General Chemistry

Principles and Modern Applications

Petrucci • Harwood • Herring
8th Edition

Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

 Contents

2-1 Early Chemical Discoveries and Atomic Theory

2-2 Electrons and Other Discoveries in Atomic Physics
2-3 The Nuclear Atom
2-4 Chemical Elements
2-5 Atomic Mass
2-6 Introduction to the Periodic Table
2-7 The Mole Concept and Avagadro Constant
2-8 Using the Mole Concept in Calculations
 2-1 Early Discoveries and the Atomic
Theory

Lavoisier 1774 - Law of conservation of mass

Proust 1799- Law of constant composition

and Law of definite proportions

Dalton (1803-1808)- Atomic Theory

Law of conservation of mass
Lavoisier 1774

Heat

Tin Tin oxide

Air Air
Flask
Flask

total mass = total mass

 Conservation of Mass

Reaction
AgCl + KCrO4 KCl + AgCrO4 (red)
104.50 g 104.50 g
 The Mass Laws
Law of Conservation of Mass:
The total mass of substances does not change during a
chemical reaction.
“Mass is neither created nor destroyed”

reactant 1 + reactant 2 product

total mass = total mass

calcium oxide + carbon dioxide calcium carbonate

CaO + CO2 CaCO3

56.08g + 44.00g 100.08g

Law of Constant Composition
French Chemist Joseph Proust (1799)

Cu metal dissolve in HNO3

Cu2+ + K2CO3 → CuCO3 (green color)

Malachite mineral Roof of the houses

 Law of Constant Composition
Joseph Proust (1754–1826)

• Also known as the law of definite proportions.

• The elemental composition of a pure substance
never varies.
• The relative amounts of each element in a
compound doesn’t vary.

H N
NH3
ammonia
ammonia always has 3 H and 1 N.
 Law of Conservation of Mass

The total mass of substances present at the

end of a chemical process is the same as the
mass of substances present before the
process took place.

3H2 + N2 2NH3
ammonia
The atoms on the right all appear on the left
The Law of Definite Proportions
When elements combine to form compounds,
they do so in definite proportions by mass.

Sample A Composition Sample B Composition

10,000 g 27,000 g
1,119 g H % H = 11,19 3,021 g H % H = 11,19
8,881 g O % O = 88.81 23,979 g O % O = 88.81
Two samples have the same proportions of the two elements.

Na (s) + Cl2 (g) NaCl (s)

39.3 g 60.7 g 100.0 g
23.0 g 35.5 g 58.5 g
39.3 g 23.0g
60.7 g = 35.5 g
= 0.647
Law of Definite (or Constant) Composition:
No matter what its source, a particular chemical
compound is composed of the same elements in
the same parts (fractions) by mass.

CaCO3 1 atom of Ca 40.08 amu

1 atom of C 12.00 amu
3 atoms of O 3 x 16.00 amu
100.08 amu
40.08 amu
= 0.401 parts Ca
100.08 amu

12.00 amu
= 0.120 parts C
100.08 amu

48.00 amu
= 0.480 parts O
100.08 amu
 Law of multiple proportions
Dalton’s theory leads to a prediction- the law of multiple proportions.
~ If two elements form more than a single compound, the masses of one element
combined with a fixed mass of the second are in the ratio of small whole
numbers.
Same elements to combine in different ratios to give different substances.
E.g. Oxygen and carbon can combine either in a 1: 1.333 mass ratio to make a
substance or in a 1: 2.667 mass ratio to make a substance.

first 1 g carbon per 1.333 g oxygen C:O mass ratio = 1: 1.333

second 1 g carbon per 2.667 g oxygen C:O mass ratio = 1: 2.667

comparison C:O mass ratio in first sample = (1 g C)/(1.333g O) = 2

of C:O ratios C:O mass ratio in second sample (1 g C)/(2.667g O)
Compare two substances clearly the second substance contains exactly twice as
much oxygen as the first for a given number of carbon. If the first oxide has the
molecular formula CO then the second oxide will be CO2.
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory

 Each element is composed of small particles called atoms.

 Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.

 All atoms of a given element are identical (in mass and other

properties)

 Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element

combine in a simple numerical ratio.

Atomic Theory of Matter

The theory of atoms:

Original to the Greeks
Leucippus, Democritus and Lucretius
(Aristotle thought they were nuts)
John Dalton (1805-1808)
Rewieved the idea and made it
science by measuring the atomic
weights of 21 elements.

That’s the key thing because then

you can see how elements
combine.
 Dalton’s Postulates
1- Each element is composed of extremely
small particles called atoms.
 Dalton’s Postulates

3- All atoms of a given element are identical (in mass

and other properties). But the atoms of one element are
different from the atoms of all other elements.

O N
 Dalton’s Postulates
2- Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.

Atoms of an element are not changed into atoms of a different element

by chemical reactions; atoms are neither created nor destroyed in
chemical reactions. (As far as Dalton knew, they couldn’t be changed at
all).

O N O N

Red O’s stay Os and blue N’s stay N’s.

 Dalton’s Postulates
4-Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element
combine in a simple numerical ratio.

Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element

combine; a given compound always has the same relative number
and kind of atoms.

