They are suggested lines of actions, which may serve as
springboards for other writers who may have interest in working on
similar or related subject. The recommendations should also be listed,
numbered like the findings, but be prioritized in the sequence that must
be followed in order to achieve the objectives. For instance,
recommendation 1, must be prioritized and implemented before number
2, and this must be given attention by the writer.
ITQ
Question
…………. is the longest, most detailed part of the report.
A. Body
B. Title
C. Author
D. Purpose
Feedback
Body is the longest, most detailed part of the report.
16
2.2.8 Appendix/Appendices
This is the storehouse of every material used in the report which adds
additional information if consulted for further clarification. Whatever will
come under the appendix must have been included or used in the body of
the report. Although they are relevant, they are not put ins ide the body of
the report so that the body can freely flow from one section to another.
They are placed at the back of the report for references e.g. photographs,
charts, maps.
ITQ
Question
The following make up the components of an executive summary except

….
A. Introduction
B. Problem
C. Procedure
D. findings
Feedback
Option B, C and D are all components of an executive summary.

In this Study Session, we observed that introduction, executive
summary, methodology, findings, conclusions and recommendations are
the basic components of technical reports. The last is the appendix,
Summary which is the storehouse of additional materials or details used in the
report. Technical writing is a process and there are components or
elements in the process. Each section must be clearly signposted for the
reader to quickly understand what the report is all about. Some of these
components are title, methodology, author, executive summary and
problem investigated.
Assessment
Study the table below carefully. Fill the empty columns appropriately
from the options below:
Assessment
A) Authorization B) Author(s) C) Source(s) D) Limitations E) Procedure
F) Findings G) Recommendation(s)
17
1. ________________ This gives the name(s) of the person(s) or

the body that authorized the report.
2. ________________ Constraints.
3. This is the outcome of the data analysed,

the synthesis of literature, the scrutiny of
evidence received and the interviews
conducted.
4. ________________ Is the name or names of the person or

people responsible for putting the report
together.
5. This suggest the best course of action in

view of the evidence available in the
report.
6. ________________ The method(s) of data collection and

analysis.
7. ________________ Includes observations, experiments,

relevant publications, organizational
records, memos, personal diaries,
electronic databases, which helped put the
report together.

List the components of a technical report.
18
Bibliography
Cunningham, Donald, E.O. Smith, and T.E. Pearsall (2005). How to
Write for the World of Work. Seventh Edition. Boston: Wadsworth
Gerson, J., Sharon and S. Gerson (2006). Technical Writing: Process
and Product. Fifth Edition. NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall
Read ing
Strategies: Communication in Technology and Science. Sixth Edition.
NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall
Adler, R.B. and Elmhorst, J.M. (1999). Communicating at Work:
Principles and Practices for Business and the Professions. New York:
McGraw Hill
Blundel, R. (2004). Effective Organisational Communication:
Perspectives, Principles and Practices. Second Edition. London: Pearson
Education Limited
Messmer, M. (2001). “Enhancing Your Writing Skills.” Strategic
Finance, 82, 7, p. 8
Miner, J.T. and Miner, L.E. (2000). A Guide to Proposal Planning and
Writing. The Oryx Press. Retrieved May 25, 2015 www.oryxpress.com
Payton, S. (2002). “Getting the Message Across: Shareholder
Communications”. Financial Times, London Edition, 14 (4 December)
Whelan, J. (2000). E-Mail: Getting Moving with Digital
Communication. London: Pearson Education Limited.
19
Study Session 3
The Report Writing Process

Introduction
After you have looked at the topic very well, the next thing is to think
through the topic. As stated earlier, approach to communicative writing is
a process. Communication is a deliberate, planned and structured human
activity. It is more so in institutional writing, which must be a serious and
disciplined writing. Therefore, the planning process must begin well
ahead of the actual writing activity and continue until revision and editing
is done and the final draft is typed or word-processed.
Learning Outcomes
3.1 list the steps involved in the packaging of a report
3.2 illustrate how one step leads to and links with the other
Outco mes 3.3 discuss false assumptions about reports and their audiences
Terminology
Audience People at whom communication is aimed.
Research The syst ematic investigation into and study of materials

and sources in order to establish facts and reach new
conclusions.
3.1 Steps involved in the Packaging of a

Report
We shall proceed to highlight the steps the report writer needs to take to
accomplish his plan and purpose. The point must, however, be made that
these are suggestions and are, therefore, adaptable to suit individual
writing practice and habit. It is also important to stress, however, that the
report writer must endeavor to go through these phases in one form or the
other to accomplish his writing task.
20
Study Session 3The Report Wri ting Process
3.1.1 Step I: Statement of the P roblem and

Purpose of the Report
The first step in the communicative writing process involves the analysis
of the problem addressed in the report, as well as the purpose the report is
meant to serve. The following questions must be answered:
 Just what is needed, or demanded?
 Who has called for the report, or
 For whom, is the report meant?
 How will the report be used?
 When is the report due for submission?
Reports, as we stated earlier, are written to facilitate informed decision-
making or to address a particular problem. The problem to be addressed
may be a worsening security situation in a particular community and what
to do about it. As the report writer, you need to clearly define the nature,
scope/magnitude of the problem. You will need to contextualize it. Think
through the problem. It involves mental effort and can take days or more
before thinking-through could be successful.
ITQ
Question
The following questions must be answered while doing an audience
analysis except …….
A. Who will read or use the report?
B. How much background do I need to give the reader?
C. What does the reader need to know?
D. Who has called for the report?
Feedback
Option A, B and C are all correct and are question that must be answered
while doing an audience analysis. Option D is answered during the
problem analysis phase.
3.1.2 Step II: Know the reader or audience of

the report (Audience Analysis)
Communicative reports must be reader-friendly, that is, readable and
useful. As a report writer, therefore, you will need to constantly adapt
your report to meet the specific needs of the audience- reader or group of
readers. What are the characteristics of the audience that will receive the
report? Age, sex, education, language competence, status, specialized
training on the subject-matter possessed by the audience, the expectations
of the audience and other variables must be determined if the end-report
will satisfy them. Doing this will help you to put the target audience in
mind because you must not write above or below the audience.Here are
21
some questions that will help you to communicative effectively with the
reader:
 Who will read or use the report?
 What does the reader know about the subject matter of the report?
 How much background do I need to give the reader, considering his
position and experience?
 What does the reader need to know, and how can I best give him or
her this information?
 What are the stakes (interests) of the individual or group of
individuals in the subject matter of the report?
 How is my credibility with the reader? Must I build it up gradually as
I proceed, or can I assume that he or she will accept certain
judgements, conclusions or recommendations based on my
interpretations? Am I trusted to do a good a job?
 Is the reader likely to agree or disagree with my position? What tone
would be most appropriate in view of this agreement or
disagreement?
The last question is very important. It implies that the writer will try to
see the reader’s point of view, will bend every effort to look at the subject
matter the way the reader will probably look at it. Doing this takes
imagination and some understanding of psychology. But it is worth the
considerable effort it involves. It is the gateway to true and effective
communication. The issue of audience analysis can only be ignored at the
peril of communicative effectiveness. Many inexperienced report writers
often fail to design their reports effectively because they make several
assumptions about the report-writing situation.
3.1.3 Step III: Gathering Materials

One of the tenets of report writing is that it can be grounded on verifiable
data, information or evidence. It is very important that you determine the
sources of information that will be useful for gathering data. This step is
crucial because reports must be made on verifiable facts. The scope of the
report determines the sources of information to be used. If it is a memo,
you might not need any external information.
1. Primary Sources: this is the first-hand, most authentic, most reliable
source of information when you have the right methodology. You are
the best primary source of information. The information you gather
physically on your own without any distortion or lies. You are there
to observe, see, feel and touch. You can use interviews, focus group
discussions, observations, visit to sites, personal and organisational
files, personal diaries, minutes of meeting and minute directives,
other forms of oral evidence and questionnaire to gather data.
2. Secondary Sources of Material: Information you did not generate
yourself but from other person’s thoughts or ideas to assist your
research work should be classified as secondary data. Data from
books, newspapers, journals, conference papers, magazines, internet.
You have to acknowledge the writer or owner of such works
22
reviewed. Reports on complex issues, incidents or problems often

require thorough investigation, as well as painstaking content
analysis of enormous volumes of printed materials. The material need
of such reports are thus often beyond the knowledge capacity of
individuals. As a report writer, you may need to consult companies,
institutions, public libraries, media resource centers or archives for
books, newspapers, magazines, government publications, etc.
How Not To Use Secondary Sources

It must however be noted that secondary sources are not as reliable and
credible as your primary source because you were not there when they
were compiling their works. You have to subject the information you
get from secondary sources to critical questioning or review to sieve
the facts and evidences from the chaffs. There are good writers and
there are also more good liars.
3.1.4 Step IV: Sort, Analyze and Interpret your

Data
The amount of sorting and analysis of data will depend on the scope and
complexity of the report. Is it a short, single-issue report? A sorting and
analysis of masses of printed materials and interpretation of complex data
may take days, weeks or even months. When sources of information are
many, voluminous level of data can subdue a writer if he is not careful.
Therefore, a good report writer has to code, sort, or group these data into
sections or boundaries in order to simplify the information. Data have to
be grouped according to their degree of relatedness. Data have no
meaning except they are carefully analyzed, selected and interpreted
within the context of the report.
ITQ
Question
Under the material gathering phase, primary sources include:
A. personal diaries
B. conference papers
C. magazines
D. Internet
Feedback
Option A is an example of primary sources.
3.1.5 Step V: Preparing your Drafts and Final

Copy
In line with the process approach to communicative writing, your final
copy will emerge as a product of a recursive process of pre-planning,
23
planning, drafting, re-drafting and editing. You should even endeavor to

give a copy of your report to a colleague, provided it is not of utmost
security. What we are simply saying is that you have to draft, re-draft,
write, re-write, edit and draft the final copy. Do not just scribble
something and submit. The best writer is prone to making mistakes.
Technical report writing is a serious writing; the more you review, re-
draft, write and re-write, the better your report. Interactive-cooperative
writing is better because ‘two good heads are better than one’. Give room
for another person to criticize and edit. Any attempt to write and re-write
makes a good write-up.
ITQ
Question
Under the material gathering phase, the following are example of
secondary sources except:
A. conference papers
B. magazines
C. minutes of meeting
D. Newspapers
Feedback
Option A, B and D are all examples of secondary sources. Option C is an
example of primary sources.
3.2 False Assumptions about Reports and

their Audiences
There are so many false assumptions about reports writing. Let us look at
a few of these assumptions.
1. It is false to assume that the audience is a group of specialists or
professionals.
2. It is false to assume that a report has a finite period of use.
3. It is false to assume that the author will always be available for
reference.
4. It is false to assume that the audience will be familiar with the
assignment.
5. It is false to assume that the audience will have time to read the
report.
From the above list of assumptions, it is important to stress that a report
has value only to the extent that it communicates and is found useful to
the organisation. A report may be read or used by someone other than the
person who requested it. A report may also provoke another report or
24
reports. Some government reports are often synthesized or distilled into

