Inglese grammatica

Habitual behaviour: tend to; frequency adverbs, used to and would.

Tend to be used when something happens because this is what often or usually happens.
Example: I tend to agree whit many of the points you make.
Frequency adverbs are adverbs that describes how often action happens; there are six
main adverbs of frequency that we use in English: always, usually or normally, often,
sometimes, really, and never.
Ex: sara always goes out on Saturday evenings.
Used to is the same for all subjects and you follow with the infinitive without ‘’to’’, for the
negative we use ‘’didn’t’’
Would, would is the past form of will and we use it to talk about the past, hypotheses, or
for politeness.
I would like, would you like.

Be used to get used to, used to the phrase “used to” is unrelated to the other two
phrases. But “be used to” and “get used to” have similar meanings and sentence
structures.
“Used to” is considered a modal verb, though an unusual one, since it is only found in the
past tense.

Choose “used to” to say that something existed or happened repeatedly in the past but
does not exist or happen now. For example, I said, “I used to eat pancakes.” That means I
ate them repeatedly in the past but do not anymore.

“be used to” to say you are accustomed to something, and so it seems normal or usual. If
you are used to something, it is not difficult, new, or strange.

In “be used to,” the verb “be” can take the present, past or future tense (though future is
less common). And the words “used to” are an adjective, not a modal verb.

She doesn’t think Dami is strange. She is used to him.

The difference is that “get used to” means someone is, was or will become accustomed to
something. So, the verb “get” in the phrase can take the present, past, or future tense.

For example, I said this about Tania: “She is getting used to the early hours.” That means
she is becoming accustomed to being awake in the early morning.

The words “used to” in the phrase “get used to” are also an adjective.
Indirect question an indirect question is a question embedded inside a statement or
another question, if the direct question is a yes-no question, the indirect will start with if or
whether. If I have the sentence ‘’do you like cheese’’ this is known to be a direct question,
on the contrary

‘’she asked whether I liked cheese’’ is an indirect question ‘’I’m asking if you are cold’’.

Or again When the direct question starts with a question word

like how, what, when, where, which, who, whose, or why (called interrogative pronoun and
adjective), the indirect question will start with the question word, but the word order is like
a statement not like a question.

Ex: ‘’I’m asking what the time is ?’’

Gerund and infinitive can replace noun in a sentence, whatever we use one it depend on
the main verb in the sentence. Gerund = the present participle (-ing) form of the verb, e.g.,
singing, dancing, running. Infinitive = to + the base form of the verb, e.g., to sing, to dance,
to run.

Gerunds can be used after certain verbs including enjoy, fancy, discuss, dislike, finish,
mind, suggest, recommend, keep, and avoid. After prepositions of place and time, ex: I
made dinner before getting home.
to replace the subject or object of a sentence, ex: Lachlan likes eating coconut oil..

Infinitives can be used after certain verbs including agree, ask, decide, help, plan, hope,
learn, want, would like, and promise, After many adjectives: ‘’It is hard to make dinner this
late.’’
To show purpose: ‘’I left for Russia to study Russian.’’

Comparison Adjectives and adverbs can be used to make comparisons. The

comparative form is used to compare two people, ideas, or things. The superlative form
with the word "the" is used to compare three or more. Comparatives and superlatives are
often used in writing to hedge or boost language.

Ex: small, smaller, the smallest.

Articles are words that define a noun as specific or unspecific. After the long day, the cup

of tea tasted particularly good, By using the article the, we’ve shown that it was one

specific day that was long and one specific cup of tea that tasted good, After a long

day, a cup of tea tastes particularly good, By using the article a, we’ve created a general

statement, implying that any cup of tea would taste good after any long day.
We have two type of article in English the define and indefinite article; as regard the define

is the word ‘’the’’, that specifies what we are talking about, The definite article can be used

with singular, plural, or uncountable nouns. The indefinite article takes two forms. It’s the

word a when it precedes a word that begins with a consonant. It’s the word an when it

precedes a word that begins with a vowel. The indefinite article indicates that a noun refers

to a general idea rather than a particular thing.