H N
NH3
ammonia

Chemistry happens when the balls rearrange

Law of Multiple Proportions

Ratio of oxygen-to-carbon in CO2 is

exactly twice the ratio in CO.
The Law of Multiple Proportions - In different com-
pounds containing the same elements, the masses of
one element combined with a fixed mass of the other
element are in the ratio of small whole numbers.
H O O/H
H2O2 11.2 g 178 g 15.9
=2
H2O 11.2 g 88.8 g 7.93

C O O/C
CO2 42.9 g 114 g 2.66
=2
CO 42.9 g 57.1 g 1.33
Law of Multiple Proportions
 Consequences of Dalton’s theory
 Law of Definite Proportions: combinations of elements are
in ratios of small whole numbers.

 In forming carbon monoxide, 1.33 g

of oxygen combines with 1.0 g of
carbon.

 In the formation of hydrogen

peroxide 2.66 g of oxygen combines
with 1.0 g of hydrogen.

Slide 23 of 25 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Prentice-Hall © 2002

Summary:

These laws that govern chemical reactions and com-

pound composition allow us to do stoichiometric
calculations. They were all well known by 1803 when
John Dalton put forth his atomic theory of matter.
This theory was able to “explain” why these laws that
govern chemical reactions were true.
 2-2 Electrons and Discoveries in Atomic Physics
Behavior of charges
a) Two ++ or two - - charges repel each other.
b) Objects lack any electric charge exert no
forces on each other.
c) Positive and negative charges attract
each other.

When charged particles travel in a magnetic field,

they are deflected.
Negatively charged particles are deflected in one
direction.
Positively charged particles are opposite direction.
 The Discovery of Electrons
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) also known as TV tube.
Discovered cathode rays, a type of radiation
emitted by the negative terminal or the cathode.
Cathode rays travel in straight lines and are
Michael Faraday
independent of cathode materials (whether it is
1791-1867
iron, platinium and so on).

Cathode rays are

invisible and can be
detected only by
flourescent materials
(ZnS).
 Properties of cathode rays

Electron m/e = -5.6857  10-9 g coulomb-1

 Thomson’s Cathode Ray Experiment
1897 J.J. Thomson
Cathode rays are deflected by electric and magnetic
field, as negative charged particles.

Thomson found the ratio of mass (m) to electric charge (e), that is
m/e (m/e = -5.6857  10-9 g/coulomb).

Thomson concluded that cathode rays are negatively charged

fundamental particles of matter found in all atoms.

Cathode rays later became known as electrons, this term first

proposed by George Stoney in 1874.
Thomson’s experiment involved the use of cathode-ray tube. When a
sufficiently high voltage is applied across the electrode, an electric current
 Thomson’s Cathode Ray Experiment

• Used many different metals and gases

• Beam was always the same
• By the amount it bent he could find the ratio of
charge to mass
• Was the same with every material
• Same type of piece in every kind of atom
 Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment
Millikan found that ionized oil drops can be balanced
against the pull of gravity by an electric field.
Determined a value for the electron’s charge:
e = –1.6022 × 10–19 C
Robert Millikan
1868-1953

Charged droplet can

move either up or down,
depending on the charge
on the plates.

Radiation ionizes
a droplet of oil.

Magnitude of charge on
the plates lets us calculate
the charge on the droplet.
 Charge on The Electron

Value for the electron’s charge:

e = –1.6022 × 10–19 C

Mass of an electron
From m/e and the charge, the mass of an electron was
determined to be
m = 9.1094 × 10–31 kg/electron
 Properties of The Electron
• Thomson determined the mass-to-charge ratio; Millikan
found the charge; we can now find the mass of an electron:
me = 9.109 × 10–31 kg/electron
• This is almost 2000 times less than the mass of a hydrogen
atom (1.79 × 10–27 kg)

• Some investigators thought that cathode rays (electrons) were

negatively charged ions.
• But the mass of an electron is shown to be much smaller than
even a hydrogen atom, so an electron cannot be an ion.
• Since electrons are the same regardless of the cathode
material, these tiny particles must be a negative part of all
matter.
 J. J. Thomson – Atomic Model
Thomson proposed an atom with a positively charged
sphere containing equally spaced electrons inside

Proposed for a hydrogen atom that there was one

electron at the exact center of the sphere
Proposed for a helium atom that two electrons existed
along a straight line through the center, with each
electron being halfway between the center and the outer
surface of the sphere
 Plum Pudding Model

• Thomson proposed an atom with a

positively charged sphere containing
equally spaced electrons inside.
• He applied this model to atoms with
up to 100 electrons.
 X-rays and Radioactivity

In 1895, discovered x-rays when working with cathode

rays tube. Found that x-rays pass through different
materials at different temperatures.
Wilhelm C.
Rontgen
1845-1923

Discovered that uranium was able to expose a

photographic plate on black paper.
In1896, discovered radioactivity.

Antoine H.
Becquerel
1852-1908
http://hi.fi.tripod.com/timeline/images/wilhelm_rontgen.jpg
 Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation by an
atom.
• First observed by Henri Becquerel.
• Also studied by Marie and Pierre Curie.