‘Government White Papers’, which is an abridged, decision paper on the
extended report. Furthermore, a report may be responding to a variety of
needs within the organisation. These needs suggest that the person who
will use the report may not be specialists after-all; they may not be
technically knowledgeable about the subject matter of the report.
In addition, the report may be useful over an extended period of time.
Each written report may be filed in several offices. In a particular office
where a report originated from, the report writer and his boss will not
probably be available soon after to explain the report. This is because,
although organizational charts or organogram may remain stable for
years, personnel, assignments and professional roles change, at times
unpredictably. Thus the report writer usually must design his or her report
for a dynamic situation. Finally, the report writer must be alert to the
communication booby-traps in relatively static situations. A report can be
tabled on the boss’ desk at a time when his mind is churning with other
competing concerns. Even if the report is expected, it usually meets a
reader who needs to act fast. In other words, the reader usually does not
have all the time in this world to read through the whole mass of
continuous discourse; he wants the useful information clearly sign-posted
and distinct. To the reader, time is probable the most essential
commodity; it is in short supply. You need therefore, to design your
reports to be used effectively rather than read closely.
3.3 Report Audience

From the foregoing explanation, audiences can be classified into three (3)
broad categories; according to how they will use your report.
3.3.1 Operational Characteristics

The operational characteristics include:
1. His role within the organisation and consequent value system;
2. His daily preoccupation and attitudes;
3. His knowledge of your technical (specialized) responsibilities and
assignment;
4. What he will need from your report;
5. What personnel and other persons will be activated by your report
through him.
25
ITQ
Question
The following processes are use in the production of the final copy of
the report except:
A. Pre-planning
B. Drafting
C. Editing
D. All of the above
Feedback
Option A, B and C are all processes are use in the production of the final
copy of the report.
3.3.2 Objective Characteristics

The objective characteristics include:
1. His education—levels, fields and years;
2. His past professional experiences and roles;
3. His knowledge of your technical/specialized area covered in the
report.
3.3.3 Personal Characteristics

Personal characteristics that could influence his reactions to your report
are age, attitudes, experience, concerns, beliefs, etc.
ITQ
Question
Classifying an audience based on their objective characteristics include:
A. Daily preoccupation and attitudes
B. Education
C. Age
D. All of the above
Feedback
Option B is grouped under objective characteristics.
26

There are five steps in the report writing process. The remaining three
steps presented in this lecture are material gathering, sorting, analyzing
and interpreting data and preparation of the drafts and final copy.
Summary
Assessment
While doing an audience analysis for a report, what characteristics do
you look out for in your target audience?
Assessment
In writing a report, it is important to do away with some assumptions
concerning the report and their audience. What are these assumptions?
Classify your audience according to how they will use your report.
Bibliography
Berger, A.A. (1985). Improving Writing Skills. London: Sage
Publications
Read ing
Evans, D.W. (1983). People, Communication and Organisations.
London: Pitman Polytechnic
Herman, W. and Young, J.M. (1978). Troubleshooting Basic Writing
Skills. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc.
Technical Reports. Purdue University, Indianapolis
Soola, E.O. (1998). Modern Business Communication. Ibadan: Kraft
Books Ltd.
27
Study Session 4
Types of Reports
Introduction
It may be impossible to treat all types of reports because there are many
types of reports as there are issues giving rise to them. We have decided
to be selective in our choice of the ones to write and discuss in some
detail. In this study session, therefore, we will discuss progress report,
periodic report, field report and investigative report.
Learning Outcomes
4.1 explain the elements of at least three types of reports.
Outco mes
Terminology
Progress report A written document that explains how much progress is
being made on something you have previously planned
Periodic report Summary of events that presents essentially the same

type of information updated at regular intervals such as
every day, week, month, etc.
Field report The observation of people, places, and/or events and to

analyze that observation data in order to identify and
categorize common themes in relation to the research
problem underpinning the study.
4.1 Categories of Reports

There are many types of reports. The focus of this section will be to
highlight and explain each of these reports.
4.1.1 Progress reports

These are written to report the progress or the lack of it on a given
assignment or project within two –time dimensions: you can write a
progress report to report lack of progress and you can write a progress
report to report progress. For example, a job was contracted out with a
28
Study Session 4Types of Reports
valid date of six months. At the third month, you were asked to evaluate
the project and report to the organisation. On getting there, you could see
that work was yet to start on the project. You will write a progress report
indicating the lack of progress you found. Another example is the real
progress report that the Indian doctors would have written after the
successful operation on the baby with eight limbs. Progress report is
limitless on a particular event; it ends when the event is completed. It is
serialized or comes one after the other. The first progress report is the
most challenging because there is no earlier report from where you take
off. To write a good progress report, you will be looking for the terms of
reference, project’s time –table, document relating to the event, and the
problems to be addressed, etc. Once you have packaged the first progress
report, others will take-off from one another easily in a sequence. If, for
example, you are writing a progress report 5, you will get the general
knowledge of progress reports 1, 2 and 3. Then you consider critically the
progress 4 (take–off) then join with 1, 2, and 3 to write 5.
A progress report is likely to be made up of the following, among others:
1. Executive Summary: This should briefly explain the purpose of the
project, task or assignment being reported upon, the timetable for its
execution, work done to date, prospects of its conclusion on schedule,
problems being encountered, needs and recommendations.
2. Earlier Stage(s) Reported: This should be a synopsis of the earlier
progress report(s). Especially, emphasis should be on the immediate
last progress report written, clearly indicating what happened
between the previous report and the current reporting period for take-
off and determination of progress.
3. New Progress: This section should detail the phase(s) of the work,
task or assignment completed, methods and resources used,
difficulties encountered, and other items, between then and now.
4. Forecast: Given the current level of progress (or the lack of it), this
section should state what can realistically be expected given the
situation on ground, likely problems, suggestions for progress, and
possibility of completion. The big question here is, what is the way
forward?
ITQ
Question
In a progress report, ……… section states what can realistically be
expected given the situation on ground.
A. Forecast
B. New progress
C. Earlier stages reported
D. Executive summary
29
Feedback
The Forecast section should state what can realistically be expected
given the situation on ground, likely problems, suggestions for progress,
and possibility of completion.
4.1.2 Periodic Reports

These are reports written at regular, specific intervals – hourly, daily,
weekly, monthly, yearly basis. They are routine and predictable, usually
written to report happenings, events, occurrences, within a particular
period of time. They can be written on a variety of issues, situations or
circumstances such as security situation, a planned protest or anticipated
violent, demonstration, curtailing or containing a crisis, foiling an
anticipated attack, and so on. Every club, company, institution writes an
annual report indicating the state of the organization, club, company,
institution within that year. We call this Annual General Report. There
are many types but the most important is the Annual General Report of
banks, companies, etc.
4.1.3 Field Trips Reports

Organisations send out supervisors to branches nationwide to investigate
or monitor happenings in their branches and report back. Recently, The
National Universities Commission sent out personnel to inspect and
accredit courses in universities in the country. These are the examples of
field trip report. Field trips are a regular feature of the activities of certain
companies, organisations and institutions. Field officers, researchers and
investigation teams often need to embark on field trips to observe, assess,
investigate and report to others who will consider their reports and act on
them. These reporters are the ‘eyes and ears’ of the organization.
ITQ
Question
……. usually written to report happenings, events, occurrences, within a
particular period of time.
A. Field trips reports
B. Progress reports
C. Investigative reports
D. Periodic reports
Feedback
Periodic reports usually written to report happenings, events,
occurrences, within a particular period of time.
30
Planning For Field Trip Reports

A field trip must be properly planned for in order to be a rewarding
exercise-where to go, when to go, what to take along, what to be on the
look for- must be thoroughly thought through. In fact, the product of the
trip must be anticipated and planned for. You do not just go to study, you
have to prepare what to take along e.g. a field trip notebook, a pen, etc.
This is so because the human brain is limited in its capacity to store and
recollect everything recorded. You can hypothesize into what the result
would be as a good and intelligent researcher/reporter. Since part of the
outcome of a field trip is the report, efforts should be made and steps
taken to record the details of writer’s observation, which ultimately will
be transcribed and packaged in a logical and coherent manner. A field trip
book and a pen will help the reporters to gather information, record
information in notebook as a permanent and easy source of reference and
analyze such information properly. You can also use your diaries. There
is also the need for a tape-recorder that is easily concealable because you
will need to record interviews and discussions for you to quote. A still
camera will also help in taking visuals of important scenes and events
that can serve as evidence.
In term of structure, field trip reports are like other types of reports to a
large extent. However, largely, they must be structured and constructed to
ease comprehension and facilitate the process of decision making. To this
extent, field trip reports must be spiced with headings and sub-headings.
Below are some of the components to be covered in a field trip report:
Components of Field Trip Reports
The components of field trip are:
1. Background history / Term of reference: Who asked you to embark
on the field trip? For what purpose and where. What are those areas
that the report will touch?
2. Executive summary: At a glance, this is the synopsis of the contents
of the reports for the executive.
3. Problem or Issue to be observed: What the report is considering i.e.
drug peddling, smoking, robbery, etc.
4. Details of observation/Findings:
 The expected/anticipated
 Actuality
 Work, job done, or task accomplished
 Problems being encountered
 Follow-up action, if and when necessary
5. Conclusions
6. Recommendation
4.1.4 Investigative Reports

In your particular operational circumstances, one type of report you will
be called upon to write from time to time is the investigative report.
There are various types of investigative reports- project reports, security
31
reports, reports deriving from investigated allegations of fraud or other

improperly, and so on.
The Role of Evidence in Investigative Reports
Even when you are an authority on the subject matter of your
investigation, your opinions will carry only as much weight as the
evidence you can marshal to support them. The more evidence you can
collect before writing, the easier the writing is likely to be. Investigative
reports are evidence-based. Evidence consists of the facts, data and
information you gather from three (3) sources:
1. Careful observation
2. Intelligent field work (talking to/interviewing/interrogating
appropriate persons
3. Desk or library research- wading through relevant newspapers,
magazines, film or video/audio clips
When you follow the evidence where it leads, and form a hypothesis, you
are using inductive reasoning, the scientific methodology. Even if your
evidence is adequate, relevant and representative, your conclusion must
still be considered a probability, not a certainty, since you can never
possess or weigh all the evidence. At some point in your investigation,
you will need to make the “inductive leap” and conclude that the weight
of evidence points to a theory of probability. The probability is likely to
be strong if you observe the rules of evidence.
ITQ
Question
or monitor happenings in their branches and report back. These reports
are called ………
A. Progress reports
B. Investigative reports
C. Field trips reports
D. Periodic reports
Feedback
or monitor happenings in their branches and report back. These reports
are called field trips reports.
The Rules of Evidence in Investigative Report Writing

