CHP 4

Human Anatomy and Physiology
Eleventh Edition
Chapter 04
Tissue: The Living Fabric
Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Video: Why This Matters
Tissue: The Living Fabric
• Individual body cells are specialized
– Each type performs specific functions that
maintain homeostasis
• Tissues
– Groups of cells similar in structure that perform
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common or related function
• Histology something
is always exposed to ,
A tissue
that
– Study of tissues -
the "cover" tissue , lining something
t
• Four basic tissue types: epithelial,
connective, muscle, and nervous tissue
movement tissue , muscle cell Has nuerons
supporting tissue
Overview of Four Basic
Tissue Types: Epithelial,
Connective, Muscle, and
Nervous Tissues
Figure 4.1 Overview of four basic tissue types:

epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous
tissues.
4.1 Microscopy of Human Tissue
•To be viewed under a microscope, tissue
must be:
– Fixed: tissue is preserved with solvent
– Sectioned: cut into slices thin enough to
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transmit light or electrons
– Stained: to enhance contrast, although
artifacts (distortions) detract from what the
sample looks like in living tissues
● Light microscopy uses colored dyes
● Electron microscopy uses heavy metal coatings
Comparison of Transmission and
Electron Micrographs
Figure 4.2 Comparison of transmission and scanning electron micrographs.
4.2 Epithelial Tissue
• Epithelial tissue (epithelium) is a sheet of cells
that covers body surfaces or cavities
• Two main forms:
– Covering and lining epithelia
● On external and internal surfaces (example: skin)
– Glandular epithelia
● Secretory tissue in glands (example: salivary
glands)
• Main functions: protection, absorption, filtration,
excretion, secretion, and sensory reception
Special Characteristics of Epithelial
Tissues (1 of 7)
•Epithelial tissue has five distinguishing
characteristics:
1. Polarity
Basal surface
>
-
-
>
Epical surface
2. Specialized contacts
3. Supported by connective tissues
4. Avascular, but innervated
5. Regeneration
Tissues (2 of 7)
• Polarity
– Cells have polarity (top and bottom)
– Apical surface, upper free side, is exposed to surface or
cavity
● Most apical surfaces are smooth, but some have
specialized fingerlike projections called microvilli
– Basal surface, lower attached side, faces inwards
toward body
● Attaches to basal lamina, an adhesive sheet that holds
basal surface of epithelial cells to underlying cells
– Both surfaces differ in structure and function
Tissues (3 of 7)
Tissues (4 of 7)
•Specialized contacts
– Epithelial tissues need to fit closely together
● Many form continuous sheets
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– Specialized contact points bind adjacent
epithelial cells together
● Lateral contacts include:
– Tight junctions
– Desmosomes
Special Characteristics of Epithelial Tissues
(5 of 7)
• Supported by connective tissues
– All epithelial sheets are supported by connective
tissue
– Reticular lamina
● Deep to basal lamina
● Consists of network of collagen fibers
– Basement membrane
● Made up of basal and reticular lamina
● Reinforces epithelial sheet
● Resists stretching and tearing
● Defines epithelial boundary
Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance
•Cancerous epithelial cells are not
contained by the basement
membrane boundary like other cells
•They penetrate the boundary and
invade underlying tissues, resulting in
spread of cancer
Tissues (6 of 7)
•Avascular, but innervated
– No blood vessels are found in
epithelial tissue
●Must be nourished by diffusion from
underlying connective tissues
– Epithelia are supplied by nerve fibers,
however
Tissues (7 of 7)
•Regeneration
– Epithelial cells have high regenerative
capacities
– Stimulated by loss of apical-basal polarity
and broken lateral contacts
– Some cells are exposed to friction, some to
hostile substances, resulting in damage
● Must be replaced
● Requires adequate nutrients and cell division
Classification of Epithelia (1 of
10)
• All epithelial tissues have two names
– First name indicates number of cell layers
● Simple epithelia are a single layer thick
● Stratified epithelia are two or more layers thick and
involved in protection (example: skin)
– Second name indicates shape of cells
● Squamous: flattened and scale-like
● Cuboidal: box-like, cube
● Columnar: tall, column-like
– In stratified epithelia, shape can vary in each layer, so
cell is named according to the shape in apical layer
Classification of Epithelia
Figure 4.3a Classification of epithelia.