Three types of radiation

• α Particles were discovered by Ernest Rutherford
• β Particles were discovered by Ernest Rutherford
• γ Rays were discovered by Paul Villard

Properties of the three radioactive emissions discovered

Original name Modern name Mass (amu) Charge
-ray -particle 4.00 +2
-ray -particle (electron) 5.49x10-4 -1
-ray -ray 0 0_______
 Radioactivity

•  particles, attracted to negative electrode, so they have a

positive charge, much more mass than negative stuff (turn out
to be He2+ nuclei).
•  particles, attracted to positive electrode, so they have a
negative charge, 1000s of times less massive (turn out to be
electrons coming from nucleus).
•  rays, no charge, no mass.
 The nuclear atom

Hans Geiger and

Ernest Rutherford Alpha Scattering
1090 Experiment:
Ernest
Rutherford
1871-1937
 Most of the alpha Alpha Scattering
particles passed
through the foil.
Experiment:
Rutherford’s observations

Alpha particles
were “shot” into
thin metal foil.

A few particles
were deflected
A very few slightly by the
“bounced foil.
back” to the
source!
Alpha Scattering If Thomson’s model was correct, most of
Experiment: the α particles should have been deflected
Rutherford’s a little, like bullets passing through a
conclusions cardboard target.

Most of the alpha

particles passed
through the foil =>
An atom must be
mostly empty space.

The nucleus is far

A very few alpha particles smaller than is
bounced back => suggested here.
The nucleus must be very
small and massive.
 Rutherford’s Scattering Experiment
1909 Ernest Rutherford
~ use  particle to study the inner structure of atoms. When he
directed a beam of -particles at a thin gold foil, he found that
 The majority of -particles penetrated the foil undeflected.
 Some  particles experienced slightly deflections.
 A few (about one in every 20,000) suffered rather serious
deflections as they penetrated the foil.
 A similar number did not pass through the foil at all, but
bounced back in the direction from which they had come.
 Rutherford’s Revised Atomic Theory (1911)

Result: Most of the positively charged particles went straight through

the gold foil.
Atomic Theory: Most of the matter of the atom is found in a very small
part of the atom. This is called the nucleus of the atom. It is very tiny
and extremely dense.

Result: Some of the positively charged particles were deflected or even

bounced back.
Atomic Theory: Like charges repel so the nucleus must have a positive
charge. If electrons have a negative charge they could not be in a
positively charged nucleus. Electrons must surround the nucleus at
a distance.

Result: The diameter of the nucleus is 100,000 times smaller than the
diameter of the entire gold atom.
Atomic Theory: Atoms are mostly empty space with a tiny, massive
nucleus at the center .
 The Nuclear Atom: Protons and Neutrons
1911 Rutherford explained his results by proposing a model of the atom known as the
nuclear atom and having these features.

1 Most of the mass and all of the positive charge of an atom are
centered in a very small region called the nucleus. The atom is mostly
empty space.

2 The magnitude of the positive charge is different for different atoms

and is approximately one-half the atomic weight of the element.

3 There are as many electrons outside the nucleus as there are units of
positive charge on the nucleus. The atom as a whole is electrically
neutral.

Rutherford’s nuclear atom suggested the existence of positively charged fundamental

particles of matter in the nuclei of atoms- called protons. He predicted the existence in
the nucleus of electrically neutral particles.

1932 Jame Chadwick

~ verified that there is another type of particles in atom called neutron.
 •Mo
Structure of the Atom
con
The atom is composed of two kinds of particles: elec
Nucleus
Central core
Positively charged
Contains most of the atom’s mass
Electrons
Very light
Negatively charged
Exist in the region around the nucleus
 Discovery of Protons and Neutrons

• Rutherford’s experiments also told him the amount of positive

nuclear charge.
• The positive charge was carried by particles that were named
protons.
• The proton charge was the fundamental unit of positive charge.
• The nucleus of a hydrogen atom consists of a single proton.
 Discovery of Protons and Neutrons
• Scientists introduced the concept of atomic number,
which represents the number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom.
• James Chadwick discovered neutrons in the
nucleus, which have nearly the same mass as
protons but are uncharged.
Proton
A nuclear particle having a positive charge equal to that of the
electron and a mass more than 1800 times that of the electron

The number of protons in an atom is called the atomic number,

or the proton number, Z.
The number of electrons in the atom is also equal to Z because
the atom is neutral.
The mass number, A, is the total number of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus.
The number of neutrons, neutron number, is A-Z.
An element is a substance whose atoms have the same number of
protons and thus the same atomic number, Z.
Neutron
A nuclear particle having a mass almost equal
to that of the proton but no electrical charge

The mass number, A, is the total number of

protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

Isotopes are atoms whose nuclei have the

same atomic number (number of protons) but
different numbers of neutrons (mass number).
 2-4 Chemical Elements
All atoms of a particular element have the same atomic number, Z.
Known elements atomic numbers from Z=1 to Z=112.
Each element has a name and distinctive symbol.
Chemical Symbols are one or two-letter abbreviations of the name (usually
english name).
The first letter of the symbol is capitalized; for example: carbon,C;
oxygen,O neon, Ne; and silicon, Si.
Some elements known as Latin names, Fe for iron (Ferrum) and Pb for
lead (plumbum).
Sodium has Na symbol based on Latin Natrium.
Potassium has K symbol based on Latin Kalium.
Tungsten has W symbol based on german Wolfram.
Elements beyond uranium (Z=92) do not occur naturally.
 Isotopes
An isotope is specified by its atomic # and its mass #. The
notation used to designate isotopes is the chemical symbol of the
element written with its atomic # as a left subscript and its mass
# as a left superscript.

