7.

Article

Consumers’ Willingness to Pay for

Organic Foods in China:
Bibliometric Review for an
Emerging Literature

Rui Li, Hsiu-Yu Lee, Yu-Ting Lin, Chih-Wei Liu and Prony F. Tsai

Special Issue
Towards More Sustainable Food Systems
Edited by
Dr. Sigrid Kusch-Brandt

https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16101713
 International Journal of
Environmental Research
and Public Health

Article
Consumers’ Willingness to Pay for Organic Foods in
China: Bibliometric Review for an
Emerging Literature
Rui Li 1,2, *, Hsiu-Yu Lee 3 , Yu-Ting Lin 4 , Chih-Wei Liu 3 and Prony F. Tsai 3,5,6
1 Department of Food Quality and Safety, FoShan University, XianXi Lakeside, DaLi, NanHai District,
Foshan 528231, China
2 South China Food Safety Research Center, Foshan 528225, China
3 Department of Business Administration, Cheng Shiu University, Kaohsiung 83347, Taiwan;
[email protected] (H.-Y.L.); [email protected] (C.-W.L.); [email protected] (P.F.T.)
4 Department of Food & Beverage Management, Cheng Shiu University; Kaohsiung 83347, Taiwan;
[email protected]
5 Super Micro Mass Research and Technology Center, Cheng Shiu University, Kaohsiung 83347, Taiwan
6 Center for Environmental Toxin and Emerging-Contaminant Research, Cheng Shiu University,
Kaohsiung 83347, Taiwan
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-0757-82272751




Received: 11 March 2019; Accepted: 8 May 2019; Published: 16 May 2019


Abstract: We conducted a bibliometric review on a small but promising body of literature on

consumers’ willingness to pay for organic foods in China. Results found that consumers’ health
consciousness, individual norms, consumer knowledge, food safety, environmental concerns, animal
welfare, and purchasing power are major influencing factors for willingness to pay for organic foods
in China. Notably, most research methods utilized are quantitative methods, leading us to call for the
adoption of more qualitative, review, or mixed-methods. These findings increase our understanding
of the knowledge structure of this emerging context-specific literature.

Keywords: willingness to pay (WTP); organic foods; China; Bibliometrics

1. Introduction
Organic food has proposed both opportunities and challenges for market consumers (and other
stakeholders) in all of the world, especially in developing economies. There are numerous benefits that
are associated with organic food; this includes the fact that it is better for the environment, richer in
certain nutrients, healthier, safer, and good for the welfare of animals and future sustainability. Also,
organic agriculture is gaining enormous popularity regarding providing food and income.
Willer and Lernoud [1] indicated that the total area in Asia dedicated to organic agriculture
was about 4.9 million hectares of organic agricultural land in 2016, whereby the leading countries
were China (2.28 million hectares) and India (almost 1.2 million hectares). Therefore, the rest of the
global countries are left to share the 20%, which is shocking and raises concern on what influences
the willingness of consumers to purchase organic food in emerging economies such as China, Brazil,
and India. Nonetheless, some studies have suggested that domestic markets for organic food and
products in emerging markets, such as China, have been increasing in the last decade [2]. Currently,
there are more people that are willing to eat organic food as well as pay a premium price for it. This
is mainly due to health concerns that are linked to inorganic food. Specifically, the demand for food
quality is increasing in China, and the quality of food has become an essential component of food
quality [3]. The change in attitude has mainly been influenced by recent health concerns in China. For

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1713; doi:10.3390/ijerph16101713 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1713 2 of 14

instance, some of the health crises in China associated with food safety include: the baby milk incident,
Avian Influenza (Bird Flu), and Spongiform Encephalopathy (Mad Cow disease). See a comprehensive
review from the following book [3].
However, as has commonly been accepted by public, one of the major factors that is mainly
associated with consumers’ willingness to pay for organic food is the price, due to the fact that such
foods have commonly higher prices. Based on such thought, the main aim of this study is to critically
investigate various research topics that are found in agriculture, economics, nutrition, marketing,
and food journals addressing the factors that influence customers’ willingness to purchase organic
food. The research will analyze the emergent but representative literature about Chinese consumers’
willingness to pay for organic foods. This will be achieved through a bibliometric mode of investigation.
Therefore, the main aim of this study is to critically explore Chinese consumers’ perception of organic
foods and their willingness to purchase organic food. The research question is: What are the major
factors (addressed in the literature) that influence Chinese consumers’ willingness to pay (WTP) for
organic food and products?