Figure 4.3b Classification of epithelia.
• Simple epithelia
– Involved in absorption, secretion, or filtration
processes
– Simple squamous epithelium
● Cells are flattened laterally, and cytoplasm is sparse
● Function where rapid diffusion is priority
– Example: kidney, lungs
● Two special simple squamous epithelia are based on
locations
– Endothelium: lining of lymphatic vessels, blood
vessels, and heart
– Mesothelium: serous membranes in the ventral body
cavity
Epithelium: Simple Squamous
Figure 4.4a Epithelial tissues.

Classification of Epithelia (5 of 10)
•Simple cuboidal epithelium

– Single layer of cells
– Involved in secretion and absorption
– Forms walls of smallest ducts of
glands and many kidney tubules
Epithelium: Simple Cuboidal
inkidnesales
Not found
-v
Figure 4.4b Epithelial tissues.

•Simple columnar epithelium
– Single layer of tall, closely packed cells
● Some cells have microvilli, and some have cilia
● Some layers contain mucus-secreting goblet
epithelial cells that
cells Goblet cells are
T specialize and
Synthesizing
mucus.
in
secreting
– Involved in absorption and secretion of mucus,

enzymes, and other substances
● Ciliated cells move mucus
– Found in digestive tract, gallbladder, ducts of
some glands, bronchi, and uterine tubes
Epithelium: Simple Columnar
Figure 4.4c Epithelial tissues.

>
-
False layer of epithelia
•Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

– Cells vary in height and appear to be multi-
layered and stratified, but tissue is in fact single-
layered simple epithelium
●“Pseudo” means false
● Many cells are ciliated
↑
– Involved in secretion, particularly of mucus, and
also in movement of mucus via ciliary sweeping
action
– Located mostly in upper respiratory tract, ducts of
large glands, and tubules in testes
Epithelium: Pseudostratified
Columnar
>
-
Basal
cells
Figure 4.4d Epithelial tissues.

• Stratified epithelial tissues
– Involve two or more layers of cells
– New cells regenerate from below
● Basal cells divide and migrate toward surface
– More durable than simple epithelia because
protection is the major role
Epidermis
– Stratified squamous epithelium >
-
On
of skin
● Most widespread of stratified epithelia

● Free surface is squamous, with deeper cuboidal or
columnar layers
● Located in areas of high wear and tear (example: skin)
● Keratinized cells found in skin; nonkeratinized cells are
found in moist linings
Epithelium: Stratified Squamous
Figure 4.4e Epithelial tissues.

• Stratified epithelial tissues (cont.)
– Stratified cuboidal epithelium
● Quite rare
● Found in some sweat and mammary glands
● Typically only two cell layers thick
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– Stratified columnar epithelium
● Also very limited distribution in body
● Small amounts found in pharynx, in male urethra, and
lining some glandular ducts
● Usually occurs at transition areas between two other
types of epithelia
● Only apical layer is columnar
•Stratified epithelial tissues (cont.)

– Transitional epithelium >
-
The cells can stretch
● Forms lining of hollow urinary organs

– Found in bladder, ureters, and urethra
● Basal layer cells are cuboidal or columnar
● Ability of cells to change shape when stretched
allows for increased flow of urine and, in the case
of bladder, more storage space
Epithelium: Transitional
Round Top Layer
↑ Makes it different
from others
Figure 4.4f Epithelial tissues.

