Carbon and Its Compounds - Chemistry Form 2 Notes

Allotropes of Carbon - Chemistry Form 2

The Allotropes of Carbon - Video Lesson and PDF Notes

Carbon is the first element in group (IV) of the periodic table. It has an electron arrangement of 2.4. It forms
covalent bonds in most of its compounds. It occurs in the pure state as diamond and graphite, and in the
impure state as amorphous carbon. It also occurs in the combined state in compounds such as carbonates,
mineral oils, organic matter, and carbon (IV) oxide.

Allotropes of Carbon

Allotropy is the existence of an element in more than one form, in the same physical state.
The different forms are called allotropes. Carbon has two naturally occurring allotropes, diamond and
graphite.
Carbon can be manipulated using energy such as laser beams to form other allotropes known as fullerens or
‘buckyballs’.

Diamond

This is one of the stable allotropes of carbon. It is a colourless, transparent shiny crystalline solid.
In diamond, carbon uses all the four valence electrons to form covalent bonds. Since it uses all the four
electrons in the outermost energy level for bonding, it does not conduct both electricity and heat.
Diamond has a density of 3.51g/cm³. The high density is due to continuous close packing of carbon atoms.
Diamond has a high melting point (3700ºC). The high melting point is due to the strong covalent bonds.
Diamond is one of the hardest naturally occurring substances. The hardness is due to the uniformity of
covalent bonds between the atoms throughout the structure.
Diamond has a giant atomic structure in which each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms
arranged in a regular tetrahedron shape. The whole structure of diamond extends in all directions forming a
rigid mass of atoms.
Diamond is found in some parts of India, South Africa and in Tanzania where it is mined.
It is used as a jewel because of its shiny appearance when polished. It is used in glass cutters and drill bits
because of its hardness.

Graphite

This is another stable allotrope of carbon. It is a black, soft, slippery crystalline solid. Graphite is made up of
hexagonally arranged carbon atoms bonded together in layers where each tom is bonded to three carbon
atoms. The layers are held together by van der Waals forces.
Graphite has a density of 2.3g/cm³. The low density is due to the spaces between the layers. It is soft and
slippery because the layers in the structure can slide over each other due to the weak van der Waals forces.
In graphite, each carbon atom uses only three electrons in the outer energy level to form covalent bonds with
other carbon atoms. One electron in the outer energy level of each atom is not used in bonding. It is
delocalised hence graphite conducts heat and electricity.
 Both melting point (3500ºC) and boiling point (4800ºC) of graphite are high because of the strong covalent
bonds between the atoms in its layers. Graphite has a giant atomic structure in which layers are held
together by van der Waals forces.
The high melting point and its slippery nature makes graphite a good lubricant in moving machine parts
where a lot of heat is produced. The high melting point also makes graphite useful in making moulds for
casting metals. It has delocalised electrons within its structure hence is used as an electrode.
Graphite is mixed with clay to make pencil ‘leads’ because the carbon layers can slide over each other.
Graphite is found in South Africa, Brazil , Sweden, Germany and U.S.A.

Fullerenes

Fullerenes are synthetic allotropes of carbon. They are found in different shapes such as spherical, tubular or
elliptical. The best known fullerene is the spherical C60 molecule It consists of hexagonally arranged carbon
atoms similar to the panels of some soccer balls.

Amorphous Carbon

This is an impure form of carbon. Examples are charcoal, soot, coke and coal. They contain small amounts of
graphite. They do not conduct electricity or heat, because of the irregular arrangement of graphite crystals in
their structure.
Amorphous carbon especially charcoal has the ability to adsorb gases and liquids. It is therefore used in gas
masks. Charcoal is used to adsorb colored impurities in sugar refining industries. Carbon black is mixed with
rubber in the manufacture of tyres as a filler to improve tensile strength and reduce wear and tear. It also
gives tyres the black appearance.