2. Methodology
Bibliometric studies are used with the theoretical perspective that the examination of citations
enhances comprehension of the growth of contributions within a particular scientific field; it can
identify when papers were written, and the relevance of such a publication in the currently. If a
publication continues to be cited over time, historical value is assumed, making the source considered
as a primary reference. Moreover, bibliometric identifies key topics contained in those keywords in
the field. Progressive use of a keyword across numerous works and time indicates important areas,
concepts, or topics in a field. If there is a significant change in keyword usage over some time, it is
an indication that there is a paradigm shift. In such perspective, this study will assess journals and
other scholarly works to identify the aspect that influences consumers’ willingness to pay for organic
food and products in China. To our knowledge, there are not many published papers in the Social
Science Citation Index, but it still has great potential because of its practical significance in the Chinese
food market.

2.1. Data Selection

The selection of data from an extensive search of prior research in the field of consumer behavior,
and specifically on the Chinese consumers’ willingness to pay for organic foods was an important
primary step in answering the research question, and framing the current study in the context of the
wide research in the field. The first step in search of previous research involved checking through
various databases such as Blackwell, Proquest, SSRN, and AgEcon Search. These databases were
selected as they have a large pool of resources, with both published works and also working papers
that are relevant in answering the research question under consideration. Moreover, most of the works
published in these journals are original papers whose research has been carried out either quantitatively
or qualitatively.
The researcher identified the keyword queries for the different sub-areas of Chinese consumer
behavior in reference to their willingness to pay for organic foods. The keywords associated with
purchase of organic foods by the Chinese are specific to that area, and are important in ensuring that
all factors are explored, and the emergent themes from the analysis are exhaustive. The keywords used
to address all the subareas of the research questions included; ‘Chinese organic foods’, ‘willingness
to pay’, ‘organic foods purchase’, organic foods purchase intentions’, ‘re-purchase intentions’, and
‘Chinese consumer behavior.’ These keywords were used comprehensively for purposes of covering
the multidimensionality of the Chinese consumers’ behavior towards the purchase of organic foods.
The search was intended to collect a large representative pool of original research that could allow this
research to draw informed and fundamental conclusions.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1713 3 of 14

Given that thousands of article results retrieved from the databases did not provide useful
estimates and variables related to ‘willingness to buy’ organic foods among Chinese consumers, the
researcher set a criterion that limited the scope to articles that precisely addressed the research problem
and the research population. First, articles selected covering the concept of ‘willingness to pay’ were
limited to those that focused on organic foods only. Other articles focusing on other aspects of food
safety and sustainability such as pest-reduced foods, pesticide-free foods, and labeled foods were
eliminated from this study. However, articles that focused on specific organic foods such as organic
rice and organic fruits were included.
The concept of currency was also considered during the selection of the articles. Only articles
published within the last five years were included in the study, limiting the articles only for those
published between 2013 and 2018. The rationale for the time limit is derived from the fact that five
years is a critical time in behavioral fields where adequate changes in customer needs and preferences
can undergo significant changes. According to Simões [4], Chinese consumers, especially mature
citizens, are very conscious about issues related to sustainability, and their behavior continues to
change in alignment with their view of sustainable development. Since organic foods are related to
sustainability in the long run, this time period was deemed appropriate in ensuring that the study
reflected the current studies about Chinese consumer behavior in reference to the willingness to pay
for organic foods.
The selected materials were also limited to Chinese consumers only. Most of the retrieved articles
yielded results on willingness to pay for organic foods from consumers in other Asian countries,
especially Thailand, India, Indonesia, Taiwan, and Malaysia among others. Since the inclusion of
different Asian countries expanded the scope of the current study, only studies that were conducted
from the perspective of the Chinese consumer were considered relevant for inclusion in the research.