Glandular Epithelia (1 of 7)
•Gland
– One or more cells that makes and secretes an
aqueous fluid called a secretion
•Classified by:
– Site of product release:
● Endocrine: internally secreting (example:
hormones)
● Exocrine: externally secreting (example: sweat)
– Relative number of cells forming the gland
● Unicellular (example: goblet cells) or multicellular
(example: salivary)
Formation of Multicellular Exocrine
and Endocrine Glands
Figure 4.5 Formation of multicellular exocrine and endocrine glands.
•Endocrine glands
– Ductless glands
● Secretions are not released into a duct; are
released into surrounding interstitial fluid,
which is picked up by circulatory system
– Secrete (by exocytosis) hormones,
messenger chemicals that travel through
lymph or blood to their specific target
organs
– Target organs respond in some
characteristic way
•Exocrine glands
– Secretions are released onto body surfaces,
such as skin, or into body cavities
– More numerous than endocrine glands
– Secrete products into ducts
– Examples include mucous, sweat, oil, and
salivary glands
– Can be:
● Unicellular
● Multicellular
•Unicellular exocrine glands
– The only important unicellular glands
are mucous cells and goblet cells
– Found in epithelial linings of intestinal
and respiratory tracts
– All produce mucin, a sugar-protein that
can dissolve in water to form mucus, a
slimy protective, lubricating coating
Goblet Cell (Unicellular Exocrine
Gland)
Figure 4.6 Goblet cell (unicellular exocrine gland).

•Multicellular exocrine glands
– Multicellular exocrine glands are composed of a
duct and a secretory unit
– Usually surrounded by supportive connective
tissue that supplies blood and nerve fibers to
gland
● Connective tissue can form capsule around gland,
and also extend into gland, dividing it into lobes
– Classified by:
● Structure
● Mode of secretion
•Multicellular exocrine glands (cont.)
– Structure
●Simple exocrine glands have unbranched
ducts, but compound glands have
branched ducts
●In a tubular gland, secretory cells form a
duct, whereas in alveolar glands,
secretory cells form sacs
– Tubuloalveolar glands have both types
Types of Multicellular Exocrine
Glands
Figure 4.7 Types of multicellular exocrine glands.
•Multicellular exocrine glands (cont.)
– Mode of secretion -
Lose
nothing
● Merocrine: most secrete products by
exocytosis as secretions are produced (sweat,
pancreas) Lose
everything
>
-
● Holocrine: accumulate products within, then

rupture (sebaceous oil glands)
● Apocrine: accumulate products within, but
only apex ruptures; whether this type exists in
humans is controversial (maybe mammary
cells?)
lose the
top layer
Chief Modes of Secretion in
Human Exocrine Glands
Figure 4.8 Chief modes of secretion in human exocrine glands.

4.3 Connective Tissue
• Connective tissue is the most abundant and
widely distributed of primary tissues
• Major functions: binding and support,
protecting, insulating, storing reserve fuel, and
transporting substances (blood)
• Four main classes
– Connective tissue proper
– Cartilage
3 specie
a
– Bone
– Blood
Table 4.1-1 Comparison of Classes
of Connective Tissues
>
Lining every epetil at
-
Table 4.1-1 Comparison of Classes of Connective Tissues.

Table 4.1-2 Comparison of Classes
of Connective Tissues
Table 4.1-2 Comparison of Classes of Connective Tissues.
Common Characteristics of
Connective Tissue
• Three characteristics make connective tissues
different from other primary tissues:
– All have common embryonic origin: all arise from
mesenchyme tissue as their tissue of origin
– Have varying degrees of vascularity (cartilage is
avascular, bone is highly vascularized)
– Cells are suspended/embedded in extracellular
matrix (ECM) (protein-sugar mesh)
● Matrix supports cells so they can bear weight,
withstand tension, endure abuse
Structural Elements of Connective
Tissue
• All connective tissues have three main
elements
– Ground substance
– Fibers
– Cells
● The first two elements (ground substance and
fibers) together make up the extracellular matrix
– Composition and arrangement of these three
elements vary considerably in different types
of connective tissues
Structural Elements of
Connective Tissue (2 of 5)
• Ground substance
– Unstructured gel-like material that fills space
between cells
● Medium through which solutes diffuse between blood
capillaries and cells
– Components
Based on this
● Interstitial fluid
-
● Cell adhesion proteins (“glue” for attachment)