Points

Carbon-diamond

Shiny crystalline solid

Has a very high melting/boiling point because it has a very closely packed giant tetrahedral structure joined
by strong covalent bonds
Has very high density(Hardest known natural substance)
Abrassive
Poor electrical conductor because it has no free delocalized electrons
Is used in making Jewels, drilling and cutting metals
Has giant tetrahedral structure
Carbon-graphite

Black/dull crystalline solid

Has a high melting/boiling point because it has a very closely packed giant hexagonal planar structure joined
by strong covalent bonds
Soft
Slippery
Good electrical conductor because it has free 4th valency delocalized electrons
Used in making Lead-pencils,electrodes in batteries and as a lubricant
Has giant hexagonal planar structure

Watch the video for this lesson on the link below.

The Allotropes of Carbon - Video Lesson and PDF Notes Video Lesson

Physical and Chemical Properties of Carbon - Chemistry Form 2

The Physical and Chemical Properties of Carbon - Video Lesson and PDF Notes

Physical Properties of Carbon

Carbon occur widely and naturally as a black solid

It is insoluble in water but soluble in carbon disulphide and organic solvents.
It is a poor electrical and thermal conductor.

Chemical Properties of Carbon

Heating of Carbon

When carbon is heated, it glows red. A colourless gas is produced which reacts with calcium hydroxide to
form a white precipitate. The red glow shows that the reaction produces heat.
The white precipitate shows that the gas produced is carbon (IV) oxide.
When pure carbon is used in this experiment there is no residue in the combustion tube.
Carbon + oxygen → carbon (IV) oxide
C(s) + O₂(g) → CO₂(g)
Carbon (IV) oxide + Calcium → Calcium carbonate + water
CO₂(g) + Ca(OH)₂(aq) → CaCO₃(s) + H₂O(l)

(white)
 All forms of carbon burn in oxygen to produce carbon (IV) oxide. However, the temperature at which they
burn varies from one allotrope to another.

What is observed when a mixtures of carbon and some metal oxides are heated?

When a mixture of copper (II) oxide and carbon is heated the black mixture turns into a brown powder. A
colourless gas produced forms a white precipitate with calcium hydroxide.
The brown powder is copper metal and the colourless gas is carbon (IV) oxide.

Similarly, carbon removes combined oxygen from zinc oxide, lead (II) oxide and iron (III) oxide.
Carbon has the ability to remove combined oxygen from some metals. In these reactions, carbon is oxidised
to carbon (IV) oxide and the metal oxides are reduced to metals.
In terms of competition for combined oxygen, carbon can be placed in the reactivity series of metals between
Aluminium and Zinc. Thus, it reduces the oxides of all the metals below it in the reactivity series. Therefore,
carbon is a reducing agent.

As a reducing agent

Carbon is a reducing agent because it reduces metal oxides to metals. Oxidation is the addition of oxygen to
a substance while reduction is the removal of oxygen from a substance.
The reducing property of carbon is used in the extraction of metals from their oxides.
At temperatures of about 1200ºC, carbon reduces steam to hydrogen gas. Carbon is in turn oxidised to
carbon (II) oxide. A mixture of the two gases is called water gas.
Carbon + Steam → Carbon (II) oxide + Hydrogen
Carbon reduces hot concentrated nitric acid to brown nitrogen (IV) oxide gas and water. Carbon is in turn
oxidized to carbon (IV) oxide gas. Hot concentrated sulphuric acid is reduced to sulphur (IV) oxide and water
while carbon is oxidized to carbon (IV) oxide gas.
 Both sulphur (IV) oxide and carbon (IV) oxide react with calcium hydroxide to form a white precipitate of
calcium sulphite and calcium carbonate respectively.

Watch the video for this lesson on the link below.

The Physical and Chemical Properties of Carbon - Video Lesson and PDF Notes Video Lesson

The Preparation of Carbon IV Oxide - Chemistry Form 2

The Preparation of Carbon IV Oxide - Video Lesson and PDF Notes

Carbon (IV) oxide (CO₂)

This is the most stable oxide of carbon. In carbon (IV) oxide, the carbon atom forms strong covalent bonds
with two oxygen atoms. Carbon (IV) oxide is a molecular substance. The gas accounts for 0.03% of the
volume of air.