2.2. Data Collection Procedure

The data collection process was conducted in stages. First, the primary search terms were used
in each database one at a time. Then, the keywords were combined to form multiple phrases that
refined the search and resulted in a wide range of results. The same procedure was repeated for all the
databases until all the relevant articles had been retrieved. Articles were included if they meet the
aforementioned inclusion criteria, otherwise the rest were not included. Only quantitative, qualitative,
and systematic reviews that were peer-reviewed prior to publication were considered. Others such as
newspaper articles and general commentary in economics were excluded. The study only utilized
published works.
During the first stage of search, a total of 164 articles were identified as containing relevant
information on the field of consumer behaviour, and especially the willingness to pay for organic foods.
Due to the large body of previous research available for review and the broad scope of their literature,
the inclusion criteria already identified was used to narrow the search. The abstract was used to refine
the search and determine whether or not the article contained the required information. As such, all
the articles that did not have an abstract were automatically excluded.
After the review of the abstract for relevant information, the sample of articles selected was
reduced to 67 articles. Broad categories were used to eliminate policy papers and other articles that
did not specifically address the issue of organic foods from the perspective of Chinese consumers.
Reviewing the articles to only include those published about Chinese consumers and those written in
English, or those that have a translated version, narrowed the search to 43 articles. The final exclusion
criterion was the time factor, which limited the sample to 10 articles. Figure 1 below demonstrates the
sampling process and the narrowing of the number of articles from 164 to 10.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1713 4 of 14

Blackwell
Proquest SSRN Research AgEcon Search
Database
Database Database Database
62
41 32 29

Search Complete:
Blackwell, Proquest,
SSRN, and AgEcon
Search

Only peer-reviewed
original journals:
review of title and
abstract

Recent publications
from 2013 to 2018

10 significant
articles and
their references

Figure 1. Overview of the sampling procedure.

3. Results and Discussions

3.1. Bibliometric Matrix Synthesis

The results of the analysis of the selected articles based on the author, year of publication, title,
methods, and results are presented in the Table 1 below. This analysis was important in performing
the bibliometric analysis of the characteristics of selected studies and their contribution to the study.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1713 5 of 14

Table 1. Characteristics of the sampled studies.

Author and Year of

No. Title Methods Results
Publication
A quantitative research design The study reported that the Chinese and
‘An Analysis of Consumption was used to collect data from French consumers have a positive attitude
and Purchasing toward Organic China and France. An online towards the purchase of organic foods, in line
1 Fang and Levy [5]
Fruits: Cross-Countries Study questionnaire survey utilizing a with their respective planned behavior.
between China and France’ sample of 261 respondents was Food-related lifestyles were found to be major
used. drivers that influence purchase decisions.
The findings from this research show
A quantitative research design household income as the major determinant of
was adopted where 700 the willingness to purchase organic foods. This
structured questionnaires were is because organic foods are expensive
used to collect data from a compared to conventional foods that are
‘Consumer attitudes towards
Gan, Zhiyou, Tran, Cohen and sample in Kunming City. The readily available. People with a high social
2 the purchase of organic
Xiangxiang [6] data sought to measure the standing are more likely to purchase organic
products in China’
attitude of the respondents foods as a social marker. Moreover, Chinese
towards the purchase of organic households need more information about the
food products sold in the benefits of organic foods, especially due to the
market. big scandals in a country of tainted food
products.
This quantitative research used The main factor that influences Chinese
a survey questionnaire to gather consumers to purchase organic foods is food
‘Factors influencing organic data about the factors that safety. Other factors include nutritional values,
3 Li and Xin [7] food purchase of young Chinese influence the Chinese animal welfare, and environment-friendly.
consumers.’ consumers’ consumption of Young Chinese consumers are motivated to
organic foods, and their pay for organic vegetables and fruits especially
purchase intentions. due to the recent food scandals in the country.
This systematic review includes The findings demonstrated that the Chinese
a sample of 34 studies that consumers have a high level of awareness of
‘Consumers’ attitudes and focused on the willingness of safe foods, but low recognition of the concept
4 Liu, Pieniak, and Verbeke [8] behaviour towards safe food in consumers to pay for safe foods. of safe foods, including labels and
China: A review.’ The article includes organic identification of safe foods. Generally, there is
foods, green foods, and a positive attitude towards the purchase of safe
hazard-free foods. foods in the Chinese markets.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1713 6 of 14

Table 1. Cont.