number p + number n
A
Z
E Symbol of element
number p
E.g.
Mass #
12
6
C Symbol of element
Atomic #
𝟐𝟕
𝟏𝟑𝐀𝐥 13 proton, 14 neutron and 13 electron
 Isotopes
Contrary to what Dalton thought, we know that atoms of an element do
not necessarily all have the same mass. In 1912, J. J. Thomson
measured the mass-to charge ratios of positive ions formed in neon gas.
He found that about 91% of the atoms had one mass and that the
remaining atoms were about 10% heavier. All neon atoms have 10
protons in their nuclei, and most have 10 neutrons as well. A few neon
atoms, however have 11 neutrons and some have 12.
Percent natural abundance
𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝐍𝐞 90.05%
𝟐𝟏
𝟏𝟎𝐍𝐞 0.27%
𝟐𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝐍𝐞
9.22%

Atoms that have the same atomic # (Z) but different mass
numbers (A) are called isotopes.
 Ions
When atoms lose or gain electrons, they are called ions and carry
net charges.
An atom that gains extra electrons becomes a negatively charged
ion, called an anion.
An atom that loses electrons becomes a positively charged ion,
called a cation.
The number of protons does not change when an atom becomes
an ion.

20Ne+ 10 protons, 10 neutrons and 9 electrons

22Ne2+ 10 protons, 12 neutrons and 8 electrons
 The charge on an ion is equal to the # of protons minus the # of
electrons.
number p + number n
A +? number p - number e
Z
E
number p

16O2- 8 protons (atomic number)

8 neutrons (mass number - atomic number)
10 electrons
Charge: 8-10= -2

E.g. Determine numbers of electrons in Mg2+ cation and the S2- anion?
Mg2+ 12-number e = +2 number e =10

S2- 16-number e = -2 number e =18

 Isotopic Masses
Determining the masses of individual atoms must be done by
experiment. By international agreement, one type of atom has been
chosen and assigned a specific mass.

This standard is an atom of the isotope carbon-12, which is assigned

a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass unit, 12amu.

The masses of other atoms relative to carbon-12 are determined by

mass spectrometer. All atomic masses are given relative to the
mass of carbon-12 isotope.
Mass of one 12C atom = 12 amu (exactly)
1 amu = Mass of one 12C atom = 1.660539 x 10-24 g
12
 A Mass Spectrometer
A beam of gaseous ions passing through electric and magnetic
fields separates into components of differing masses. The
separated masses are focused on a measuring instrument that
records their amounts.

Heavy ions are

Light ions are deflected a little bit.
deflected greatly.
Ions are separated
according to mass.

Mass spectrum of
mercury,Hg.
Stream of positive
ions
 A Mass Spectrum for Mercury

Mass spectrum of an element shows

the abundance of its isotopes.
What are the three most abundant
isotopes of mercury?

Isotope Percent Natural Abundance

196Hg (0.146%)
198Hg (10,02%)
199Hg (16.84%)
200Hg (23.13%)
201Hg (13.22%)
202Hg (29.80%)
204Hg (6.85%)
Although mass numbers are whole numbers, the actual masses of
individual atoms (in atomic mass units, u) are never whole
numbers, except for carbon-12.

From the mass spectral data, the ratio of the mass of 16O to 12C is
found to be 1.33291. What is the mass of an 16O atom?

16O/12C = 1.33291
mass of 16O = 1.33291 x 12amu = 15.9949amu

This is nearly equal to mass number 16.

 Atomic Mass
In a table of atomic masses, atomic mass of carbon is 12.0107. but
the atomic mass standard is exactly 12.0000. Why the difference?
The atomic mass standard is based on carbon containing only
carbon-12 atoms, whereas natural carbon contains some
carbon-13 atoms as well.
Teh existaence of these two isotopes causes the observed atomic
mass to be greater than 12.
The atomic mass of an element is the average of all the isotopic
masses.
Atomic mass is the average of the isotopic masses, weighted
according to the naturally occurring abundances of the isotopes of
the element.
 Atomic Mass
Atomic mass is the average of the isotopic masses, weighted
according to the naturally occurring abundances of the isotopes of
the element.

At. mass of Fractional Mass of Fractional Mass of

abundance of x isotope 1 + abundance of x isotope 2 + ...
an element =
isotope 1 isotope 2

At. mass of 0.98892 x 12 0.01108 x 13.00335

carbon = +

At. mass of
carbon = 12.0011 u
 Calculating the “Average” Atomic
Mass of an Element
Problem: Calculate the average atomic mass of Magnesium!
Magnesium Has three stable isotopes, 24Mg ( 78.7%);
25Mg (10.2%); 26Mg (11.1%).