Investigation is a painstaking exercise because there is usually something
somewhere that somebody is trying to hide from other people. If that is
not the case, there is a particular incident with some unknown
consequences. To solve this problem, somebody or a group of people
must conduct investigation and report back. This formality and the
32
intricacies of this type of report call for observance of some rules of

evidence. That is the focus of this study session.
 Rule 1: Look at the evidence and see where it leads: The trick here is
not to allow your own bias to seduce you into selecting only the
evidence you agree with. If you are not careful, you will
unconsciously start forcing the evidence to fit the design that seems
to be emerging. When fact A and fact B both point toward the same
conclusion, there is always the temptation to make fact C fit.
Biographer Marchette Chuteto this end has warned:

… you will never succeed in getting at the truth if you think you know
ahead of time what the truth ought to be.”
A reliable generalization ought to be based on a number of verifiable,

relevant facts- the more, the better. Logicians tell us that evidence
supporting a generalization must be
 Known or available
 Sufficient
 Relevant, and representative
 Rule 2: Look for the simplest explanation that accounts for all the
evidence: This will be illustrated with examples.
Example I: When light is switched off, the sudden darkness might be

taken as evidence of power outage. But a quick investigation turns up
other evidence that must be accounted for: the street-lamps are still on;
the refrigerator is still functioning. So, a simpler explanation may exist,
and a check of the circuit breakers or fuse box may be appropriate.
=================================================
Example II: A man is seen at the scene of a crime, holding a tool or
weapon with which the crime could have been committed. The crime
was committed along a lonely, hazardous road. There was no one else
in sight. Any evidence that the man will most likely responsible?
Consider other possible alternatives.
 Rule III: Beware of absolute statements: In the complexity of the real

world, it is seldom possible to marshal sufficient evidence to permit
an absolute generalization. So, beware of writing general statements,
using words such as all, never or always. Avoid such a statement as
“Men (or all men) are liars” or “Women are jealous”. You could
qualify this by saying, “Many women are jealous”.
In all these, caution is always necessary. Induction has its own
limitations, and a hypothesis is best considered a probability, subject to
change on the basis of new evidence. The other kind of reasoning that we
do is called deduction. Here, instead of starting with particulars and
arriving at a generalization, deduction starts with a general premise or set
of premises and works toward a conclusion necessarily implied by them.
If the premise is true, it follows that the conclusion must be true. This
33
logical relationship is called an inference. When you reason inductively,

you can get into trouble if the premise is faulty, or if the route from
premise to conclusion contains a fallacy. So, keep the following two basic
principles in mind and watch out for the common fallacies that can act as
booby traps along the path from premise to conclusion.
Two Principles of Sound Deduction

1. The ideas must be true, that is, they must be based on facts that are
known, sufficient, relevant, and representative.
2. The two ideas must have a strong logical connection.
Having examined the role and rules of evidence in investigative reports,

we proceed to discuss some of the essential components of investigative
reports. Though investigative reports vary, there is, nonetheless, a
standard format for a well-written report of an investigation. This helps to
guide the reader through the labyrinth of sometimes deliberately confused
and contradictory evidence, to a full understanding of the issue
investigated. Thus, when you need to write this type of report, always
make sure you provide guide-heading and sub-headings to signpost each
section of your investigative report, as briefly presented below.
Can you highlight the rules of evidence guiding investigative report

writing.
Reflect ion
Summary
This provides a brief description of the entire report. It is specially
designed to help busy executive to have a quick understanding of the
subject matter and method of investigation, as well as its outcome. In
very long, investigative reports, the summary, the conclusion and the
recommendations may be the only parts that are read and acted upon.
Background/Terms of Reference
An investigative report must be contextualized. To achieve this, the
background to an investigative report must narrate the events that
necessitated the investigation. This information will enable the reader
to place the report in its proper context. This section, must therefore,
link the present with the past, as well as give an idea of what is to be
expected.
Investigation Details
Here, the report writer must provide a fairly extensive narrative
description of the investigation: what was done and how; people
invited; evidence and data collected. This section, because of the
possibility of length and detail, must be carefully structured so that the
reader can follow the presentation.
Findings
This section must be part of an investigative report. If a person, issue
or matter has been investigated, certain things would have been found
34
out. The findings section is the outcome of the data analysis, synthesis
of literature, the scrutiny of the evidence received and the interviews
conducted. This is a record of what the report writer has come up with.
ITQ
Question
ITQ
A reliable generalization requires evidence which fulfil the following
conditions except:
A. Known
B. Sufficient
C. Relevant
D. Absolute
Feedback
.Option A, B and C are all conditions, an evidence supporting a reliable
generalization must fulfil.

In this study session, four types of technical reports were identified.
They are progress report, periodic report, field trip report and
investigative report. Each of these reports has some specific elements
Summary that must be understood properly before a writer succeeds in writing a
good type of report.
A good investigative report writer must look at the evidence and see
where it leads, look for the simplest explanation that accounts for all the
evidence, and beware of absolute statements. These are the rules of
evidence guiding his or her duty.
Assessment
Outline the components of a progress reports.
What are periodic reports?
Give an example of a periodic report, you know.
35

Outline the people who carry out field trips and write field reports.
Investigative reports are said to be evidence-based. Explain
Bibliography
Read ing
Krizan, A.C. Patricia, M. and Jones, C.L. (2005). Business
Communication. Sixth Edition. Canada: Thomson South-Western
McGraw Hill
Hybels, S., and Weaver II, R.L. (1998). Communicating Effectively,
Fifth Edition. Boston, MA: McGraw Hill
Redding, W.C. (1984). The Corporate Manager’s Guide to Better
Communication. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman
Shockley-Zalabac, P. (1991). Fundamentals of Organizational
Communication: Knowledge, Sensitivity, Skills, Values. New York:
Longman
36
Study Session 5Pitfalls in Technical Report W riting
Study Session 5
Pitfalls in Technical Report Writing

Introduction
Reports are designed to overcome barriers to communication and pave
the gateway to understanding and action. Since reports are often technical
and specialized, the need for precision becomes crucial in view of a
welter of information that may be available to the report writer. The
proper handling of contents and communication of a report’s purpose can
be enhanced particularly if the writer can avoid some pitfalls. In this
session, you will explore various ways by which you can avoid the
pitfalls / short-comings in report writing.
Learning Outcomes
5.1 list and explain the pitfalls in technical report writing
Outco mes
5.1 Short-Comings in Report Writing

Pitfalls are the shortcomings that tend to undermine the effectiveness of a
report. They are:
5.1.1 Ignoring the Audience

It is a pitfall to ignore the audience because the target of the report is an
audience. A technical report writer ignores the audience to his or her own
peril. You cannot afford to write below or above your audience. A report
is a missile aimed at the specific, defined target audience. That is why it
is important to know the audience and the variables. Any attempt to
communicate must take into consideration the subject-matter and then the
audience.
5.1.2 Writing to Impress

Creative writers write to appeal to imagination and most of us are fond of
writing to impress the audience too. However, technical report writing is
about selecting simple, factual, concise and meaningful words that can
convey objectivity, simplicity, accuracy and coherence. The report must
make the information easily accessible to someone who is not technically
minded. Because a technical report writer deals with facts, and evidence
based on verifiable sources, no form of digression should be entertained.
37
A technical report writer is a simple writer who can put simple words
together logically to convey meaning.
5.1.3 Having more than one Aim

A report is about an incident that you have investigated. It is better to
write on a single aim; specific objective so that there will not be any
confusion. If you are writing on exam mal-practice for example, you can
zero-down to giraffing or microchips uses as a single aim or subject away
from the broad topic, “examination malpractice”. Have an audience and a
particular issue you want to review.
5.1.4 Inconsistency
When you are consistent as a writer, you are likely to be easily
understood. When you are using past tense, stick to it. Also, avoid
changing personal pronouns often. Try to be consistent in number, tense,
person and aspect throughout the report. When you select an
abbreviation, write it in full first and avoid changing from one form to
another throughout the report.
5.1.5 Over-Qualifying
You over-qualify by using two or more adjectives at a time, e.g. small,
lanky, slim, beautiful lady. Know that you are not polishing the subject
matter or passing propaganda; you are a factual writer. The problem with
over-qualification is that readers could easily be misled by the weight of
your adjectives and this may eventually lead them to adopt an improper
view of the subject matter.
ITQ
Question
In technical reporting … is regarded as a pitfall.
A. Paying the audience
B. Having one aim
C. Failure to define
D. Proper introduction
Feedback
In technical reporting, failure to define is regarded as a pitfall.
5.1.6 Failure to Define

When your understanding of the subject-matter or your audience calls for
definition of terms, you are compelled to identify and define. Definition
puts a subject in perspective and makes the information clear and
accurate. However, you define as you use these terms in the body of the
report but not at the end of the report. When you define a term, provide a
38
Study Session 5Pitfalls in Technical Report W riting
framework within which you want the term to be understood in relation

to the context. This is to avoid ambiguities. Definition here should be
appropriate to contextual usage or application of the operational
definition of terms. Audience analysis speaks a lot here.
5.1.7 Improper Introduction

The introduction is the window into the report. It prepares the reader for
what to expect in the text. It is a global statement and not a string of
elements under the table of content. The moment your introduction is
improper, the whole of the report suffers a setback. Therefore, avoid
using many terms while trying to introduce the subject of the report.
5.1.8 Dazzling the Audience with Data

Data have meaning when they are meaningfully selected and interpreted.
Until they are carefully analyzed and interpreted, they have no
significance, no meaning and no use. Tables, charts and other statistical
instruments are useless if they are not explained. Dazzling with data
means trying to intimidate, confuse or bamboozle your audience with
data. Do not use too many data that are clumsy. Use them carefully and
interpret them in a meaningful way. Data can be more meaningful when
they are put in graphical forms.
5.1.9 Failure to Highlight

By putting emphasis on some terms and words, you are making the
readers to pay more attention to the highlighted concepts. You do this by
capitalizing, setting in bold faces, italicizing, etc. Failure to highlight will
make the reader to give equal treatment or interpretation to every
concept, which will undermine the significance of these important
concepts that are heavily weighted than others.
5.1.10 Failure to Re-write

It is an apparent fact that the first draft of every report cannot be perfect.
There must be errors. For a writer to avoid all these errors, the process of
report writing must undergo various stages of modification, i.e. try to edit
what you have written. Strike out unnecessary paragraphs, sentences,
phrases or words. This is a good way of polishing the report. You can
also give it out to others to read what you wrote. Writing is about writing,
re-writing, drafting and re-writing before you submit a report. Every
serious attempt to seriously re-write what you have seriously written
leads to a better writing.