Sometime the article could be omitted, or we can use instead of it the word some, but

when it come of uncountable noun, also when we have a personal pronoun and the article,

we can’t use both because we confused the reader.

So and Such We often use 'so' and 'such' to mean 'very' or 'really'. It makes the
sentence stronger and shows that there is a high level of something.

We use 'so' before an adjective or adverb (without a noun). Ex: She was so beautiful (=
she was very beautiful), He ran so quickly (= he ran very quickly).
We use 'such' before a noun or an adjective + a noun. If there is 'a' or 'an', it goes after
'such'.
She was such a beautiful woman (= she was a very beautiful woman). NOT: 'she was a so
beautiful woman', NOT: 'she was a such beautiful woman'.

When we use 'such' directly with a noun, it's often a noun that shows our opinion, He's
such a genius! (= he's a real genius / he's very clever).

We don't use a word like 'this' or 'those' or 'your' or 'his' before 'so' and 'such'. 'So' and
'such' come directly after the verb. NOT: This so beautiful city. (Instead say 'this city is so
beautiful'.) NOT: Your so helpful friend. (Instead say 'your friend is so helpful'.)

We can use 'so... that...' and 'such... that...' to show that there is a certain result. (We can't
use 'very' or 'really' in this way.) It was so cold that the pond froze (= because it was very
cold, the pond froze).
We can drop 'that' when we use 'so' and 'such' in this way.
We can use 'so' and 'such' to mean 'to this level' or 'as ... as this'. He isn't usually so late (=
he isn't usually as late as this). I don't often drink such a lot of coffee (= I don't often drink
as much coffee as this).

We use 'so' before 'much / many / little / few' with and without a noun. This shows that the
amount is really a lot or really little. As usual, we use a plural noun after 'many' and 'few'
and an uncountable noun after 'much' and 'little'. I ate so much. I ate so much cake. He
had so many books.

We can use 'such' before 'a lot (of)'. Again, such comes before 'a'. (We sometimes see
'such a little + noun' but that is when 'little' is just a normal adjective: 'this is such a little
flat'.) He has such a lot of books.
Here are a few more idiomatic uses of 'such' and 'so' that are slightly different from what
we have already seen.

Such + noun = a certain type or kind of (this is quite formal) I'd never heard such music
before. (= I'd never heard this kind of music before.)

No such + noun = the noun doesn't exist ‘’Ghosts? There's no such thing!’’
As such (formal) = in the normal meaning of the word. We usually use this in the negative
('not as such'), We're not going to have dinner as such, but there will be plenty of snacks.
(= we're not going to have a normal dinner, but ...)
Such as = for example / like A: We should get a film for tonight. B: Such as? (= please give
an example of a film)
And such / and so on = and more similar things

 He likes winter sports – snowboarding and skiing and such.

 He likes winter sports – snowboarding and skiing and so on.

So as a certain amount or size, It was so big (= it was the size I'm showing you with my
hands).

So = something that has already been said, A: Is dinner ready? B: I hope so (= I hope
that dinner is ready)

Or so = approximately I think there were fifty people or so at the party (= I think there were
approximately fifty people at the party).

Past tense and time expression We use the simple past tense to refer to actions or
states that happened in the past and are finished and completed.

The past tense is generally surrounded by time expression that tell us more about the
action that happened in the past. We use the expression ‘’ yesterday, 10 years ago, last
week, last month, one year ago’’. We use ago to show how far back something happen in
the past, last when something is in the past nearest to the present time, yesterday to talk
about the day before, in, on at, to say when something happens. In the 60’, on October
3th, at night.