● Proteoglycans (sugar proteins), made up of protein core +
large polysaccharides
– Example: chrondroitin sulfate and hyaluronic acid
● Water also is trapped in varying amounts, affecting
viscosity of ground substance
Tissue (3 of 5)
• Connective tissue fibers
• Three types of fibers provide support
– Collagen Where there's
>
-
a lot of tension .
tendons
, ligaments
● Strongest and most abundant type

● Tough; provides high tensile strength
– Elastic fibers
● Networks of long, thin, elastin fibers that allow for stretch and recoil
– Reticular
● Short, fine, highly branched collagenous fibers (different chemistry and
form from collagen fibers)
● Branching forms networks that offer more “give”
Tissue (4 of 5)
• Cells
– “Blast” cells
● Immature form of cell that actively secretes ground
substance and ECM fibers
● Fibroblasts found in connective tissue proper
● Chondroblasts found in cartilage CHONDRO CARTILAGE
>
-
=
● Osteoblasts found in bone

● Hematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow
– “Cyte” cells >
- Retired
● Mature, less active form of “blast” cell that now becomes

part of and helps maintain health of matrix
Tissue (5 of 5)
• Other cell types in connective tissues
– Fat cells
● Store nutrients
– White blood cells
● Neutrophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes
● Tissue response to injury
– Mast cells
● Initiate local inflammatory response against foreign
microorganisms they detect
– Macrophages
● Phagocytic cells that “eat” dead cells, microorganisms; function
in immune system
Areolar Connective Tissue: A
Prototype (Model) Connective Tissue
Figure 4.9 Areolar connective tissue: A prototype (model) connective tissue.
Types of Connective Tissues (1 of 13)
•There are four main classes of

connective tissue:
– Connective tissue proper
– Cartilage
– Bone
– Blood
Overview of Types of Connective
Tissue
Figure 4.10 Overview of types of connective tissue.

• Connective tissue proper
– Consists of all connective tissues except bone,
cartilage, and blood
– Two subclasses
● CT proper: loose connective tissues
– Areolar
– Adipose
– Reticular
● CT proper: dense connective tissues
– Dense regular
– Dense irregular
– Elastic
•CT proper: loose connective tissues
– Areolar connective tissue
● Most widely distributed CT
● Supports and binds other tissues
● Universal packing material between other tissues
● Contains fibroblasts that secrete loose arrangement of
mostly collagen fibers
● Loose fibers allow for increased ground substance,
which can act as water reservoir by holding more
interstitial fluid
● Macrophages and fat cells are contained in spaces
Connective Tissues-Proper-Loose-
Areolar
Figure 4.11a Connective tissues.

• CT proper: loose connective tissues (cont.)
– Adipose tissue
● White fat
– Similar to areolar tissue but greater nutrient storage
– Cells are called adipocytes
– Scanty matrix
– Richly vascularized
– Functions in shock absorption, insulation, and energy
storage
● Brown fat
– Use lipid fuels to heat bloodstream rather than to
produce ATP, as does white fat
Adipose
Figure 4.11b Connective tissues.

•CT proper: loose connective tissues
(cont.)
– Reticular connective tissue
● Resembles areolar tissue, but fibers are
thinner reticular fibers
● Fibroblast cells are called reticular cells
– Secrete reticular fibers made up of thin
collagen
● Reticular fibers form a mesh-like stroma that
acts as a support for blood cells in lymph
nodes, spleen, and bone marrow
Reticular
Figure 4.11c Connective tissues.

•CT proper: dense connective

tissues
– Three varieties of dense connective
tissue
●Dense regular
●Dense irregular
●Elastic
• CT proper: dense connective tissues (cont.)
– Dense regular connective tissue
● Very high tensile strength; can withstand high tension and
stretching
● Closely packed bundles of thick collagen fibers run parallel to
direction of pull
– Fibers appear as white structures
• Great resistance to pulling
– Fibers slightly wavy, so stretch a little
● Fibroblasts manufacture collagen fibers and ground
substance
● Very few cells and ground substance, mostly fibers
● Poorly vascularized
● Example: tendons and ligaments
Connective Tissues-Proper-Dense-
Regular
Figure 4.11d Connective tissues.