There are ten pitfalls in technical report writing. They must be carefully
avoided if a report will achieve the objectives it is set to. Some of these
pitfalls are ignoring the audience, failure to define, writing to impress
Summary
and ignoring the audience.
39
Assessment
List five pitfalls of technical writing.
Assessment
Bibliography
McGraw Hill
Read ing Perspectives, Principles and Practices. Second Edition. London: Pearson
Education Limited
Communication. London: Pearson Education Limited
40
Study Session 6Writing Proposal
Study Session 6
Writing Proposal
Introduction
In this study session, we will be discussing how to write a proposal. We
will begin by defining a proposal. Thereafter, we will point out the need
for a proposal writing. Moving on, we will also highlight different types
of proposal. Lastly, we will look at the components of a good proposal.
Learning Outcomes
6.1 define proposal
6.2 point out the need for proposal writing
Outco mes 6.3 state the types of proposals
6.4 explain the components of proposals.
Terminology
Proposal A plan or suggestion, especially a formal or written one,
put forward for consideration by others.
Business A business proposal is a written document sent to a

proposal prospective client in order to obtain a specific job.
Proposals may be solicited or unsolicited.
Abstract A brief summary of a research article, thesis, review,

conference proceeding, or any in -depth analysis of a
particular subject and is often used to help the reader
quickly ascert ain the paper's purpose.
6.1What are Proposals?

A proposal is a bid competing with other bids-document designed to sell
an idea, individual, expertise, group or organisations. It constitutes a class
of reports presented or designed to address certain issues or problems.
There is hardly any organisation that would not need a proposal, even
educational institution. Proposals often differ from other reports in term
of scope or length, i.e. we may have a one-page report or more; it
depends on scope, complexity and time.
41
6.1.2 The Need for P roposal

Usually in organisations or businesses, people seek the award of contracts
because they have services to provide and will normally sit down and
package proposal to address such issues. Proposal must be capable of
standing the text of competitive scrutiny and evaluation. That is, it must
be able to stand out from the crowd of numerous proposals. It can be self-
initiated or commissioned, solicited or unsolicited. When solicited, they
have to conform to the commissioner’s format presented for submission.
However, when it is unsolicited or uncommission, the writer must put
more effort to stand the test of evaluation and scrutiny. What proposals
do is to present its potentials, ability to address particular issues.
For example, a bank may want to change its services/automation and
then call for a proposal, etc.
We have proposals on:
1. how to restore confidence in fledging non-bank financial
institution,
2. company’s community relations, e.g. in the oil community,
proposal can be presented on how to address the problem of
clashes between the Ijaw youth and the oil companies
3. improving capacity of company
4. tackling the problem of cultism in higher institutions
5. correct pricing of petroleum products
Some big companies or organisations solely live on packaging proposals.
So the success of the group will be determined by its ability, potential, or
extent to which it is adjudged competent of addressing the problem at
stake. The timetable within which it is expected to be executed is another
thing to be considered.
6.1.3 Types of P roposal

There are three types of proposal. They are:
1. Business proposal
2. Research proposal
3. Proposal can also be long or short, commissioned/uncommission,
solicited/unsolicited.
ITQ
Question
……… the title, name of the organisation to which it is to be presented,
the person(s) or groups submitting it.
A. Summary
B. Title page
C. Benefits
D. Introduction
42
Feedback
The title page contain the title, name of the organisation to which it is to
be presented, the person(s) or groups submitting it.
6.2 Components of a Proposal

Some proposals are very skeletal while some are detailed depending on
their nature and complexity. Long proposals always require quite a
number of components. These components are adaptable for the purpose
the proposal is meant for.
6.2.1 Title Page

This will include the title, name of the organisation to which it is to be
presented, the person(s) or groups submitting it, as well as the date of
submission. However, the date may vary. Proposal titles are phrased in
definitive and imperative terms. However, some proposals may not just
only have major titles, but also sub-titles. But what is important is that a
good proposal title must be clear, unambiguous, brief and adequate to
reflect the content of the proposal.
6.2.2 Abstract/Summary
A summary is an essential component of a good proposal. As proposal
may run into several pages and be competing with several others,
summary is often the first focus of some evaluators who are seeking to
have a quick look at the contents of the proposal. It must also highlight
the proposal’s objective, human and material resources and technology to
be used, time-table for its execution and the methodology adopted, the
budget, and the expected outcome.
6.2.3 Introduction
This should provide the solicitor with an overview of the situation to
which the proposal is responding, offer background material of interest,
and set the stage for the main part of the proposal- the body. The
introduction must be such that arouses the reader’s interest and kindles
his desire to want to find out more about the potential of the proposal. It
must also demonstrate the point that it is of such consequence so that
investment in it be seen as a worthwhile venture.
6.2.4 Resources (Human and Material)

It is not enough to show how you intend to execute your proposal; you
also need to demonstrate that you have the means- human and material-
to do so. Indicate what equipment and facilities that are required, what
you already have or can be easily acquired. In addition to physical
facilities, you still need to demonstrate that you have the number of
trained and experienced personnel for the project. There is also need to
compute the number of personnel and time they will invest and cost of
such investment. In some areas, the project leader, director, associates
43
and consistence will have to be stated. The CV and Resume of the

personnel are the openers to the required skills needed. You can write as
many resumes as possible from your CV as occasions demand.
6.2.5 Methodology
If you are able to articulate a problem clearly, but you are unable to
communicate your understanding of the methodology to be adopted in
solving the problem, the organisation or company may not give you that
contract. Before they put some amount of money on your proposal, they
must be convinced that such investment will not be a waste. You can do
this by presenting a clear methodology for solving the problem. The
question here is this: how will solve the problem you have stated in this
proposal?
ITQ
Question
….. should provide the solicitor with an overview of the situation to
which the proposal is responding, offer background material of interest.
A. Summary
B. Benefits
C. Title page
D. Introduction
Feedback
The introduction should provide the solicitor with an overview of the
situation to which the proposal is responding, offer background material
of interest.
6.2.6 Budget
No proposal can be evaluated without the budget. Every proposal must
have a breakdown of the expenses to be incurred in executing it. In some
cases, we provide a detailed guideline for budget preparation where it is a
requirement to be strictly adhered to. The breakdown may be presented in
a tabular form. Most proposals are rejected because they are either under-
budgeted or over-budgeted. This is because organisations want to put
their money where they can derive maximum benefits. Some people like
to under-budget to get the contract, forcing them to abandon the project
or poorly execute it, while those who over-budget are immediately
rejected when this is discovered. The budget must match the magnitude
of the project to be executed. Put a reasonable profit margin and not
extravagant budgeting.
6.2.7 Benefits of Accepting the Proposal

This is what sells proposals: dividends on investment. Therefore, you
must demonstrate the benefits or “pay ups” for the department, unit or
organisation. It is the sales promotions for your proposal. You must be
able to provide an icing on the cake by stating what the organisation
44
stands to benefit by committing money to your proposal. Nobody is any

longer interested in spending money and not seeing good results.
Therefore, you must be able to prove that short-term expenditure will
lead to long-term savings and improvement.
6.2.8 Appendix
This is a list of all materials, graphics and document used in the proposal.
Materials such as photographs, graphic aids, log, etc. that are used in the
proposal must be put under the appendix. It must be noted that materials
under the appendix must bear the same numbers for which they are used
in the body of the proposal, in the right sequence.
ITQ
Question
……… is important in convincing investors, that such investment will
not be a waste.
A. Methodology
B. Benefits
C. Title page
D. Introduction
Feedback
Methodology is important in convincing investors, that such investment
will not be a waste.

A proposal is a bid competing with other bids-document designed to sell
an idea, individual, expertise, group or organisations. It constitutes a
class of reports presented or designed to address certain issues or
Summary problems. It has specialized components that must be followed during its
design for it to stand out among its peers and assist you in pitching for
and winning a contract.
Assessment
What is a proposal?
Assessment List the types of proposals that you know.
A) Appendix B) Benefits C) Budget D) Resources E) Summary
45
1. ______________ Indicate what equipment and facilities

that are required, what you already have
or can be easily acquired.
2. ______________ Highlights the proposal’s objective,

human and material resources and
technology to be used, time-table for its
execution and the methodology adopted,
the budget, and the expected outcome.
3. ______________ This is a list of all materials, graphics

and document used in the proposal.
4. ______________ dividends on investment.
5. ______________ A break-down of the expenses to be

incurred in executing it.
Bibliography
Education Limited
Read ing Writing. The Oryx Press. Retrieved May 25, 2015
www.oryxpress.com
Morgan, W., McCall, Jr., and Hollenbeck, G.P. (2002). Developing
Global Executives. Boston: Harvard Business School Press
Singer, T. (2001). “Can Business Still Save the World?” Inc., pp. 58-72
46
Study Session 7Language Use in Report Writing
Study Session 7
Language Use in Report Writing

Introduction
In the earlier study sessions on writing in organisation, we identified
factors, which are characteristics of report writing, namely: clarity,
precision, economy, accuracy, appropriate diction and formality of tone.
These are the features, which make report writing different from writing
in the newspapers, stories and poems. In this study session, our objective
is to present these characteristics and their importance in report writing.
Learning Outcomes
7.1 apply linguistic principles to report writing.
Outco mes
Terminology
Writing style The manner of expressing thought in language
charact eristic of an individual, period, school, or area.
7.1 Report Writing Style

In most situations, writing within an organisation is designed to inform or
convince. If it is designed to inform, the major objective is to tell the
audience about the problems, the methods used, the results, and the
interpretation of the findings. While everything here should be readable
and interesting, it is not supposed to give the reader artistic pleasure, or
create suspense. Even in writings designed to convince, the appeal should
be to reason and logic, not to the emotions of the readers. Therefore,
report writing style must not draw attention to itself—it should be
unobtrusive. Let us now explain these characteristics one after the other.
7.1.1 Clarity
Words and sentence structures are chosen in order to make the concept,
action or description clear to the reader. There should be no distortions or
ambiguities. Clarity is achieved by defining, classifying, using examples,
comparison and contrast, and facts and figures.
47
1. Definitions: These are important because they give the precise

meaning and set the boundaries of a concept. The grammatical
structure in English for defining is as follows:
Things to be defined +verb +general class word+ wh-word +
particular characteristics, e.g. Reagent is a substance which is used in
a chemical reaction.
2. In general, words should not be defined with the root word e.g.,
‘reaction is a response to some foregoing action’; or by using a more
difficult word, e.g. ‘the connecting link is the nexus’.
3. Classifying involves the orderly, systematic grouping of objects,
ideas, actions according to identifiable criteria e.g. size, content or
originator. Here is an example, ‘audiences of speeches may be
classified according to their level of knowledge, group identification
and attitudes to topic’. Specific examples and statistical data help to
clarify difficult concepts. Here is an example:
Banks offer a certain range and quality of service. Before choosing
one, check on the rates of banks charges and rates of interest on
borrowed money. Find out about modes of payment such as whether
you can use standing orders, direct debit or budget payment.
The final sentence explains the concept of ‘modes of payment’.
7.1.2 Precision
Precision is achieved when the right and appropriate words are used to
explain situations and events. You can ensure precision through word
choice, comparison and contrast. English has some structures for making
comparison and contrast as can be seen below:
1. Indicating equivalence e.g. as easy as
2. Indicating non – equivalence e.g. not as easy as, easier than
3. Comparing one item with several others e.g. the easiest, the most
demanding
4. Indicating parallel increase e.g. the easier the task appears, the more
demanding it is.
ITQ
Question
Classifying ensures … in report writing.
A. Precision
B. Clarity
C. Economy
D. Formality of tone.
Feedback
Classifying ensures clarity in report writing.
48
7.1.3 Economy
Words are free and many of them can be used to explain, describe and
narrate our experiences. That is why most people combine adjectives and
adverbs, and use many synonyms for one word. However, there is no
room for such when writing reports: Economy is the watchword. This
means that the writer does not waste words. Compare these two sentences
(i) ‘we have no solution, but plenty of questions’ and (ii) ‘we are beset
with an array of posers, the point at issue is that the answer still eludes
us’. The second sentence is not an efficient way to express the idea.
7.1.4 Formality of Tone