Obligation, necessity, permission, or modal verbs. When we talk about obligation, we

use the verb must and have to, when we use must this usually means that the obligations
come from the speaker, it’s like a personal obligation, whereas have to normally means
that the obligation is external. Ex: I must give up on smoking, I have to give up on
smoking. The negative are completely different, Mustn’t is used to express prohibition (an
obligation not to do something), whereas don’t have to is used to express an absence of
obligation.
As far necessity is concerned, We use need to/have to or don’t need to/don’t have to +
infinitive to say that something is or is not necessary. We need to/have to confirm our
reservations before Friday. You don’t need to/don’t have to believe in God to be a good
person.

We can use both don’t need to or needn’t + infinitive to say that it is unnecessary to do
something. However, when we are talking about a general necessity (in general, not on
one specific occasion), we normally use don’t need to, and we can use both don’t need
to or needn’t + infinitive when we are talking about a specific necessity (on one specific
occasion).

The doctor said I don’t need to wear glasses. (in general, all the time) Tell him
he doesn’t need to/needn’t wash the dishes. I’ll do it later. (on one specific occasion)

The most common modal verbs to talk about permission are can, could, may and might.
Can I sit here. (informal; asking for permission) You can/can’t sit here. Could I use this
chair? To talk about the past, we use the forms was/were allowed to or couldn’t.
He wasn’t allowed to sit down during the lesson.

Too and enough the difference between this two, is that too is used Too is used to mean
more than sufficient or more/less than necessary, It’s too late to stop him, And enough is
used to mean sufficient Your clothes are big enough to fit me, into the negative sentence
enough is used to express less that sufficient or less that necessary, sorry, I haven’t got
enough time to review your article. It can be used without a noun if the meaning is clear, it
can be substituted with the, time and room: there is a lot food but not enough for everyone,
I don’t have the money to go on holidays, do we have time for a coffee.
Defining and non-define relative clauses. Relative clauses give us information about
the person or thing mentioned. Non-defining relative clauses give us extra information
about someone or something. It isn't essential for understanding who or what we are
talking about. My grandfather, who's 87, goes swimming every day. The house, which
was built in 1883, has just been opened to the public.
we always used the relative pronoun or adverb to start a non-define relative clauses, who
to talk about people which to talk about things, where to talk about place , whose to refers
person or things that belong something.
The present perfect is formed from the present tense of the verb have and the past
participle of a verb.
We use the present perfect: for something that started in the past and continues in the
present: They've been married for nearly fifty years. She has lived in Liverpool all her
life.
when we are talking about our experience up to the present: I've seen that film before.
I've played the guitar ever since I was a teenager.
and we use never for the negative form: Have you ever met George?
Yes, but I've never met his wife.
for something that happened in the past but is important in the present:
I can't get in the house. I've lost my keys.
Teresa isn't at home. I think she has gone shopping.
We use have/has been when someone has gone to a place and returned:
A: Where have you been?
B: I've just been out to the supermarket.
But when someone has not returned, we use have/has gone:
A: Where's Maria? I haven't seen her for weeks.
B: She's gone to Paris for a week. She'll be back tomorrow.
We often use the present perfect with adverbials which refer to the recent past: recently,
just, only just
Scientists have recently discovered a new breed of monkey.
We have just got back from our holidays.
or adverbials which include the present: so far, until now, up to now, ever (in
questions), yet (in questions and negatives)

Have you ever seen a ghost?

Where have you been up to now?
A: Have you finished your homework yet?
B: No, so far I've only done my history.
After a clause with the present perfect we often use a clause with since to show when
something started in the past:
I've worked here since I left school.
I've been watching that programme every week since it started.
Future and time linkers There are a number of different ways of referring to the future in
English. It is important to remember that we are expressing more than simply the time of
the action or event. Obviously, any 'future' tense will always refer to a time 'later than now',
but it may also express our attitude to the future event. We use the present simple for
something schedule, we have a lesson next Monday. The present continuous for plans
or arrangements, I’m playing football tomorrow. We use will for believes about the future
or offer and promises, it will be a nice day tomorrow, I will cook for you I promises. We use
I’m going to, to talk about plans or make prediction, it is going to rain, I’m going to have a
party. Would like to talk about the future, I would like to go to university, the modals may
or might when we are not sure about something that could happen in the future, I might
go to the cinema, and should, if we think that is not a good chance, you should be home
for dinner.