24Mg (78.7%) 23.98504 amu x 0.787 = 18.876226 amu

25Mg (10.2%) 24.98584 amu x 0.102 = 2.548556 amu
26Mg (11.1%) 25.98636 amu x 0.111 = 2.884486 amu

24.309268 amu

With Significant Digits = 24.3 amu

 Practice Problem
The naturally occurring isotopes of Silver (Z = 47) are
107Ag and 109Ag
Calculate the atomic mass of Ag from the Mass data below:
Isotope Mass (amu) Abundance(%)
107Ag 106.90509 51.84
109Ag 108.90476 48.16
Weighted average of the isotopic masses
SOLUTION:
mass portion from 107Ag = 106.90509 amu x 0.5184 = 55.42 amu
mass portion from 109Ag = 108.90476 amu x 0.4816 = 52.45 amu
atomic mass of Ag = 55.42amu + 52.45amu = 107.87amu
Atomic mass of Ag in Periodic Table – 107.87
Chlorine consists of the following isotopes:
Isotope isotope mass(amu) fractional abundance
Chlorine-35 34.96885 0.75771
Chlorine-37 36.96590 0.24229
What is the atomic mass (weight) of chlorine?

 90.9% 20Ne
 0.17% 21Ne
Atomic mass= 20.18
 8.93% 22Ne
Atomic Structure – Mass
Spectrometer
 Isotopes of boron m/z value 11 10
Relative 18.7 81.3
abundance %

Ar of boron = (11 x 18.7) + (10 x 81.3)

(18.7 + 81.3)

= 205.7 + 813
100
= 1018.7 = 10.2
100
Mass Spectrometer – Questions

 90.9% 20Ne

 0.17% 21Ne

 8.93% 22Ne

(90.9 x 20) + (0.17 x 21) + (8.93 x 22)

100

Ar= 20.18
 Atomic Definitions I: Symbols,
Isotopes,Numbers
A

Z
X The Nuclear Symbol of the Atom, or Isotope

X = Atomic symbol of the element, or element symbol

A = The Mass number; A = Z + N

Z = The Atomic Number, the Number of Protons in the Nucleus

N = The Number of Neutrons in the Nucleus

Isotopes = atoms of an element with the same number of protons,

but different numbers of Neutrons in the Nucleus
 Neutral ATOMS
• 51 Cr = P+ (24), e- (24),
• N (27)

• 239 Pu = P+(94), e- (94),

• N (145)

• 15 N = P+(7), e-(7), N(8)

• 56 Fe = P+(26), e-(26),
• N (30)

• 235 U =P+(92), e-(92),

• N (143)
Atomic Definitions II: AMU, Dalton, 12C Std.
Atomic mass Unit (AMU) = 1/12 the mass of a carbon - 12 atom
on this scale Hydrogen has a mass of 1.008 AMU.
Dalton (D) = The new name for the Atomic Mass Unit,
one dalton = one Atomic Mass Unit
on this scale, 12C has a mass of 12.00 daltons.

Isotopic Mass = The mass of an Isotope relative to the

Isotope 12C, the chosen standard.

Atomic Mass = “Atomic Weight” of an element is the average of the

masses of its naturally occurring isotopes weighted
according to their abundances.
Atomic Masses:
Definition - The relative mass of an atom usually
expressed in relative atomic mass units ( amu or u).

A single oxygen-16 atom has a mass that is 1.332 9096

times that of a carbon-12 atom.

(12 u)(1.332 9096) = 15.994 915 u

 Isotopes of Hydrogen

• 1
1H 1 Proton 0 Neutrons 99.985 % 1.00782503 amu
• 2 H (D) 1 Proton
1 1 Neutron 0.015 % 2.01410178 amu
• 3 H (T) 1 Proton
1 2 Neutrons -------- ----------
The average mass of Hydrogen is 1.008 amu

• 3H is Radioactive with a half life of 12 years.

• H2O Normal water “light water “
• mass = 18.0 g/mole , BP = 100.000000C
• D2O Heavy water
• mass = 20.0 g/mole , BP = 101.42 0C
 Element #8 : Oxygen, Isotopes

• 16
8O 8 Protons 8 Neutrons
99.759% 15.99491462 amu

• 17
8O 8 Protons 9 Neutrons
0.037% 16.9997341 amu

• 18 O
8 8 Protons 10 Neutrons
0.204 % 17.999160 amu
 Formation of a Positively Charged
Neon Particle in a Mass Spectrometer

Fig. 2.A
Fig. 2.B part A
Measuring atomic masses
 Calculating the “Average” Atomic
Mass of an Element
Problem: Calculate the average atomic mass of Magnesium!
Magnesium Has three stable isotopes, 24Mg ( 78.7%);
25Mg (10.2%); 26Mg (11.1%).

24Mg (78.7%) 23.98504 amu x 0.787 = 18.876226 amu

25Mg (10.2%) 24.98584 amu x 0.102 = 2.548556 amu
26Mg (11.1%) 25.98636 amu x 0.111 = 2.884486 amu

24.309268 amu

With Significant Digits = 24.3 amu

 Calculate the Average Atomic Mass of
Zirconium, Element #40
Zirconium has five stable isotopes: 90Zr, 91Zr, 92Zr, 94Zr, 96Zr.

Isotope (% abd.) Mass (amu) (%) Fractional Mass

90Zr (51.45%) 89.904703 amu X 0.5145 = 46.2560 amu
91Zr (11.27%) 90.905642 amu X 0.1127 = 10.2451 amu
92Zr (17.17%) 91.905037 amu X 0.1717 = 15.7801 amu
94Zr (17.33%) 93.906314 amu X 0.1733 = 16.2740 amu
96Zr (2.78%) 95.908274 amu X 0.0278 = 2.6663 amu
91.2215 amu

With Significant Digits = 91.22 amu

Problem: Calculate the abundance of the two Bromine isotopes:
79Br = 78.918336 g/mol and 81Br = 80.91629 g/mol , given that

the average mass of Bromine is 79.904 g/mol.