Even though the trend is towards increasing informality of tone in
writing, the convention is to adopt a higher level of formality in reports
than memos and letters. For reports, the following guides are useful:
1. Limiting the use of personal pronouns, especially ‘I’ and ‘We’. It is
usual to refer to the person by the office the person holds.
2. Avoiding colloquial expressions, e.g. ‘The man got down to work at
once’. ‘By advertising for school leavers, they were trying to get out
of paying high salaries’. The underlined words, called phrasal verbs,
make the sentences sound conversational.
3. Avoiding contracted forms e.g., ‘getting up early doesn’t agree with
me’. ‘I’ll see you later’.
4. Avoiding emotive words. For example in the minutes of a meeting, it
would be unacceptable to write ‘the committee was hopelessly
deadlocked on the issue’.
5. Using the passive form although in a very limited way. ’The scene
was inspected for any clues’
7.1.5 Paragraph
Beyond the sentences, written reports are organized in paragraphs, each
of which should have a clear topic sentence, i.e. the central idea. For
example, a topic sentence of a paragraph could be, ‘Politics alone will not
bring about any radical change in transport policy or in degree of
environmental damage caused by ears’. The reader would expect the
writer to develop this main idea in the rest of the paragraph. The writer
has to defend this point of view.
ITQ
Question
Using indicators of equivalence ensures … in report writing.
A. Precision
B. Clarity
C. Economy
49
Feedback
Using indicators of equivalence ensures precision in report writing.
7.1.6 Beyond the Paragraph

Like paragraphs, reports and memos are expected to have a consistent
point of view, a central controlling theme. The other points are expected
to state and reinforce this theme. This feature of written work is called
UNITY i.e. the way each minor point is linked with the main point.
Another quality expected in report is COHERENCE, that is, the link
between minor points. Transitional words, phrases and sentences are used
for such linkages. Here are the major types:
 To introduce a point of view, the following might be used:
 One of the arguments in favour of/against X is....
 To indicate agreement:
 X was correct in arguing that....
 Partial disagreement
However; on the other hand; it may appear
 Empathic agreement
 X’s position is certainly right/correct
 Cautious agreement
 X may be correct when he says that
 Disagreement
The general view is that.... some experts argue that....
 Signals for orientation
“The next section deals with....
Semantic functions of transitional words
 The semantic functions which connective or transitional words
perform can be summarized as follows:
 Listing, made up of enumeration and addition; e.g. first, moreover, in
addition, finally, equally, similarly, in the same way.
 Transition, which leads to a new stage in the sequence of thought;
e.g. with reference to, with regard to, regarding.
 Summation is designed to review briefly, what has been said so far;
e.g. in conclusion, to conclude, to sum up briefly; to summarize,
overall, thus.
 Apposition is used to refer to previous sentences or to related
references e.g. that is, for example/instance, such as, including, in
particular, notably, as follows, namely,
 Result e.g. therefore, accordingly, as a result;
 Inferences e.g. then, in that case, if so;
 Reformation is designed to express thought in another way; e.g. in
other words, in that case, if so, that implies, actually, indeed, in
reality
 Replacement is used to express an alternative to what has preceded
e.g. alternatively, worse still:
50
 Contrast e.g. in contrast, on one hand, on the other hand,

 Concession indicates the unexpected, surprising nature of what is
being said, in view of what was said before e.g. however,
nevertheless, nonetheless, yet, in spite of that,
In summary, the style of organizational writing is conditioned by the
purpose, the nature of the audience, the subject matter, and the tone the
author wishes to adopt. The emphasis is on efficient and effective
communication, and not verbosity and ambiguity.
ITQ
Question
Limiting the use of personal pronouns, especially ‘I’ and ‘We’ ensures
… in report writing.
A. Precision
B. Clarity
C. Economy
Feedback
Limiting the use of personal pronouns, especially ‘I’ and ‘We’ ensures
formality of tone in report writing.

The choice of words and sentences affects the quality of your report.
Report writing is non-fictional- any flamboyant use of words and
expressions will undermine the purpose of your report. Therefore,
Summary emphasis must be on accuracy, economy, precision and clarity in
writing.
Assessment
How do you achieve:
Assessment 1. Clarity
2. Precision in report writing.
51
Bibliography
McGraw Hill
Education Limited
52
Study Session 8Writing Memos
Study Session 8
Writing Memos
Introduction
From now on, our focus is on communication in businesses or
organizations. Communication is the life-blood of organisations as they
seek to produce goods and render services to consumers and customers
profitably. Communication in organizations could be within the
organisation-employees and management, or between the organization
and its external stakeholders. Whatever may be the case, written and or
oral communication would be an important package of everyday
business. One of the modes or forms of written communication is memo.
Learning Outcomes
8.1 structure and write a good memo.
Outco mes
Terminology
Memo A brief written message from one person or department in
an organization.
Copy notation A list of people that ought to receive a copy of the letter.
8.1 Defining a Memo

A memo is defined as “a short written communication that is distributed
internally in some organisation and which is often written on a prepared
form” (Berger, 1993: 3). Memo is the shortened form of Memorandum. It
is called memo in official settings. This form of writing is one of the most
frequently used written forms of official communication in organisations,
institutions, ministries, institutions, and business units. Memos are
however not formulaic documents which can be written without
considerable thought. Memos are generally written to report on
decisions, respond to earlier memos or report on understanding reached in
meetings or conversations. They are used to get people to take an action,
inform people of something new or create goodwill.
53
8.1.1 Subject Matter of Memos

We will be looking at the subject matter of memos in this section.
Reporting decisions
Such memos describe a course of action that is to be undertaken. For
example, it could be to ask unit heads to put in place new security
measures, such as limiting access to particular areas. In such a case, the
management has taken a major decision and the memo would be designed
to communicate it to the people who will take the action.
The writer has to analyze the audience along the following lines:
1. Does the memo have single or multiple readers?
2. What is the bottom-line message for the readers?
3. How will the reader(s) use the information?
The writer must also bear in mind the possible readers’ reactions. These
could be enthusiasm, bias and scepticism, borne out of fear of extra work,
reluctance to change, perception of the assignment as having low priority,
loss of credibility, short deadlines, loss of face and extra expenses. The
memo writer should have this in mind and try to address readers’
reactions, though not directly. For example, the sceptical audience may
be met by documenting the new procedures, the mode of enforcement
and effective date.
It is also useful to take into consideration how much knowledge the
readers already have about the topic. It will determine how much detail to
include, how much background information, and the extent of technical
jargon that can be used without alienating the reader.
It is also important to consider how the reader will use the information.
Are they going to keep the information, distribute it to other staff or use
some of it to communicate with someone else?
Response to a memo from someone else
The content of such a memo is determined by what the person requires
e.g. request for information, explaining an action, and providing
additional information or clarification. The information given above
about readers’ reactions and possible uses of the memo also applies in
this case.
Reporting (documenting) understanding reached in meetings
or conversations
This is a memo written as a follow up to a meeting or conversation to
document the understanding of what transpired or to set the records
straight.
Directions of memos
Memos can go up, down, and horizontally across an organisation. Usually
they are devoted to one subject. Therefore, they tend to be short—one or
two paragraphs, unless they are memo reports.
54
ITQ
Question
Memos can be about the following subject matter except
A. Responding to another company’s enquiry
B. Reporting decisions
C. Response to a memo from someone else
D. Documenting understanding reached in meetings
Feedback
Option B, C and D are all subject matter for a memo. Memos are for
internal communication remember, so option A is not a subject matter
for a memo.
8.2 Organizing the Memo

The way a memo is organized is determined by what the writer regards as
the core of the message (M). The Message is the most important part, the
main item of interest to your readers and it should come up-front, not
stuck in the middle. Everyone who reads the memo should be able to
identify immediately what the message is. The next most important part
is the Action (A) that the reader is required to take or what you are
planning to do. This should be stated clearly, precisely and with adequate
details. Other sections are the Details (D)—which state who, what,
where, when, how, how much, and Evidence (E) e.g. attachments which
will help the reader understand the message better.
8.2.1 The Content of Memos

Contents of a memo are organized according to the purpose the memo
will serve.
Request for Action:
The content is as follows:
(D) - Briefly pave the way for your request
(M/A) - State the Action you want the reader to take
D - Give any necessary details to facilitate the action
D - If possible, provide an incentive
Activity Report (Memo Format)

(M) - Summarize your status/progress in 1 or 2 statements.
A - State your next action or approvals needed from the
55
reader.
D - Give details about your progress.
E - Mention any attachments you have enclosed.
Put the main information in the document, not as an attachment and use
bullets to highlight the main terms. Use headings.
Directive
(D) - Briefly give a reason for the action
(M/A) - State the action for the reader to take
(D) - Give who, when, where, why and how.
Transmittal Memos
These are used as covering memos for some items that you send. In such cases, the
attachments are the main message. Thus the method of organization is as follows:
E/M - Mention the attachments or enclosures you are sending.
D (Why) - State why you are sending the attachments or enclosures.
E/M - Give a brief summary of them.
A - State the action that the reader should take with the information or
enclosure.
D - Give them details and answer any possible questions about the
attachments.
8.2.2 Format of Memos