Author and Year of

No. Title Methods Results
Publication
A quantitative research design
was used to determine the The willingness of Chinese consumers to
willingness of consumers to pay purchase organic foods is inspired by health
‘Trends in organic and green
for food safety, focusing on both and environmental factors. Moreover, most
food consumption in China:
organic and green foods. The Chinese consumers who purchase organic
5 McCarthy [9]. Opportunities and challenges
sample of 250 certified organic foods regularly distrust the Chinese food
for regional Australian
and green foods consumers system; hence their willingness to pay for
exporters’
from Beijing, Shanghai, organic foods is born out of food safety
Guangdong, and Chongqing concerns.
participated in the study.
The major motivation for willingness to
The study utilized a mixed purchase organic foods for consumers in East
methods research design China is driven by food safety and health
combining both qualitative and concerns. Also, education level and higher
‘Consumer perceptions and
Xie, Wang, Yang, Wang and quantitative data. The data was purchasing power are attributed to increase the
6 attitudes of organic food
Zhang [10] collected through a survey willingness of consumers to purchase organic
products in Eastern China.’
administered from consumers foods. Lack of awareness and knowledge
in Nanjing and Shanghai, east of about the benefits of organic foods is a major
China. barrier to willingness to purchase organic
foods in China.
A quantitative study conducted
using a survey administered in Price is a major contributor of the purchase of
Chongqing and Chengdu, as organic rice in Chongqing and Chengdu. High
‘Chinese consumers’
7 Xu, Su and Lone, [11] they are the largest rice demand for organic rice was reported in higher
willingness to pay for rice.’
consumption cities in China. A food expense consumers as they are willing to
conditional logit model was pay a premium for the organic rice.
used to analyze the data.
A quantitative research design The results of the analysis indicated that the
‘Consumer attitude and
was conducted through an Chinese consumers’ willingness to pay for
Yang, Al-Shaaban and Nguyen, purchase intention towards
8 online survey of Chinese organic foods is influenced by health
T. B. [12] organic food: A quantitative
consumers. The study was consciousness, individual norms, and
study of China.’
based on six hypotheses. consumer knowledge.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1713 7 of 14

Table 1. Cont.

Author and Year of

No. Title Methods Results
Publication
The results of the analysis demonstrated that
self-congruity has a major influence on the
willingness to pay for organic foods, including
Managing self-congruity to This quantitative study
aspects such as self-image, consistence with
influence behavioral intention employed 200 questionnaire
9 Yen [13] self-perception, self-reflection, and similar
in organic food contexts in surveys from organic food
people purchasing organic foods. The ideal
Fujian province, China. consumers in Fujian province.
social concept should be a bridge between the
consumers’ self-image and the image of
organic foods.
The study found that consumer identity and
ecological motive were the biggest drivers of
A quantitative research design
consumers’ willingness to purchase organic
‘Using the theory of planned that utilized data collected from
products. The study concluded that since
behavior to investigate what 216 in-depth surveys. The
10 Zhu [14]. people’s motivation to pay for organic foods is
influences Chinese intention to sample population was students
out of ecological concerns, and attitudes,
purchase organic food.’ from various universities in
marketers of organic foods should make such
Hubei Province.
variables a priority by connecting organic
foods to environmental values.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1713 8 of 14

3.2. Most Cited Keywords

The analysis of the articles revealed intersecting themes including health consciousness, individual
norms, consumer knowledge, food safety, environment/animal welfare, and nutritional factors. Some
articles reported multiple themes. Figure 2 below presents the major themes emerging from the
keywords most cited in the selected articles. Due to space in the figure, please find the caption’s full
description for each category in the main text.