As regard time linkers are word used to surround the action and tell us more about it, if an
action happened in the future, and if I’m not so sure, and I have in the sentence, tomorrow,
this afternoon, next week , this time linkers underline that the action takes please in the
future.

The passive The passive form is a special structure we use to change the focus of an
action. In most cases we make active sentences where the focus is on the subject
doing an action. For example: This company employs 2000 people. In passive
sentences we put the focus on the object that receives an action. For example: 2000
people are employed by this company. In order to make passive sentences the verb
must be transitive, which means that the verb is followed by an object. We use the
verb to be+ the past participle.

Conditionals we have for type of conditional, the zero conditional when we talk of
something obviously that has to happen of fact, the water boils at 100 degrees, (if plus
present simple). Then we have the first conditional used to talk about thing that may
happen in the future, possible thing (if plus present simple plus will and the infinitive form
of the verb) if it’s rain, I wont go to the park. The second conditional is used to talk about
thing that are probably going not to be true, just imaginary ( if plus past simple + would and
infinitive) if I won the lottery I would buy a new house. Then the third conditionals we used
to express something that didn’t happen, and to imagine the result of it (if +past perfect+
would have+ past participle ) if she had studied she would have pass the exam.

So, neither, and nor We put the words so, neither or nor at the beginning of a sentence
when someone makes a statement and we want to reply that the same situation is true for
us or somebody else.
When someone makes a positive statement and we want to say that the same situation is
true for us, we use the word so
For example, if someone says: I would like some coffee and you would also like some
coffee, you can reply: So would I Notice that in this reply we use the auxiliary verb would.
We generally make these kind of replies by using the same auxiliary verb as the first
speaker used.

I can drive.
– So can I.

I should go home now.

– So should I.
If the first speaker uses the verb to be without an auxiliary verb, we use the verb to be in
the reply:
I’m hungry.
– So am I.
I was late.
– So was I.
If the first speaker uses a verb other than to be but without an auxiliary verb, we
use do or did in the reply:
I love chips.
– So do I.
I went to the cinema.
– So did I.
If the first speaker uses the verb have we can use either have or do in the reply:
I have a cat.
– So have I.
or
– So do I.
I had a big breakfast.
– So had I.
or
– So did I.
When we want to reply to a negative statement because the same is true for us, we
generally use the word neither in the reply. We can also use nor but neither is more
common. We follow the same rules we use with so. As the words neither and nor are
negative words, we use the positive form of the auxiliary verb.
For example:

I can’t swim.
– Neither can I.
I won’t be there.
– Nor will I.
With the verb to be we reply to a negative statement using neither or nor. For example:
I’m not happy.
– Neither am I.
I wasn’t at home.
– Neither was I.
We can also use so, neither and nor when referring to a third person. For example: My
brother can play the piano.
So can mine. My dog smells awful. – So does mine. Maria can’t speak English.
– Neither can Jose.

Talking about two people We can also use so, neither and nor structure when referring to
two people in one sentence. For example: My brother is very good at tennis and so is my
dad.
Bill doesn’t like animals and neither does his wife. We can also use the
structure neither….nor… to refer to two people. For example:
Neither Bill nor his wife like animals.
Neither the Germans nor the Dutch play rugby.

Modal verb of speculation ?

Past necessity ?

Countable and uncountable nouns can be countable or uncountable. Countable nouns

can be counted, e.g. an apple, two apples, three apples, etc. Uncountable nouns cannot
be counted, e.g. air, rice, water, etc. When you learn a new noun, you should check if it is
countable or uncountable and note how it is used in a sentence.

If we have a positive sentence, and a countable noun, we use a/an for singular and some
for plural. In the negative one’s we use a/an singular any plural. As regard the uncountable
noun we use some for the positive sentence and any for the negative one.