A typical organizational memo is written on printed memo forms which
have the letter-heads illustrated below.
Name of organization
Date:
To:
From:
Subject:
The memo has no salutation i.e. ‘Dear …’ and no enclosing salutation
either. The writer may use his or her initials or sign near the typed name
of the writer.If copies are to be sent to other people, the list of the people
is put at the end of the memo after the symbol “cc” meaning “carbon
copy”. Paragraphs of memo are typed single spaced with no indentation.
An extra space is placed between two paragraphs. Charts, tables and other
visual aids may be used as attachments to the memo. Memos are usually
short, in general, fewer than 100 words, except for memo reports which
56
may be up to 2 pages. The following is a graphic illustration of a typical

memo:
Figure 8.1 Graphic Illustration/Outlay Of A Typical Memo
_____________________________________1
_____________________ 2
_________ 3 _____ 4
_________ 5 ____6
_____________________________________________7
___________________________________________________8
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
_______9
_______10
_______11
Explanation:
1. The name of the organisation/unit from where the memo originates: it
appears on top of the sheet e.g.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN
DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE ARTS
2. Memo heading: It is placed centrally on the sheet. It can be written
full or shortened e.g. INTERNAL MEMORANDUM; INTERNAL
MEMO; MEMORANDUM; MEMO
3. From i.e. the writer of the memo (the person, who authorizes the
memo) e.g.
From: The Dean; The Head; The Acting Head.
4. To: i.e. the receiver e.g.:
To: The Registrar; All Staff; All Heads of Department.
5. Reference Number: (optional) e.g. Ref: PGS. DRS/SEC
6. Date: It is usually written like that of a formal letter e.g. 28th April,
2011; April 28, 2011
57
7. The tile: It is written as that of formal letter e.g. RE-DEFERMENT

OF 2010/2011 ANNUAL LEAVE BY ALL ACADEMIC STAFF
8. Body: This is usually written in (block) paragraphs like that of a
formal letter.
9. Subscription: This is the signature and name of the writer (NB:
official stamp is not required).
10. Copy Notation: This is optional. If the memo is addressed to more
than one person, names of the recipients will be listed at the end of
the memo.
11. Enclosures: If any documents have been mentioned in the body of
the memo, and such documents are attached, their numbers will be
written thus: encls: 4 (meaning four documents are attached).
ITQ
Question
Memos can be about the following subject matter except
A. Responding to another company’s enquiry
B. Reporting decisions
C. Response to a memo from someone else
D. Documenting understanding reached in meetings
Feedback
Option B, C and D are all subject matter for a memo. Memos are for
internal communication remember, so option A is not a subject matter
for a memo.
58
A sample of memo:
INTERNAL MEMORANDUM
FROM: The Acting Head of Department TO: The Registrar
DATE: 25th October, 2011
REQUEST FOR THE USE OF TRENCHARD HALL
Our Department wishes to make a request for the use of the Trenchard Hall for two days; 27 and 29
March, 2012, for an international conference. On March 27, we plan to have the opening ceremony
at Trenchard Hall, and on March 29, we plan to have the dinner at the same venue.
We hope you can grant our request.
Thank you for your kind consideration.
[Signature of the HOD here…….]

Ayo Ojebode, Ph.D.
Acknowledgements:
The sample of the memo presented in this book remains the official
property/document of the Department of Communication and Language
Arts, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
8.2.3 Language of Memos

It is usual to adopt a formal or semi-formal style in short memos.
Personal pronouns like ‘I, We’ may be used. The language should be
direct, precise, unemotional, inoffensive and polite. Berger (1993)
advises that every word should be carefully considered, especially to
avoid word with unpleasant connotation. Memo writers should also be
aware of the readers, especially multiple readers, since different readers
may read different meanings into a memo, depending on their interests.
Since memos are used for record keeping, the writer should keep hard
copies of any memos sent.
59

In this Study Session, we have presented types, function, format and
language of memos. We have stressed the importance of identifying
what the core message is, and placing it up-front, at the beginning of the
Summary memo. We have also provided a graphic illustration and a sample of
memo.
Assessment
SAQ 8.1 (tests Learning Outcome8.1)
What is a memo?
Assessment SAQ 8.2 (tests Learning Outcome8.2)
The Head of your Department has decided to invite all staff members to
a general meeting. The purpose of the meeting is to discuss issues
relating to staff promotion. As the Secretary of the Department, prepare
a memo to this effect.
Bibliography
Education Limited
Read ing Fifth Edition. Boston, MA: McGraw Hill
60
Study Session 9Writing Letters
Study Session 9
Writing Letters
Introduction
Apart from memos, letters are also used to exchange ideas, supply
information and make requests in organisations. It is important that
students learn the importance of letter writing in organizational
communication and how to write letters to address specific assignments
in organisations. This know ledge will prepare them for the employment
world. That is the focus of this study session.
Learning Outcomes
9.1 write good business letters at the end of this lecture.
Outco mes
Terminology
Letter A written or printed communication addressed to a person
or organization and usually transmitted by mail.
Salutation The word or phrase of greeting (such as Gentlemen or

Dear Sir or M adam) that conventionally comes
immediately before the body of a letter.
9.1 Letters
Letters, like memos, are written for the same purpose, to give
information, share ideas, request action, canvass arguments, and above
all, keep records. They also help to create an image for the organization.
The major difference is the audience. While memos are used for
communication within an organization, letters are generally sent to
people outside the organization. There are instances that customers,
consumers, clients and other stakeholders will write to your organisation,
you would need to write back to first of show sign of responsibility, and
provide necessary feedback to their letters. However, there are occasions
when letters are used within – those are called internal letters.
61
9.1.2 Types of Letters

Different types of letters are written in an organisation depending on the
purpose. Therefore, there are letters written to:
1. Request for action, information.
2. Report incidents, state facts, opinions
3. Recommend and / or complain.
4. Introduce
The important point is to know what you want i.e. your message. You
should say what the letter is about in the first paragraph. This is because it
is usually not a long letter that allows for other unnecessary details or
information. Since it is a short official or business letter, the best
approach is to go straight to the point. If answering a letter, refer to the
date it was written, check the points that need answering and address
them.
9.1.3 Components of the letter

These are:
1. A return address: The letterhead of an organization serves this
purpose.
2. A date to show when it was written
3. And inside address: This is the name of the organization to which the
letter is written.
4. A salutation: This is the opening greeting e.g. Dear Sir, Mrs. X, prof.
U, Dr. Y, Chief Z, Ms. O.
5. A subject line: This is a short phrase indicating the topic.
6. A body: This section contains the message of the letter. It has in it the
message, actions, and details. This should be short; use short
sentences (25 words) and short paragraphs. Additional information
should be in the attachment. Use bold print or underling for important
words.
7. A close: This is the greeting at the end of the letter e.g. Yours
faithfully (‘Dear Sir’, is the opening); Yours truly, sincerely, etc.
8. A signature: This is the signature of the writer. It is four spaces below
the close. It contains the name and if necessary, the degree and
position of the writer in the institution.
9. Other information: This is not essential for all letters. These are
indications that there are enclosures i.e., copies to other people i.e. cc
+ name.
ITQ
Question
In a business letter, the letterhead of an organization serves the purpose
of …
A. Inside address
B. Subject line
C. Return address
D. Signature
62
Feedback
In a business letter, the letterhead of an organization serves the purpose
of a return address.
9.2 Format of a Letter

There are three common formats:
1. Full block: Every element of the letter is flushed-left i.e. no
indentation.
2. Regular block: The return address, close and signature are moved to
the right.
3. Semi-block: The return address and signature are moved to the right
and paragraphs are indented five spaces.
Most letters now follow the full block format. The body of the letter is
typed single spaced with double space to indicate a new paragraph.
The format is an important indication of the image of your organization.
See the templates (a and b) below showing how a business letter should
be structured when using a plain sheet or when using a company’s letter-
head:
Figure 9.1 Template of a Business Letter without a Letterhead (NB:
A business letter is also an official letter)
[Address of the Originator (Writer of the Letter)]
[Address Line 2]
[Address Line 3]
[Address Line 4]
[Date of the Letter]
[Address of Recipient]
[Address Line 2]
[Address Line 3]
[Address Line 4]
Attention: [Optional Name i.e. name of the person whose specific attention/action is required]
Dear [Recipient’s Name],
[Subject Line/Main Theme: Usually bold, and may not be underlined again if already bold]
Paragraph 1:. State the objective(s) of the letter presented in about two to three sentences using a clear language. Note
that a business letter (like other official letters) must be presented in full block-style, flushed left, not indented.
Second Paragraph: This presents the actual content of the letter by providing details on the objective(s) already presented
in paragraph one. It should be between three and four paragraph long.
Paragraph 4: It provides for details or emphasis on the actual content of the letter. It is ideally three to four sentences.
63
Overall, the principle is that the whole letter should be brief enough that it does not exceed one page.
Closing: This is the final paragraph, usually one or two sentences. Here, the writer thanks the addressee for their time,
patience and attention, and appreciates them for their anticipated favourable action or decision.
Sincerely, OR Yours sincerely,
[Writer’s signature............]
[Name of writer/Originator; must include surname]

[Title of writer. This is optional]
Enclosure: [number of enclosures—if this is required] NB: All documents stated here must be attached.
Cc: [Name of person receiving a copy —if required]

[Name of person receiving a copy —if required]
64
Figure 9.2 Template of a Business Letter on a Letter-head (NB: A business letter is also an official
letter)
9.2.1 Language
The tone of the letter is your personality in print. You would normally
want to preserve goodwill for your organization while at the same time,
you get the work done. So, it is important to keep your reader in focus.
Be positive, nice, clear, and specific.Avoid unnatural, stilted language
e.g. ‘We are in receipt of your letter’ or ‘As per your request’ or
‘Herewith please find enclosed’, ‘We beg to advise’. Communicate in
plain English and use only the technical terms which are unavoidable.
65
ITQ
Question
…….. is a short phrase indicating the topic.
A. Inside address
B. Subject line
C. Return address
D. Signature
Feedback
Subject line is a short phrase indicating the topic.
Use the active voice, not passive. Correct all forms of spellings,
grammatical or factual errors. There are many authorities on approaches
to writing a good business letter. However, Berger (1993) synthesized
guidelines for business correspondence as follows:
 Write in the active voice.
 Write economically. Omit words you do not need.
 Put your statements in the positive form.
 Write directly. Avoid qualifiers when possible.
 Be specific and concrete, not vague.
 Keep related elements close to one another.
 Write simply, avoiding stilted or jargon-filled language and
excessively long sentences.
 Structure your writing. Make outline and follow it.
 Write clearly. Avoid awkward and confusing constructions.
 Use the appropriate tone. Avoid a breezy style, factiousness, trite
phrases and too many figures of speech.