Frequency of Bibliometrics indicators

6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Figure 2. Keywords that were most cited.

This figure has demonstrated that the major concerns for the Chinese consumers’ WTP include
the following.

3.2.1. Health Consciousness

The result from the materials disclosed in the sampled literature showed that the more conscious
the Chinese consumers are about their health, the more their willingness to pay for organic foods.
As aforementioned, the Chinese people have a positive attitude towards organic foods due to the
understanding that organic foods are good for health, as opposed to the conventional counterparts that
are chemical and toxin-laden. Yang, Al-Shaaban, and Nguyen [12] conducted a study in which health
consciousness was depicted as the primary factor influencing the purchase intention of consumers
towards organic foods. The study found that organic foods are preferred since they are often perceived
by consumers to be relatively free from chemicals, and may thus be thought of as safer for consumption.
As such, they are more willing to buy the types of foods they are sure to consume without suspicion
or worries.
According to Gan et al. [15], Chinese consumers have become increasingly aware of health
concerns in the country’s food industry in relation to their general wellbeing. This notion was
strongly held by the respondents in the study who demonstrated concerns about the quality of the
water they are drinking and the foods they are consuming. The respondents also indicated that
they constantly worrying about the conventional foods they eat due to the harmful chemicals and
pesticides used to grow them. Others reported that were regular readers of health-related articles in
books, magazines, and also in the newspaper. They also read the ingredients labels before making any
purchase decisions to ensure that they do not pay for foods that have high levels of preservatives and
additives. Gan et al. [15] attribute these tendencies to the rise in the number of health-conscious people
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1713 9 of 14

in China, who demonstrate preferences for organic foods, hence a high level of willingness to pay for
organic foods as they are aligned with their lifestyle choices. The study also notes that households
with a history of consumption of organic food have fewer cases of chronic illnesses.

3.2.2. Individual Norms

Many of the sampled studies have argued that individuals whose personal norms and attitudes
are aligned with a positive attitude towards organic food products are more likely to demonstrate
willingness to pay for organic foods compared to those who do not feel that paying for organic foods is
the right thing to do. For example, Yang, Al-Shaaban, and Nguyen [12] found that Chinese consumers
who feel they make a conscious choice to pay for organic foods, as well as those who believe that
choosing organic foods is the right decision, are more willing to buy organic foods because their
motivation is intrinsic and based on their attitudes.
In another study, Fang and Levy [5] found that there was a statistically significant relationship
between the attitude of Chinese consumers towards organic foods and their purchase intentions. In this
case, the study notes that the attitudes of the consumers are aligned with their personal norms, and
there is a link between organic foods and the achievement of various values in life. The lifestyle
of individuals is important in determining the values they give organic food products. If the value
of organic foods is highly aligned with the achievement of life values, then Chinese consumers are
highly likely to pay for the organic foods. In most cases, consumers who have a tendency to pay more
attention to the foods they buy are more likely to pay for organic foods.
Yen [13] also provided valuable insight into this body of evidence by positing that Chinese
consumers’ willingness to pay for organic foods is influenced by self-congruity and the need to
self-identify with the social self-concept. Respondents indicated that eating organic foods fits well
with their image of self, is consistent with the way they view themselves, and has helped them reflect
on who they are at a personal level.