Reported speech occur when a person tell us something, and we tell that thigh to
another person so we report that speech using also the reported verb, ‘’I like ice cream’’
‘’she said that she like ice cream’’, we don’t need to change the tense, but sometime if the
reporting verb is in the past we change the reported speech; ‘’ I like ice cream’’ ‘’she said
she liked ice cream’’.

Reporting verbs when we create the reported sentence we use the reported verbs, in the
sentence ‘’James said that he was my neighbour’’ said is the reported verb.

Some verbs are: told+ person+ what was said, never used told to; offered +to+ infinitive
verb, promised + to+ infinitive.

Reported questions we don’t have a big difference when we talk about reported question,
what is true is that the tense change as into the speech but when we report the questions
isn’t any more a question, Ex: ‘’where do you live?’’ ‘’he asked me where do I live’’ the
direct question is in the present simple and the reported is in the past tense.
If we have the yes/no question we use the word if to create the reported one, ‘’do you love
me?’’ ‘’ he asked me if I love him’’.

Verb followed by prepositions English verb sometimes are followed by

prepositions, and it doesn’t change the grammar part of the verb, Ex: arrived
at/somewhere, belong to somebody, borrow something from somebody, concentrate
on something / doing something, depend on something / somebody, explain something
to somebody, listen to something / somebody.

Expressing purpose ?

Phasal verbs are common in English, especially in more informal contest, They are made
up of a verb and a particle or, sometimes, two particles. The particle often changes the
meaning of the verb.
I called Jen to see how she was. (call = to telephone)
They've called off the meeting. (call off = to cancel)

In terms of word order, there are two main types of phrasal verb: separable and
inseparable.
With separable phrasal verbs, the verb and particle can be apart or together.
They've called the meeting off.
OR
They've called off the meeting.

However, separable phrasal verbs must be separated when you use a pronoun.
The meeting? They've called it off.
Here are some common separable phrasal verbs:
I didn't want to bring the situation up at the meeting.
(bring up = start talking about a particular subject)
Some phrasal verbs cannot be separated.
Who looks after the baby when you're at work?
Even when there is a pronoun, the verb and particle remain together.
Who looks after her when you're at work?
Here are some common non-separable phrasal verbs:
I came across your email when I was clearing my inbox.
(come across = to find something by chance)
The caterpillar turned into a beautiful butterfly.
(turn into = become)
Some multi-word verbs are inseparable simply because they don't take an object.
I get up at 7 a.m.
Phrasal verbs with two particles are also inseparable. Even if you use a pronoun, you put it
after the particles.
Who came up with that idea?
(come up with = think of an idea or plan)

Word formation the are four main kind of word formation; prefix, suffix, conversion, and
compound.

Prefix stand before the word, monolingual, unusual, or undemocratic, post-war every prefix
has it own significate, such as, mono means one, un means opposite to, post means
after.

Suffix stand after the word, and the show the class of the word; they can mark the plural,
the adverbs, adjective, the form of the verb, Ex: terrorism, sexism, used to form noun,
employer actor, used to describe people who do things, widen, simplify, used to form verb
reasonable, used to create adjective, naturally for adverbs.

Conversion involves the change of a word from one word class to another. For example,
the verbs to email and to microwave are formed from the nouns email and microwave:
Can you text her? (verb from noun text, meaning to send a text-message)
They are always jetting somewhere.

When we use compounding, we link together two or more bases to create a new word.
Normally, the first item identifies a key feature of the second word. For example, the two
bases back and ache can combine to form the compound noun backache, and the two
bases post and card combine to form the compound noun postcard.
Compounds are found in all word classes. The most common types of compounds are:
Nouns: car park, rock band
Adjectives: heartbreaking, sugar-free, airsick
Verbs: oven-bake, baby-sit, chain-smoke
Adverbs: good-naturedly, nevertheless
It is sometimes difficult to know where to put hyphens in words that are compound ed. It is
also difficult to know whether to separate words (e.g. post box) or to join the words
(e.g. postbox). In such cases, it is best to check in a good learner’s dictionary.