Plan: Let the abundance of 79Br = X and of 81Br = Y and X + Y = 1.0

Solution: X(78.918336) + Y(80.91629) = 79.904

X + Y = 1.00 therefore X = 1.00 - Y

(1.00 - Y)(78.918336) + Y(80.91629) = 79.904

78.918336 - 78.918336 Y + 80.91629 Y = 79.904

1.997954 Y = 0.985664 or Y = 0.4933

X = 1.00 - Y = 1.00 - 0.4933 = 0.5067

%X = % 79Br = 0.5067 x 100% = 50.67% = 79Br

%Y = % 81Br = 0.4933 x 100% = 49.33% = 81Br
Modern Reassessment of the Atomic Theory
1. All matter is composed of atoms. Although atoms are composed
of smaller particles (electrons, protons, and neutrons), the atom
is the smallest body that retains the unique identity of the element.

2. Atoms of one element cannot be converted into atoms of another

element in a chemical reaction. Elements can only be converted into
other elements in Nuclear reactions in which protons are changed.

3. All atoms of an element have the same number of protons and

electrons, which determines the chemical behavior of the element.
Isotopes of an element differ in the number of neutrons, and thus
in mass number, but a sample of the element is treated as though
its atoms have an average mass.

4. Compounds are formed by the chemical combination of two or more

elements in specific ratios, as originally stated by Dalton.
 Definitions
• ELEMENT - A substance that cannot be separated
into simpler substances by chemical means

• COMPOUND - A substance composed of atoms

of two or more elements chemically united in
fixed proportions

• PERIODIC TABLE - “MENDELEEV TABLE” -

A tabular arrangement of the elements, vertical
groups or families of elements based upon their
chemical properties - actually combining ratios
with oxygen
 2-6 Introduction to the Periodic Table
In the PT, elements represented by one or two-letter
symbols and are listed according to increasing atomic
number starting at the upper left and arranged in a series of
horizontal rows (7 periods). This arrangment places
similar elements in vertical groups (18) or families.

For example, sodium and potassium are found together in a

group labeled 1 (called the alkali metals). Cesium and
rubidium has properties similar to sodium and potassium.
3
Li
Melting Boilin g 6.941
Point Point 11 1A
Element (°C) (°C) Na
22.990
Lith iu m 180 1342 19
Sodiu m 98 883 K
Potass iu m 63 760 39.098
Rubid iu m 39 686 37
Rb
Cesium 28 669 85.468
55
Cs
132.91
Chlorine is found at the other end of the table in a group labeled
17. Some of the groups are given distinctive names, mostly related to
an important property of the elements in a group.

For example, the group 17 elements are called the halogens, the
term derived from greek, meaning ‘salt former’.

9
F
18.998
17 Melting Boiling
Cl Point Point
7A 35.453 Elemen t (°C) (°C)
35 Fluorine -220 -188
Br
79.904 Chlorine -101 -35
53 Bromin e -7 59
I Iodine 114 184
126.90
85 Astatine 302 337
At
(210)
Each element is listed in the periodic table by placing its symbol in
the middle of the box in the table.

The atomic number (Z) of the element is shown above the symbol.
The weighted-average atomic mass of the element is shown below
its symbol.
It is customary also to divide the elements into two broad categories known as metals
and nonmetals. In Figure 2-15, colored backgrounds are used to distinguish the metals
(tan) from nonmetals (blue and pink). Except mercury (liquid), metals are solid s at
room temperature. They are generally malleable, ductile, good conductors of heat and
electricity, and have a lustrous or shiny appearance.

Metals: Except mercury (liquid), metals are solid s at room temperature. They are
generally malleable, ductile, good conductors of heat and electricity, and have a lustrous
or shiny appearance.

Nonmetals: generally have opposite properties of metals; e.g. poor conductors of heat
and electricity. Several of the nonmetals gases at room temperature.

Metalloid (semimetal): is an element having both metallic and nonmetallic properties.

Or into three groups
Main group elements are those in groups 1, 2 and 13-18.

When form ions, group 1, 2 lose the same # e as their group #.

They lose the same number e as the IUPAC group number.

Na atoms (group 1) lose 1e to become Na+.

Ca atoms (group 2) lose 2e to become Ca2+.

Group 13 lose group #-10

Al atoms (group 13) lose 3e to become Al3+.

When nonmetal atoms form ions, they gain electrons.

group 14-18 gain 18-group #.

O atoms (group 16, 18-16=2) gain 2e to become O2-.

Cl atoms (group 17, 18-17=1) gain 1e to become Cl-.
Transition elements: from group 3 to 12, and because all of them are
metals, they are also called the transition metals. The # of electrons lost in
TM is not related to their group #.

Inner transition metals include Lanthanides and Actinindes.