3.2.3. Consumer Knowledge

Bibliometric-based evidence from this analysis demonstrates that Chinese consumers are more
willing to pay for organic foods when they have sufficient awareness about the knowledge of organic
foods, the benefits of organic foods, the nutritional values, and health impact in the long-run. For
instance, Gan et al. [6] also reported that the level of knowledge of the consumers regarding organic
foods is related to their willingness to buy organic food products. The positive correlation confirms
the notion that consumers who have a high level of knowledge regarding the benefits of purchasing
and consuming organic foods are highly likely to pay for organic foods. Gan et al. [6] explain that
since organic foods are credence goods, information is critical in influencing consumers to buy organic
foods as opposed to other conventional food products that are readily available, cheaper, and at the
convenience of the consumer. The results of this study are also consistent with Yang, Al-Shaaban, and
Nguyen [12] to the extent that limited consumer knowledge is a key impediment to the willingness of
consumers to pay for organic food products. As such, it is essential that marketers of organic foods
take into account the knowledge level of the market, understanding the concept of organic foods and
their many benefits. The more people become knowledgeable about organic foods, the more their
willingness to pay for them.
Similarly, Liu, Pieniak, and Verbeke [8] found that among safe foods, green foods, organic foods,
and hazard-free foods, organic foods are the less known among the Chinese consumers due to the
limited efforts to enhance consumer awareness. The study found that only a quarter of the respondents
were aware of organic foods. Knowledge level of a consumer is a primary factor in forming a positive
attitude towards the purchase of organic foods.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1713 10 of 14

3.2.4. Food Safety

With the increased cases of scandals in the Chinese food system, food safety has become a major
factor to consider when making purchase decisions, especially for consumables. McCarthy [9] noted
that most of the food safety issues are attributed to the high levels of additives and pesticides especially
in genetically modified foods.
Gan et al. [6] also support the notion that food safety is a major contributor of consumers’
willingness to pay for organic food products. Health and food safety factors are important considerations
that influence consumers to make purchase decisions in favor of organic foods. Organic foods are
more nutritious in terms of vitamins and minerals, and they are also safe from pesticides, toxins,
preservatives, and additives. With the increase in cases of food scandals in China, most consumers
have become increasingly conscious about the safety of conventionally grown foods. The study also
notes that there is limited information about food safety in China, which limits the extent to which
consumers can make informed decisions. Increased awareness of the level of safety of foods in the
Chinese markets can play a critical role in educating people to make informed health and nutritional
choices that are good for their health.
According to Li and Xin [7], young Chinese consumers are motivated to pay for organic vegetables
and fruits especially due to the recent food scandals in the country. Li and Xin [7] attribute the increasing
demand for organic foods among Chinese consumers to the poor record of the country’s food system,
which has increased the desire of the people to demand for health and safe foods that are free from
contaminants and other disease-causing elements. The study explores various scandals related to
conventional food products from counterfeit eggs, gutter cooking oils to milk and baby formula
adulterated with melamine. These cases are just an isolated few that raise food safety concerns, giving
organic food marketers an edge in terms of the influence to meet consumer needs and expectations of
safe foods.
Xie et al. [10] found that most Chinese consumers are highly willing to pay for organic foods
because they are assured that the safety of the food is guaranteed. Organic foods are grown without
the use of chemicals and pesticides that may have traces in the end products that is taken to the
consumers’ plates. A respondent was noted saying that she had found worms in organic apples
several times, but that was an assurance that the apple was organically grown without any pesticides
used to prevent the infection of the fruits by the worms. Another respondent also explained that
she had previously worked in an organic certification body and she was aware of animals that were
pumped with hormones and medicine, which was not the case in organically grown animals. As such,
consumers are highly willing to pay for foods that are organically grown as that assures them of the
safety of their foods.
In another study, Yang, Al-Shaaban, and Nguyen [12] also found that food safety was an
important consideration in the willingness to pay for organic foods. Organic foods are safe for human
consumptions as they are free from chemicals and other harmful substances that would result in ill
health. Moreover, organic foods give consumers the confidence that they can consume the foods
without fear or suspicion.