• CT proper: dense connective tissues (cont.)
– Dense irregular connective tissue
● Same elements as dense regular, but bundles of
collagen are thicker and irregularly arranged
● Forms sheets rather than bundles
● Resists tension from many directions
● Found in:
– Dermis
– Fibrous joint capsules
– Fibrous coverings of some organs
Connective Tissues-Proper-Dense-Irregular
Figure 4.11e Connective tissues.
•CT proper: dense connective
tissues
–Elastic connective tissue
●Some ligaments are very elastic
–E.g.: ligaments connecting adjacent
vertebrae must be very elastic
●Also found in walls of many large
arteries
–Arteries need to stretch when blood
enters and recoil to push blood out
Connective Tissues-Proper-Dense-
Elastic
Figure 4.11f Connective tissues.

•Cartilage
– Matrix secreted from chondroblasts (during growth)
and chondrocytes (adults)
● Chondrocytes found in cavities called lacunae
● 80% water, with packed collagen fibers and sugar
proteins (chondroitin and hyaluronic acid)
– Tough yet flexible material that lacks nerve fibers
– Avascular: receives nutrients from membrane
surrounding it (perichondrium)
● Periochondrium gives rise to chondroblasts and
chondrocytes
• Three types of cartilage:
– Hyaline cartilage
● Most abundant; “gristle”
● Appears as shiny bluish glass
● Found at tips of long bones, nose, trachea, larynx, and
cartilage of the ribs
– Elastic cartilage
● Similar to hyaline but with more elastic fibers
● Found in ears and epiglottis
– Fibrocartilage
● Properties between hyaline and dense regular tissue
● Strong, so found in areas such as intervertebral discs and
knee
Connective Tissues-Proper-Cartilage-
Hyaline
Figure 4.11g Connective tissues.

Elastic
Figure 4.11h Connective tissues.

Fibrocartilage
Figure 4.11i Connective tissues.

Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 4.2
•Avascular cartilage loses ability to
divide as we age, so injuries heal
slowly
– Common in people with sports injuries
•Later in life, cartilage can calcify or
ossify (become bony), causing
chondrocytes to die
•Bone
– Also called osseous tissue
– Supports and protects body structures
– Stores fat and synthesizes blood cells in cavities
– Has more collagen compared to cartilage
– Has inorganic calcium salts
– Osteoblasts produce matrix
– Osteocytes maintain the matrix
● Reside in cavities in matrix called lacunae
– Osteons: individual structural units
– Richly vascularized
Connective Tissues-Bone
Figure 4.11j Connective tissues.

•Blood
– Most atypical connective tissue because it is
fluid
● Consists of cells surrounded by matrix
(plasma)
– Red blood cells are most common cell type
– Also contains white blood cells and platelets
– Fibers are soluble proteins that precipitate
during blood clotting
– Functions in transport and in carrying nutrients,
wastes, gases, and other substances
Connective Tissues- Blood
Figure 4.11k Connective tissues.

4.4 Muscle Tissue
•Highly vascularized
•Responsible for most types of movement
– Muscle cells possess myofilaments made up
of actin and myosin proteins that bring about
contraction
•Three types of muscle tissues:
– Skeletal muscle > With bones
-
– Cardiac muscle > Only in the heart

-
– Smooth muscle Hallo >

- w
Any tubelike *
Organs Structure
Skeletal Muscle (1 of 2)
•Skeletal muscle tissue >
-
They
look
:D
– Attached to and causes movement of
bones
– Also called voluntary muscle
●Skeletal muscles can be consciously
controlled
– Cells are called muscle fibers
●Contain multiple nuclei
●Appear striated or banded
Skeletal Muscle (2 of 2)
Figure 4.12a Muscle tissues.