In this Study Session, we have discussed the types and features of
business/official letters. We gave the differences and similarities
between memos and official letters. As we did for memos in the
Summary previous lesson, we also gave templates of a business letter in order to
enhance our understanding of the basic features of an official letter.
66
Assessment
Briefly differentiate between memos and letters.
Assessment List FOUR components of a letter that you know.
List Berger synthesized guidelines for business correspondence.
Bibliography
McGraw Hill
Berger, A. A. (1993): Improving Writing Skills. London: SAGE
Read ing Publications.
Booey, J. (1993): Effective Writing. Interactive Communication Series.
Forbes, M. (1985): ‘How to Write a Business Letter’. In K. J. Harty
(ed.) Strategies for Business and Technical Writing 2nd ed. San Diego:
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
67
Study Session 10
Writing Minutes of Meetings

Introduction
From small businesses to cooperative societies and large, multi-national
organisations, meetings are held to deliberate on investments, other
business activities, issues arising and other matters. Somebody is always
responsible for writing minutes of meeting and providing such a report
during the next meeting. If the secretary does not write it, the
communication officer does it. In this lecture, we introduce students to
the components of minutes of meeting and the linguistic requirements for
writing good minutes of meeting.
Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to
10.1 summarize information
10.2 write good minutes of meetings.
Outco mes
Terminology
Meeting The written or recorded documentation that is used to
minutes inform attendees and non -attendees about what was
discussed and what happened during a meeting.
Resolution Written documentation describing an action authorized by

the board of directors of an organisation .
10.1 Summarizing Information

We shall approach the issue of minutes taking by first looking at the task
of summarizing information. Whatever your status in your organization,
particularly if you are not above the intermediate management grade, you
will from time to time be called upon to reduce masses of information
into concise, manageable and usable material. This helps to save the
precious time that busy executive often needlessly spend on reading,
processing and assimilating information. Summarization is a form of
information processing. It is a means by which information is processed
and made more accessible to and usable for others and ourselves in varied
circumstances.
68
Study Session 10Writing Minutes of Meetings
10.1.1 Summary Writing Skills

Summary writing is a skill. It requires that you develop:
 The ability to read and comprehend a wide range and complexity of
information or data. Argumentation, discussions, reports and oral
presentation will be required here.
 The ability to discern the essence of a piece of information.
 A disciplined mind for a discriminatory selection and presentation of
material.
 The ability to evaluate and synthesize information, to sieve the
essential from the trivial.
 Disciplined language use to reflect the tone of the original piece of
communication.
10.1.2 Strategies for Summarization

Read or listen carefully to understand the original communication. Be on
the lookout for:
1. Specialized use and meanings of words, word-groups, sentences and
paragraphs
2. The structure and tone of presentation of the original text or
information
3. The overall meaning
4. Listen for facts and ideas, not merely to the words
5. Listen for actions – performed suggested or agreed
6. Intervene to clarify a point that is unclear
7. Ask if you do not know what has been decided, or what action is
recommended to be taken.
ITQ
Question
……. is NOT required for summary writing.
A. The ability to evaluate and synthesize information
B. A disciplined language
C. A disciplined mind
D. The ability to misjudge the essence of a piece of information.
Feedback
Option A, B and C are all requirement for summary writing.
10.2 Writing Minutes

A form of technical report or minutes of meetings is a record of the
proceedings at a particular meeting. It is a vital record that reminds
participants of the issues discussed, decisions taken and the plans of
action proposed. In future cases of dispute about the points made and the
decisions taken, recourse can be made to the minutes of the meeting.
69
Lengthy minutes will not be read!
Not e
Minutes should suggest something brief: a summary of all that happened.

Minutes are not word-by-word description of all that is said in a meeting.
The term “verbatim minutes” is a contradiction in terms. Minutes are a
record of facts, decisions and agreed actions.
10.2.1 Language Use in Taking Minutes

Appropriate language use is vital for good minutes of meetings. Apart
from the use of the simple past, the writer of minutes must be good in the
use of the passive or reported speech. In addition, as a report writer, you
must adopt the impersonal style, unless it is absolutely necessary to
attribute motions, serious objections and posers to specific individuals at
the meeting. Below is a list of items to be covered:
1. Identification of the department, unit, committee or body that met;
2. Classification of the meeting: regular, emergency, special, monthly,
quarterly etc.;
3. Place, date, and time the meeting began and ended;
4. People in attendance and the presiding officer;
5. Absentees;
6. Apologies;
7. Minutes of the last meeting (whether available for reading or not;
whether read and accepted as correct, or amended and accepted),
unless a group was meeting for the first time;
8. Accounts of matters arising, or of “old business”
9. When a group is meeting for the first time, its “old business” will be
its statement of authorization, terms of reference, goals and
objectives, and its administrative structure;
10. Report of matters currently at hand;
11. Date, place and time of the next meeting, particularly in the case of
non-regularly scheduled meetings;
12. Identification of the writer of the minutes who should duly sign the
minutes and make provision for the presiding officer – Head of
Department, Chairman, Executive, Director, Registrar/Chief
Executive Officer, etc., to sign.
10.2.2 Structure of Minutes

Minutes of meetings must be presented in an orderly, brief and graphic
manner. The issues that were raised, and points agreed upon should be
clearly itemized and grouped under headings and sub – headings for ease
of identification and references. The format of minutes of meetings may
vary, depending on the house style of an organisation. While the
continuous, itemized prose format is the more commonly used, there is an
alternative, schematic prose format. This latter format divides the minutes
into columns, with one column for issues raised or topics discussed, and
the other for the action(s) to be taken and by whom. Although both
70
formats can be used to indicate which officer to speak, to report on, issues
and topics, the latter format brings this out more distinctly. The
alternative format usually begins with a brief introduction, which not only
provides the necessary background information, but also helps to ease the
reader into the core issue of the minutes.
Figure 10.1 Minutes of Meeting
MINUTES OF THE MEETING OF ____[name of the organisation]_____ , HELD ON FRID AY SEPTEMBER 29,
2017 AT _____[venue]________
Attendance
1.________________
2.________________
3.________________
Apology
1.________________
2.________________
II. Minutes of the l ast meeti ng
III. Matters arising from the minutes of the las t meeting
Agendum
A sample of minutes of meeting follows.

Policy thrust of the new Executive.
At its meeting of Friday, 29th September, 2000, summoned with a view to
highlighting the main policy of the new executive, the following
decisions were taken:
71
MATTERS RAISED AND ISSUES DISCUSSED DURING ANNUAL GENERAL ACTION BY

MEETING ACCOUNT IN 2000
1. It was confirmed that the chairman of the annual general meeting Chai rman 1999
organising committee had been directed to tidy up the committee’s
account wi th a view of pres enting same at the next meeting of the Annual General
Executive, scheduled for the last week of D ecember, 200 0 – 10 – 04.
Meeti ng
2. It was also decided that the s aid account be submitted by the
organisation’s auditors for final auditing, after an initial careful Organizing
scrutiny by the executive.
3. The organizing commi ttee was directed to hand over all its financial Committee.
transaction documents to the newly elected accounting officers, once
the auditors had certified the commi ttee’s account.
4. Change of signatories: In line with the policy of the newly constituted Secretary
Executive committee, a directive was given to relev ant officers to
effect the necessary change of signatories forthwi th.
5. 1999 training programme: It was suggested that the number of thes e Personnel Manager
programmes be increased and thei r quality improved by involving
competent professionals as resource persons.
10.2.3 Language watch in minutes taking

Avoid the use of personal pronouns or even names, except for attribution
of motions or posers. Don’t write “he/she said…” or “Ojo observed…”
prefer it was observed, suggested, confirmed that…” The members
‘discussed’, ’explained’, ’requested’, ’mandated’, etc.
Tenses also pose a challenge to many secretaries. Minutes should be
written throughout in the past tense. Certainly, since minutes constitute a
record of what transpired at a meeting, it should be written in the past
tense, predominantly except for universal truths. The following quote
sums it up:
“The secretary presented his committee’s report to the house.”
ITQ
Question
……. is the appropriate tense for writing the minutes of meetings.
A. Past participle tense
B. Simple past tense
C. Past continuous tense
D. Present participle tense.
Feedback
The use of the simple past tense is the most appropriate for writing
minutes of the meetings.
72
10.3 Types of Minutes

Although there are Narrative and Resolution minutes, we will be
concerned, in this discussion, with Resolution minutes. This is because
narrative minutes can be very lengthy, as virtually everything said at the
meeting is summarized. In the world of business, industry, the services
and the professions, it is mostly likely that alternative or narrative
minutes will be preferred. Thus, instead of the full ‘story’ of the meeting,
with all the discussion and background information included, only the
decisions reached are recorded.
10.3.1 Resolution minutes

This style is recording only the proposal (or motions) together with the
names of the proposer and seconder (the person and his/her supporter
who proposed a motion at the meeting). Once a motion has been voted on
or accepted, it becomes a resolution. The meeting or the committee is
then bound to run its affairs in accordance with the resolution. If, for
example, a motion THAT ALL POLITICIANS SEEKING ELECTIVE
POSTS BE SUBJECTED TO SECURITY, AND ASSET
DECLARATION ON ASSUMPTION OF OFFICE ONCE ELECTED is
proposed by Mr. Edet Okon Edet and seconded by Mrs. Ibn Kure and
accepted as a resolution after voting, then, it becomes mandatory to
subject every politician seeking elective position to the above processes.
ITQ
Question
The following are advantages of resolution minutes except ….
A. They are an objective and unprejudiced record of a meeting.
B. They are brief and to the point.
C. They can be very lengthy, as virtually everything said at the
meeting gets summarized.
D. They are free from distracting and irrelevant material.
Feedback
Option A, B and D are all advantages of resolution minutes.
Advantages of Resolution Minutes
1. They are free from distracting and irrelevant material.
2. They are an objective and unprejudiced record of a meeting.
3. They are brief and to the point.
4. Since this type of meetings draw attention, by definition, to the
resolutions passed, it is a clear and unambiguous record of what will
eventually become a policy.
73
Disadvantages of Resolution Minutes

1. They are sometimes so brief that it is difficult on later reading to
realize the lengthy discussion and debate that occurred before the
motion was finally passed.
2. No record is kept on possibly useful counter-argument.