It is customary also to divide the elements into two broad categories known as
Metals: Except mercury (liquid), metals are solid s at room temperature. They are
generally malleable, ductile, good conductors of heat and electricity, and have a lustrous
or shiny appearance.
Nonmetals: generally have opposite properties of metals; e.g. poor conductors of heat
and electricity.
Metalloid (semimetal): is an element having both metallic and nonmetallic properties.
Or into three groups
Main group elements are those in groups 1, 2 and 13-18. when form ions, group 1, 2
lose the same # e as their group #; group 13 lose group #-10; group 14-18 gain 18-group
#.
Transition elements: from group 3 to 12, and because all of them are metals, they are
also called the transition metals. The # of electrons lost in TM is not related to their
group #.
Inner transition metals which include Lanthanides and Actinindes.
The horizontal rows of the table are called periods. The first
period of the table consists of just two elements, H and He.
This is followed by two periods of eight elements, lithium
through neon and sodium through argon.

The fourth and fifth periods contain 18 elements each, ranging

from potassium through krypton and from rubidium through
xenon.

The sixth period contains 32 elements. 15 elements of this

period start with lanthanum (Z=57) called as lanthanides.

The seventh period is incomplete. 15 elements of this period

start with actinium (Z=89) called as actinides.
Alkali Metals The Periodic table Noble Gases

Alkaline Earths Main Group

Halogens

Transition Metals

Main Group Lanthanides and Actinides

 Newly Discovered Elements
1994 Revised
Atomic
ACS Slate IUPAC Slate IUPAC Slate
No.

104 Rutherfordium Dubnium Rutherfordium

105 Hahnium Joliotium Dubnium
106 Seaborgium Rutherfordium Seaborgium
107 Neilsbohrium Bohrium Bohrium
108 Hassium Hahnium Hassium
109 Meitnerium Meitnerium Meitnerium
110 ? ? 3 Labs
111 ? ? GSI
Final Slate
112 ? ? GSI 9/12/97
 Groups in the Periodic Table
Main Group Elements (Vertical Groups)
Group IA - Alkali Metals
Group IIA - Alkaline Earth Metals
Group IIIA - Boron Family
Group IVA - Carbon Family
Group VA - Nitrogen Family
Group VIA - Oxygen Family (Calcogens)
Group VIIA - Halogens
Group VIIIA - Noble Gases
Other Groups ( Vertical and Horizontal Groups)
Group IB - 8B - Transition Metals
Period 6 Group - Lanthanides (Rare Earth Elements)
Period 7 Group - Actinides
 The Periodic Table of the Elements
H He
Li Be B C N O F Ne
NaMg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac Rf Du Sg Bo Ha Me

Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Th Pa U Np Pu AmCm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Boron family Nitrogen family

Carbon Family Oxygen Family

 The Periodic Table of the Elements
H He
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr NbMo Tc R Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re uOs Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac Rf Du Sg Bo HaMe

Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm E Gd Tb Dy Ho Er TmYb Lu
Th Pa U Np Pu Amu C Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
m
The Alkali Metals The Halogens

The Alkaline
The Noble Gases
Earth Metals
 The Periodic Table of the Elements
H He
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr NbMo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt A Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac Rf Du Sg Bo Ha Me u
The Transition Metals

Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb DyHo Er TmYb Lu
Th Pa U Np Pu AmCmBk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Lanthanides: The
The Actinides
Rare Earth Elements
 The Periodic Table of the Elements
Most Probable Oxidation State
+1 0

H +2 +3 +_4 - 3 -2 -1 He
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg +3 +4 +5 +1 + 2 Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge A Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn sSb Te I Xe
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac Rf Du Sg Bo Ha Me

+3 Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er TmYb Lu
+3 Th Pa U Np Pu AmCmBk Cf Es FmMd No Lr
 The Periodic Table

• Read atomic masses.

• Read the ions formed by main group elements.
• Read the electron configuration.
• Learn trends in physical and chemical properties.

We will discuss these in detail in Chemical Bonding Chapter.

 The Mole

• Physically counting atoms is impossible.

• We must be able to relate measured mass to
numbers of atoms.
– buying nails by the pound.
– using atoms by the gram
2-7 The Concept of the Mole and the Avogadro Constant
The SI quantity that describes an amount of substance by relating it to a number
of particles of that substance is called the mole.

Mole is an amount of substance that contains the same number of elementary

entities (atoms, molecules or formula units) as the number of atoms in exactly
12g of carbon-12.

The value of NA (the # of elementary entities) is based on a definition and a

measurement. A mole of carbon-12 is defined to be 12 gram. The mass of one
carbon-12 atom is measured using mass spectrometer and found to be
1.9927x10-23g. The ratio of this two mass is Avogadro’s number, NA.

12g/mol
NA = = 6.02214 x1023 mol1
1.99927x1023g
1 mole of 12C = 6.02214 x 10 23 12C atoms = 12.0000g
1 mole of 16O = 6.02214 x 10 23 16O atoms = 15.9949g
Distribution of isotopes in four elements

19F (red)
35Cl (red) and 37Cl (blue)
24Mg (red), 25Mg (gray) and 26Mg (blue)
204Pb (yellow), 206Pb (blue), 207Pb(gray) and 208Pb (red)

1 mole of C = 6.02214 x 10 23 atoms = 12.011g

1 mole of O = 6.02214 x 10 23 atoms = 15.9994g
 One mole of an element

He
The watch glasses contain 1mole of Cu
atoms (left) and 1 mole of S atoms (right).
Hg
The beaker contains 1 mole of Hg atoms.
The ballon contains 1 mole of He atoms.
Cu S
Molar Mass

Mass in grams of one mole of the substance:

Molar Mass of N = 14.01 g/mol

Molar Mass of H2O = 18.02 g/mol

(2 × 1.008 g) + 16.00 g

Molar Mass of Ba(NO3)2 = 261.35 g/mol

137.33 g + (2 × 14.01 g) + (6 × 16.00 g)
Molar Mass: The mass in grams of one mole of any
substance. The molar mass is numerically equal to the
formula mass.
Substance Formula Molar
Mass Mass
H2 2.015 88 u 2.015 88 g

Fe 55.847 u 55. 847 g

H3PO4 97.9952 u 97.9952 g

SO3 80.06 u 80.06 g

NaCl 58.443 u 58.443 g

 Formula Masses: The relative mass of a compound is
equal to the sum of the atomic masses of the elements
forming the compound.
Calculate the formula masses for NaCl, H2O, and
H3PO4 -
NaCl H2O
1 Na @ 22.989 77 u = 22.989 77 u 2 H @ 1.007 94 u = 2.015 88 u
1 Cl @ 35.453 u = 35.453 u 1 O @ 15.9994 u = 15.9994 u
1 NaCl = 58.443 u 1 H2O = 18.0153 u
H3PO4
3 H @ 1.007 94 u = 3.023 82 u
1 P @ 30.973 76 u = 30.973 76 u
4 O @ 15.9994 u = 63.9976 u
1 H3PO4 = 97.9952 u
 “When in doubt, calculate moles!!”
# of Particles Moles

Avogadro’s Number
How many atoms of carbon are in 2.6 moles of C?

(2.6 mol C) (6.0221 x 1023 atom C)

= 1.6 x 1024 atom C
mol C
How many moles of water are present when 2.673 x 1025
molecules of water are present?
(2.673 x 1025 molecules H2O) (1 mol H2O)
(6.0221 x 1023 molecules H2O)
= 44.39 mol H2O
 “When in doubt, calculate moles!!”

# of Particles Moles Mass

Avogadro’s Number Molar Mass

How many moles of carbon are in 26.78 g of C?
(26.78 g C) (1 mol C) = 2.230 mol C
(12.011 g C)

How many grams of water are in 32.6 moles of water?

(32.6 mol H2O) (18.015 g H2O)
= 587 g H2O
(1 mol H2O)
 How many atoms of hydrogen are present in
36.5 g of water?
“When in doubt, calculate moles!!”
(36.5 g H2O)(1 mol H2O) (2 mol H) (6.0221 x 1023 atom H)
(18.015 g H2O) (mol H2O) (mol H)
= 2.44 x 1024 atom H

How many grams of Au atoms are present in 1.45 x

1020 Au atoms?
(1.45 x 1020 atom Au)(1 mol Au)(196.967 g Au)
(6.0221 x 1023 atom Au) (mol Au)
= 0.0474 g Au
 How many moles of uranium are there in 1.23 kg U?

Molar Mass of U = 238.019 g/mol

(1.23 kg U)(103 g U) (1 mol U) = 5.17 mol U
(1 kg U) (238.019 g U)

How many atoms of sulfur are there in 7.62 g S?

(7.62 g S)(1 mol S/32.066 g S)(6.0221 x 1023 atom S/mol S)

= 1.43 x 1023 atom S

What is the mass of a single Pt atom?

(1 Pt atom)(1 mol Pt/6.0221 x 1023 atom Pt) (195.08 g Pt)

= 3.239 x 10-22 g Pt (mol Pt)
 “When in doubt, calculate moles!!”

# of Particles Moles Mass

Avogadro’s Number Molar Mass

This allows you to do all types of calculations involving

the conversion of particles to mass, mass to particles,
mass to moles, moles to mass, particles to moles, or moles
to particles.
Example

Combining Several Factors in a Calculation—Molar Mass, the

Avogadro Constant, Percent Abundance.
Potassium-40 (40K) is one of the few naturally occurring
radioactive isotopes of elements of low atomic number. Its percent
natural abundance among K isotopes is 0.012%. How many 40K
atoms do you ingest by drinking one cup of whole milk containing
371 mg of K?

Want atoms of 40K, need atoms of K,

Want atoms of K, need moles of K,
Want moles of K, need mass and M(K).
 SOLUTION mg K gK mol K atoms K atoms 40K
Stepwise Calculation
? mol Atoms 40K = 371mg K x x = 9.49

? K atoms= 9 x

? K atoms = 5 x

Single Calculation
? Atoms 40K = 371mg K x x

x x

= 𝟔. 𝟗 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬 𝐊
EXAMPLE What is the mol of 7.65 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐒?

𝟐𝟐 𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐒 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬
? mol S = 7.65 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬 𝐒 x = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟕 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐒
𝟔.𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬 𝐒

What is the mass of 7.65 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐒?

𝟑𝟐.𝟎𝟕 𝐠 𝐒
? g S = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟕 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐒 x = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟕 𝐠 𝐒
𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐒

𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐒 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬 𝟑𝟐.𝟎𝟕 𝐠 𝐒

? g S = 7.65 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬 𝐒 x 𝐱
𝟔.𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬 𝐒 𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐒

= 𝟒. 𝟎𝟕 𝐠 𝐒
Chapter 2 Questions

1,2(a,b,c),3, 4,7,9,10,
14,16,18,21,22,
25,27,33, 55, 66.