Cardiac Muscle (1 of 2)
•Cardiac muscle tissue
– Found only in walls of heart
– Involuntary muscle
– Like skeletal muscle, contains striations;
but cells have only one nucleus
– Cells can have many branches that join
branches of other cardiac cells
●Intercalated discs are special joints
where cardiac cells are joined
Cardiac Muscle (2 of 2)
Branching
-
Loading…
Figure 4.12b Muscle tissues.
Smooth Muscle (1 of 2)
•Smooth muscle tissue

– Found mainly in walls of hollow
organs (other than heart)
– Involuntary muscle
– Has no visible striations
– Spindle-shaped cells with one
nucleus
Smooth Muscle (2 of 2)
Figure 4.12c Muscle tissues.
4.5 Nervous Tissue
•Main component of nervous system
(brain, spinal cord, nerves)
– Regulates and controls body functions
•Made up of two specialized cells:
– Neurons: specialized nerve cells that
generate and conduct nerve impulses
– Supporting cells that support, insulate,
and protect neurons
Nervous Tissue
Figure 4.13 Nervous tissue.
4.6 Covering and Lining Membranes
•Composed of at least two primary
tissue types: an epithelium bound to
underlying connective tissue proper
layer
•Three types
– Cutaneous membranes
– Mucous membranes
– Serous membranes
Cutaneous Membranes
•Another name for skin
•Keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium (epidermis) attached to a
thick layer of connective tissue
(dermis)
•Unlike other membranes, skin is a dry
membrane
Classes of Covering and Lining
Membranes (1 of 3)
Figure 4.14a Classes of covering and lining membranes.
Mucous Membranes
• Mucosa indicates location, not cell composition
• Also called mucosae
– Line body cavities that are open to the exterior
(example: digestive, respiratory, urogenital tracts)
• Moist membranes bathed by secretions (or urine)
• Epithelial sheet lies over layer of loose
connective tissue called lamina propria
• May secrete mucus
Membranes (2 of 3)
Figure 4.14b Classes of covering and lining membranes.

Serous Membranes
• Also called serosae
• Found in closed ventral body cavities
• Constructed from simple squamous epithelium (called
mesothelium) resting on thin areolar connective tissue
• Parietal serosae line internal body cavity walls
• Visceral serosae cover internal organs
• Cavity between layers is filled with slippery serous fluid,
so these are moist membranes
• Special names given to show location: pleurae (lungs),
pericardium (heart), peritoneum (abdomen)
Membranes (3 of 3)
Figure 4.14c Classes of covering and lining membranes.

4.7 Tissue Repair
•When the body’s barriers are

compromised, the inflammatory and
immune responses are activated
•Repair starts very quickly
•Repair is the function of the
inflammatory process
Steps in Tissue Repair (1 of 3)
• Repair can occur in two major ways:
– Regeneration: same kind of tissue replaces
destroyed tissue, so original function is restored
– Fibrosis: connective tissue replaces destroyed
tissue, and original function lost
• Step 1: Inflammation sets stage
– Release of inflammatory chemicals causes:
● Dilation of blood vessels
● Increase in blood vessel permeability
– Clotting of blood occurs
Tissue Repair of a Nonextensive Skin
Wound: Regeneration and Fibrosis (1 of 3)
Figure 4.15 Tissue repair of a nonextensive skin wound: regeneration and fibrosis.
• Step 2: Organization restores blood supply

– Organization begins as the blood clot is
replaced with granulation tissue (new
capillary-enriched tissue)
– Epithelium begins to regenerate
– Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers to bridge
the gap until regeneration is complete
– Any debris in area is phagocytized
Wound: Regeneration and Fibrosis
•Step 3: Regeneration and fibrosis
effect permanent repair
– The scab detaches
– Fibrous tissue matures
– Epithelium thickens and begins to
resemble adjacent tissue
– Results in a fully regenerated epithelium
with underlying scar tissue, which may or
may not be visible
Wound: Regeneration and Fibrosis
Regenerative Capacity of Different
Tissues (1 of 2)
•Tissues that regenerate extremely well
include:
– Epithelial tissues, bone, areolar connective
tissue, dense irregular connective tissue,
blood-forming tissue
•Tissue with moderate regenerating
capacity:
– Smooth muscle and dense regular
connective tissue
Regenerative Capacity of
Different Tissues (2 of 2)
•Tissues with virtually no functional
regenerative capacity:
–Cardiac muscle and nervous tissue
of brain and spinal cord
–New research shows cell division
does occur, and efforts are underway
to coax them to regenerate better
•Scar tissue that forms in organs,
particularly the heart, can severely
impair the function of that organ
– May cause the organ to lose volume
capacity
– May block substances from moving
through organ
– May interfere with ability of muscles to
contract or may impair nerve
transmissions
•Scar adhesions may cause organs