This study session focused on the technicalities involved in writing
minutes of meetings. We have examined the structure of minutes and the
peculiarities of language use in minutes writing.
Summary
Assessment
Outline FOUR strategies used for summarization.
Define the term “ minutes of meeting”
Identify the types of minutes you know.
Bibliography
McGraw Hill
Education Limited
74

Shockley-Zalabac, P. (1991). Fundamentals of Organizational
Communication: Knowledge, Sensitivity, Skills, Values. New York:
Longman
75
Notes on Self Assessment Questions
SAQ 1.1
Reports are designed and packaged with a view to enabling an individual
or group to make an informed decision(s).
SAQ 1.2
Report writing must be seen as a very serious and scared responsibility
because, our reports may provide the sole basis for far-reaching decisions
that may determine the fate of others.
SAQ 1.3
Based on frequency, there are progress, special, periodic, and occasional
reports.
SAQ 1.4
The dictum “show, don’t tell” simply mean in writing a report, there is no
need for the use of emotion or personal feelings because you are dealing
with facts. Emotions undermine the effectiveness and integrity of the
report and its writer. A report is expected to be an objective document,
backed by necessary information, data and evidence from which
conclusions are drawn and recommendations made.
SAQ 2.1
I. A
II. D
III. F
IV. B
V. G
VI. E
VII. C
SAQ 2.2
The components of a technical report includes:
A. Introduction
B. Executive Summary
C. Methodology or Procedure
D. Findings
E. Conclusions
F. Recommendations
G. Appendix/Appendices
76
Notes on Self Assessment QuestionsWriting Minutes of Meetings
SAQ 3.1
The characteristics to look out for in the audience that will receive the
report include:
Age, sex, education, language competence, status, specialized training on
the subject-matter possessed by the audience and the expectations of the
audience.
SAQ 3.2
These assumptions include:
i. It is false to assume that the audience is a group of specialists or
professionals.
ii. It is false to assume that a report has a finite period of use.
iii. It is false to assume that the author will always be available for
reference.
iv. It is false to assume that the audience will be familiar with the
assignment.
v. It is false to assume that the audience will have time to read the
report.
SAQ 3.3
Audience can be classified into three broad categories:
i. By their operational characteristics
ii. By their objective characteristics
iii. By their personal characteristics
SAQ 4.1
The components of a progress report include:
i. Executive summary
ii. Earlier stage(s) reported
iii. New progress
iv. Forecast
SAQ 4.2
Periodic reports are reports written at regular, specific intervals – hourly,
daily, weekly, monthly, yearly basis. They usually written to report
happenings, events, occurrences, within a particular period of time. They
are routine and predictable. Examples of a periodic report are the Annual
General Report of banks, monthly bank statements.
SAQ 4.3
Field trips are carried out by
i. field officers,
ii. researchers and
iii. Investigation teams.
SAQ 4.4
In investigative reports, evidence is what matters. Even when you are an
authority on the subject matter of your investigation, your opinions will
77
carry only as much weight as the evidence you can marshal to support
them. Evidence consists of the facts, data and information you gather
from sources which include: careful observation, intelligent field work
(talking to/interviewing/interrogating appropriate persons) and Desk or
library research- wading through relevant newspapers, magazines, film or
video/audio clips.
SAQ 5.1
Pitfalls to technical report writing include:
i. Ignoring the audience
ii. Writing to impress
iii. Having more than one aim
iv. Inconsistency
v. Over-qualifying
vi. Failure to define
vii. Improper introduction
viii. Dazzling the audience with data
ix. Failure to highlight
x. Failure to re-write
SAQ 6.1
A proposal is document designed to sell an idea, individual, expertise,
group or organisations. It constitutes a class of reports presented or
designed to address certain issues or problems.
The types of proposals include:
i. Business proposal
ii. Research proposal
Proposal can also be long or short, commissioned/uncommissioned,
solicited/unsolicited.
SAQ 6.2
I. D
II. E
III. A
IV. B
V. C
SAQ 7.1
Clarityin report writing is achieved by defining, classifying, using
examples, comparison and contrast, and facts and figures.
Precisionin report writing is ensured through proper word choice,
comparison and contrast with the use of adequate indicators of
equivalence, non-equivalence, comparision and parallel increase.
78
Notes on Self Assessment QuestionsWriting Minutes of Meetings
SAQ 8.1
A memo is defined as a short written communication that is distributed
internally in some organisation and which is often written on a prepared
form. Memo is the shortened form of Memorandum. It is called memo in
official settings.
SAQ 8.2
INTERNAL MEMORANDUM
FROM: The Head of Department TO: All departmental staff members
DATE: 7th December, 2017
NOTICE OF GENERAL MEETING
This is a notice to invite you to a meeting of all departmental staff members. The meeting is
scheduled to hold on 10th December, 2017.
Venue: Departmental seminar room.
Time: 10am prompt
Agenda: Issues relating to staff promotion.
[Signature of the HOD here…….]

Ayo Ojebode, Ph.D.
SAQ 9.1
Memos are used for communication within an organization while letters
are generally sent to people outside the organization.
Components of a letter include:
A. A return address
B. A date
C. inside address
D. A salutation
E. A subject line
79
F. A body
G. A close
H. A signature
Other information: This is not essential for all letters. These are
indications that there are enclosures i.e., copies to other people i.e. cc +
name.
SAQ 9.2
Berger synthesized guidelines for business correspondence include:
i. Write in the active voice.
ii. Write economically. Omit words you do not need.
iii. Put your statements in the positive form.
iv. Write directly. Avoid qualifiers when possible.
v. Be specific and concrete, not vague.
vi. Keep related elements close to one another.
vii. Write simply, avoiding stilted or jargon-filled language and
excessively long sentences.
viii. Structure your writing. Make outline and follow it.
ix. Write clearly. Avoid awkward and confusing constructions.
x. Use the appropriate tone. Avoid a breezy style, factiousness, trite
phrases and too many figures of speech.
SAQ 10.1
Strategies for summarization involves being on the look out for:
i. Specialized use and meanings of words, word-groups, sentences
and paragraphs
ii. The structure and tone of presentation of the original text or
information
iii. The overall meaning
iv. Listen for facts and ideas, not merely to the words
v. Listen for actions – performed suggested or agreed
vi. Intervene to clarify a point that is unclear
vii. Ask if you do not know what has been decided, or what action is
recommended to be taken.
Any FOUR will do.
SAQ 10.2
A minutes of meetings is a record of the proceedings at a particular
meeting. It is a vital record that reminds participants of the issues
discussed, decisions taken and the plans of action proposed.
There are Narrative and Resolution minutes.
80
ReferencesWriting Minutes of Meetings
References
Adler, R.B. and Elmhorst, J.M. (1999). Communicating at Work: Principles and Practices
for Business and the Professions. New York: McGraw Hill
Berger, A. A. (1993): Improving Writing Skills. London: SAGE Publications.
Berger, A.A. (1985). Improving Writing Skills, London: Sage Publication
Blundel, R. (2004). Effective Organisational Communication: Perspectives, Principles
and Practices. Second Edition. London: Pearson Education Limited
Booey, J. (1993): Effective Writing. Interactive Communication Series.
Cunningham, Donald, E.O. Smith, and T.E. Pearsall (2005). How to Write for the World
of Work. Seventh Edition. Boston: Wadsworth
Evans, D.W. (1983). People, Communication and Organisations. London: P itman
Polytechnic
Forbes, M. (1985): ‘How to Write a Business Letter’. In K. J. Harty (ed.) Strategies for
Business and Technical Writing 2nd ed. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Gerson, J., Sharon and S. Gerson (2006). Technical Writing: Process and Product. Fifth
Edition. NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall
Herman, W. and Young, J.M. (1978). Troubleshooting Basic Writing Skills. New York:
McGraw Hill Inc.
Hybels, S., and Weaver II, R.L. (1998). Communicating Effectively, Fifth Edition.
Boston, MA: McGraw Hill
Johnson-Sheehan, R. (undated). Planning and Organizing Proposals and Technical
Reports. Purdue University, Indiana
Krizan, A.C. Patricia, M. and Jones, C.L. (2005). Business Communication. Sixth
Edition. Canada: Thomson South-Western
Messmer, M. (2001). “Enhancing Your Writing Skills.” Strategic Finance, 82, 7, p. 8
Miner, J.T. and Miner, L.E. (2000). A Guide to Proposal P lanning and Writing. The Oryx
Press. Retrieved May 25, 2015 www.oryxpress.com
Morgan, W., McCall, Jr., and Hollenbeck, G.P. (2002). Developing Global Executives.
Boston: Harvard Business School Press
Payton, S. (2002). “Getting the Message Across: Shareholder Communications”.
Financial Times, London Edition, 14 (4 December)
Redding, W.C. (1984). The Corporate Manager’s Guide to Better Communication.
Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman
Shockley-Zalabac, P. (1991). Fundamentals of Organizational Communication:
Knowledge, Sensitivity, Skills, Values. New York: Longman
Soola, E.O. (1998). Modern Business Communication. Ibadan: Kraft Books Ltd.
81
VanAlsytne, and Judith (2005). Professional and Technical Writing Strategies:

Communication in Technology and Science. Sixth Edition. NJ: Pearson/Prentice
Hall.
Whelan, J. (2000). E-Mail: Getting Moving with Digital Communication. London:
Pearson Education Limited
82

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Technical Report Writing

University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

General Editor: Prof. E.B. Omobowale

Universit y of Ib adan Dist ance Learning Centre

In addition to the provision of course materials in print and e-format, a lot of

Nevertheless, to take advantage of these formats, learners will need to improve on

Prof. K.O. Adebowale

Nonetheless, a learner has the responsibility to develop requisite distance learning

Professor E.B. Omobowale

Babatunde Raphael Ojebuyi,

Obasanjo Joseph Oyedele,

Content Editor Prof. Remi Raji-Oyelade

Production Editor Prof. Omobola Adelore, O.F.W. Onifade Ph.D

ODL Material Converter Folajimi Olambo Fakoya

Managing Editor Ogunmefun Oladele Abiodun

General Editor Prof. E.B. Omobowale

Getting around this course manual 4

Study Session Summary........................................................................................................................................39

Notes on Self Assessment Questions 76

How this is structured

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

The course content

After completing Technical Report Writing we would appreciate it if you

Getting around this

Activity Assessm ent Assignm ent Case study

Discussion Group Activity Help Outcomes

Note Refl ection Readi ng Study skills

Summary Terminology Time Tip

Nature of Technical Report Writing

Technical report A document that describes the process, progress, or

1.1 Nature of Technical Reports

Reports are, however, susceptible to the so-called Rashomon effect or

1.2 Attitude to Reports

1.3 Classification and Contexts of Reports

1.3.1 Major Classification and Contexts of

1.3.2 Other Criteria for Classifying Reports

d. Occasional reports are often written once a while, as occasion

1.4 Guidelines for Report Writing

3. Provide evidence to support conclusion: before you conclude, you

Study Session Summary

Author A person who has written a book or who writes many

Summary An overview of content that provides a reader with the

2.1 Components of a Good General Report

 Problem: This deals with the particular problem, issue or situation

environment, sample/respondent size, and, to a limited extent, limited

 Findings: This is the outcome of the data analyzed, the synthesis of

2.2 Components of Technical Reports

2.2.2 Executive Summary

…….. is a categorical statement of the report objective or aim.

2.2.3 Components of Executive Summary

2.2.4 Methodology or Procedure

The following make up the components of an executive summary except

Study Session Summary

1. ________________ This gives the name(s) of the person(s) or

3. This is the outcome of the data analysed,

4. ________________ Is the name or names of the person or

5. This suggest the best course of action in

6. ________________ The method(s) of data collection and