3.2.5. Environment/Animal Welfare

The results of this study indicate that environmental and animal welfare concerns are related
to a high willingness of Chinese consumers to pay for organic food products. A study conducted
by Xie et al. [10] found that the majority of Chinese consumers are ethically minded when making
consumption decisions, based on the increased cases of food fraud in the industry. Such consumers
have a greater willingness to purchase organic foods as they are aligned with personal objectives
of preserving the integrity, beauty, and stability of their households, and also the environment.
A respondent in the study stated that the environment in which they live is free from plastic waste,
pesticide bottles in the lands, streams and rivers, and it is such a beautiful place that they would wish
it for the next generation. The respondents acknowledged the high costs of organic foods, noting that
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1713 11 of 14

they would rather eat less and preserve their health, the environment, and the welfare of animals than
eat more conventional foods.
McCarthy [9] also found that Chinese consumers have a positive attitude towards the ethical
principles that guide organic foods farming, including the care for the welfare of the animals. Despite
the fact that health concerns outweigh the environmental concerns when making purchase decisions
for organic foods, McCarthy [9] notes that consumers are more motivated to pay for organic foods
that are linked to moral attitudes, the type of decisions that make people feel that they are doing
the right thing for themselves, and for the environment. In this case, consumers are more likely to
pay for organic products that are farmed under ethical and moral foundations, and those that ensure
environmental conservation and care for the welfare of animals.
According to Zhu [16], the ecological motive has a significant influence on the intention of people
to purchase organic foods, which then translates into their willingness to pay for organic foods.
The study combines both environmental concerns and animal welfare into the ecological motive, noting
that these characteristics are important for organic food consumers, as they are major determinants
of whether or not consumers will pay for the organic foods as opposed to the conventionally grown
foods. Zhu [14] cites several studies to affirm this conclusion by noting that previous research supports
the results in terms of the positive ethical role that influences the purchase decisions of organic food
products. The study also explains that organic foods consumers have a high sense of consciousness
towards the environmental, and that is their major motivation to buy organic foods. This variable is
also related to the self-identity variable, as individuals make the purchase decisions based on their
belief systems of doing the right thing.

3.2.6. Nutrition
Nutrition is a critical driver for the purchase of organic foods for Chinese consumers. Xie et al. [10]
found that consumers of organic foods are reported to value organic foods because organic foods are
laden with nutritional values compared to conventionally grown food products. A total of 65% of
respondents in the study reported that they buy organic foods because organic foods are fresher and
have a better taste. As such, Chinese consumers are more willing to pay for organic foods if they
perceive that the food has more nutritional value compared to the other types of foods that are not
fresher, healthier, and rural-like.
The findings in Xie et al. [10] are consistent with the results of the study conducted by Li and
Xin [7]. The study found that people reported that organic foods are more nutritious, have a better
taste, and are safer and good for human consumption. The labeling of organic food products is also
important in providing transparent information that shape the consumers’ positive attitudes towards
the purchase of organic foods. Li and Xin [7] interpret the finding of the study in the content of a wider
body of literature and note that other studies found organic foods to have a high level of minerals
such as magnesium, iron, phosphorous, and vitamins such as Vitamin C. These foods are also very
nutritious, hence the positive attitude of Chinese consumers towards the purchase of organic foods.

3.2.7. Consumer Purchasing Power

The results of this analysis demonstrate that there is a positive relationship between the consumers’
purchasing power and their willingness to pay for organic foods. Gan et al. [6] found that organic
foods are expensive compared to conventional foods that are readily available. People with a high
social standing are more likely to purchase organic foods as social markers. Education is also attributed
to the increase in purchasing power of consumers in China as they have high incomes compared to
their uneducated counterparts. Higher income households demonstrate a higher willingness to pay
for organic foods because they have the ability to pay for a premium to derive the benefits of organic
foods. They believe that organic foods are more preferable, nutritious, healthier, and more aligned
with their social values as opposed to the conventional alternatives. On the other hand, price is also
discriminative in the sense that consumers who want to consume organic foods cannot do so because
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1713 12 of 14