to adhere to neighboring
structures, preventing normal
functions
•Scarring can potentially cause
progressive failure of the organ,
particularly the heart
Developmental Aspects of Tissues
•Primary germ layers
– Superficial to deep: ectoderm, mesoderm,
and endoderm
– Formed early in embryonic development
– Specialize to form the four primary tissues
●Nerve tissue arises from ectoderm
●Muscle and connective tissues arise from
mesoderm
●Epithelial tissues arise from all three germ
layers
Developmental Aspects of Tissues
• Tissues function well through youth and middle
age if given adequate diet and circulation and if
wounds and infections are minimal
• As the body ages, epithelia thin, so they are more
easily breached
• Tissue repair is less efficient
• Bone, muscle tissues, and nervous tissues begin
to atrophy
• DNA mutations increase cancer risk

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Human Anatomy and Physiology

Figure 4.1 Overview of four basic tissue types:

Figure 4.2 Comparison of transmission and scanning electron micrographs.

Figure 4.3a Classification of epithelia.

Figure 4.3b Classification of epithelia.

Figure 4.4a Epithelial tissues.

•Simple cuboidal epithelium

Figure 4.4b Epithelial tissues.

– Involved in absorption and secretion of mucus,

Figure 4.4c Epithelial tissues.

•Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Figure 4.4d Epithelial tissues.

● Most widespread of stratified epithelia

Figure 4.4e Epithelial tissues.

•Stratified epithelial tissues (cont.)

● Forms lining of hollow urinary organs

Figure 4.4f Epithelial tissues.

Figure 4.5 Formation of multicellular exocrine and endocrine glands.

Figure 4.6 Goblet cell (unicellular exocrine gland).

Figure 4.7 Types of multicellular exocrine glands.

● Holocrine: accumulate products within, then

Figure 4.8 Chief modes of secretion in human exocrine glands.

Table 4.1-1 Comparison of Classes of Connective Tissues.

Table 4.1-2 Comparison of Classes of Connective Tissues.

● Cell adhesion proteins (“glue” for attachment)

● Strongest and most abundant type

● Osteoblasts found in bone

● Mature, less active form of “blast” cell that now becomes

Figure 4.9 Areolar connective tissue: A prototype (model) connective tissue.

•There are four main classes of

Figure 4.10 Overview of types of connective tissue.

Figure 4.11a Connective tissues.

Figure 4.11b Connective tissues.

Figure 4.11c Connective tissues.

•CT proper: dense connective

Figure 4.11d Connective tissues.

Figure 4.11e Connective tissues.

Figure 4.11f Connective tissues.

Figure 4.11g Connective tissues.

Figure 4.11h Connective tissues.

Figure 4.11i Connective tissues.

Figure 4.11j Connective tissues.

Figure 4.11k Connective tissues.

– Cardiac muscle > Only in the heart

– Smooth muscle Hallo >

Figure 4.12a Muscle tissues.

Figure 4.12b Muscle tissues.

•Smooth muscle tissue

Figure 4.12c Muscle tissues.

Figure 4.13 Nervous tissue.

Figure 4.14a Classes of covering and lining membranes.

Figure 4.14b Classes of covering and lining membranes.

Figure 4.14c Classes of covering and lining membranes.

•When the body’s barriers are

• Step 2: Organization restores blood supply

•Scar adhesions may cause organs

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