of the limited resources. Gan et al. [6] notes that the level of price sensitivity among Chinese consumers
is very high, such that people make purchase choices that give them value for money. In this case,
they are less willing to pay a premium to get organic foods when conventional foods are cheaper and
highly convenient.
The results of Gan et al. [6] are also confirmed by findings reported by Xie et al. [10] in which the
respondents reported that the high price for organic foods was a major deterrent to the purchase of
organic foods, especially for young Chinese consumers. In Nanjing and Shanghai, the difference in
the cost of organic and conventional fruits and vegetables was found to be very high for the average
consumers to afford. Some respondents also indicated that while they understood the manual work
and the high cost of organic farming compared to conventional farming, the premium price charged
for organic farming made it very costly that most people could not buy. Nevertheless, the study found
that most people regarded the cost of organic foods as necessary, hence a high willingness to purchase.
Xu, Su, and Lone [11] also found that price is a major determinant of the willingness of Chinese
consumers to pay for organic foods. The results of the study support the premise that low food expense
consumers are attracted to brands of rice that are affordable, hence low willingness to pay for organic
foods. On the other hand, high expense consumers are willing to pay a premium price for organic rice.

3.3. Nature of Evidence

The majority of the studies were made of quantitative studies while the rest of the studies were
comprised of mixed methods and systematic reviews.
Such results show an urgent call for utilization of more diverse methodologies, in order to
broaden the possible scopes of findings. Quantitative investigation for the issue of consumers’ WTP
might be more suitable for mature/established research questions, while other methods (especially
qualitative methods) might benefit from innovative explorations and thus could facilitate the growth
of the literature.

4. Conclusions
The purpose of this bibliometric study was to understand the knowledge structure of scientific
literature on Chinese consumers’ WTP for organic foods. Due to the fact that there is limited research
on the WTP for organic food in China, the bibliometric methodology was vital in gathering information
that is likely to influence Chinese consumers’ willingness to pay for organic food. The research question
was answered with the findings. What are the major factors (addressed in the literature) that influence
Chinese consumers’ WTP for organic foods? The first relates to health consciousness, which reminds
that modern consumers should be vigil regarding foods that can harm their health. The bibliographic
analysis also indicated individual norms, consumer knowledge, food safety, environmental concerns,
animal welfare, and purchasing power to be very important aspects that influence consumers’ WTP
in China.
Despite the various perceptions that are related to organic food, the purchasing power remains
the strongest fact that should be considered when purchasing organic food [1,10]. As deduced from
the study, it is clear that the level of consumption of organic foods in China is positively correlated to
the income levels of the consumers. Despite the fact that most consumers may be aware of the health
benefits of consuming organic foods, they do not purchase them because they are expensive compared
to conventional foods that are cheaper and readily available. Although the various attributes identified
can prompt a Chinese consumer to pay a premium price for organic foods, it is very important that
advocates and marketers of organic foods consider the price. The price might be a major hindrance for
the Chinese consumer to pay for organic foods. Nonetheless, it is evident that despite the premium
price associated with organic foods, there are some consumers that are willing to pay more because of
issues, such as the perceived health and nutritional benefits that are associated with organic foods.
The nutritional value of organic foods is a major motivation that has a positive impact on influencing
consumption patterns.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1713 13 of 14

There are some limitations that might stimulate future research ideas. The goal of this paper was
not to conduct a thorough check of the literature, but to draw attention and stimulate innovative and
timely research thoughts by reviewing a small numbered, but critical and representative, set of papers
(for a now arising market for organic foods). In such a sense, it makes sense to review the relevant
articles in the past five years. However, the reviewed scope and number of papers could be completed
for future studies in order to gain richer information.

Author Contributions: R.L. wrote the original draft of the paper; H.-Y.L. and Y.-T.L. were revisers for the first
draft; C.-W.L. was responsible for the analyses; P.F.T. reviewed and validated the manuscript and was in charge of
the revision and resubmission.
Funding: This study was partially supported by the Guangdong province characteristic innovation in University
Fund’s project: “Structure-conduct-performance” Model of Community Supported Agriculture in Guangdong
province in China, as well as the Humanities and Social Sciences Research in the Ministry of Education, and
Youth Fund Projects in the Border Areas. Funding for the collaborative path research for poverty alleviation
(15XJC840002) is acknowledged. Also, this study was subject to the National Social Science Fund’s general project
“Study on the Synergistic Path of Tourism Accurate Poverty Alleviation and Traditional Village Rejuvenation in
Ethnic Areas” (16BSH028).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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