Diagramatic illustration of the School Laboratory Preparation of CO2

Carbon (IV) oxide is prepared by reacting calcium carbonate with dilute hydrochloric acid.
Calcium carbonate + Dil. hydrochloric acid → Calcium chloride + Carbon (IV) oxide + Water
CaCO₃(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl₂(aq) + CO₂(g) + H₂O(l)
When dilute hydrochloric acid is added to calcium carbonate, a vigorous effervescence occurs releasing
carbon (IV) oxide gas. The gas is passed through sodium hydrogen carbonate or water to remove traces of
hydrochloric acid fumes in the gas. When required dry, the gas is passed through concentrated sulphuric (VI)
acid. Anhydrous calcium chloride can be used in place of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid as a drying agent.
However, any other carbonate can be used with a suitable acid. Dilute sulphuric (VI) acid should not be
reacted with calcium carbonate, barium carbonate and lead carbonate. This is because insoluble sulphates
produced form a coating on the carbonates and prevent further reaction. For the same reasoned dilute
hydrochloric acid is not reacted with lead carbonate.

Properties of carbon (IV) oxide

Carbon (IV) oxide is a colourless, odourless gas. The gas is denser than air and this explains why it is
collected by down ward delivery.
Carbon (IV) oxide neither burns nor supports combustion. This is why the gas puts off a burning candle.
The gas is acidic, and turns the universal indicator solution red.
Carbon (IV) oxide gas slightly dissolves in water to form carbonic acid, a weak acid.
 Carbon (IV) oxide + Water → Carbonic acid
CO₂(g) + H₂O(g) → H₂CO₃(g)

Carbon (IV) oxide gas is acidic and readily reacts with sodium hydroxide solution to form sodium carbonate.
Sodium hydroxide + Carbon (IV) oxide → Sodium carbonate + Water
2NaOH(aq) + CO₂(g) → Na₂CO₃(aq) + H₂O(l)

If the gas is in excess, a further reaction occurs that leads to the formation of sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Sodium carbonate + Water + Carbon (IV) oxide → Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Na₂CO₃(aq) + H₂O(l) + CO₂(g) → 2NaHCO₃(aq)

When Carbon (IV) oxide is bubbled through calcium hydroxide for a short while, a white precipitate is formed.
The white precipitate is due to the formation of the insoluble calcium carbonate.

This is the confirmatory test for carbon (IV) oxide.

Calcium hydroxide + Carbon (IV) oxide → Calcium carbonate + Water

Ca(OH)₂(aq) + CO₂(g) → CaCO₃(s) + H₂O(l)

When the gas is passed through the mixture for a while the white precipitate dissolves to form a colourless
solution of calcium hydrogen carbonate.
Calcium carbonate + Water + Calcium (IV) oxide → Calcium hydrogen carbonate
CaCO₃(s) + H₂O(l) + CO₂(g) → Ca(HCO₃)₂(aq)

Although the gas does not support combustion, burning magnesium continues to burn in it to produce a
white powder of magnesium oxide and black specks of carbon. The burning magnesium produces a lot of
heat that decomposes carbon (IV) oxide to carbon and oxygen.
Magnesium + Carbon (IV) oxide → Magnesium oxide + Carbon
2Mg(s) + CO₂(g) → 2MgO(s) + C(s)
The addition of dilute nitric (V) acid dissolves magnesium oxide leaving black specks of carbon.

Uses of Carbon (IV) oxide gas

Carbon (IV) oxide gas is used as a refrigerating agent for perishable goods. This is because solid carbon (IV)
oxide sublimes when heated, leaving no residue.
Carbon (IV) oxide is non-flammable and has a higher density than air therefore it forms a ‘blanket’ on fire
cutting off oxygen supply. It is therefore used to extinguish fires.
One type of a fire extinguisher shown in fig 6.5 (b), contains Carbon (IV) oxide under high pressure. This type
can be used intermittently without refilling after each use.
It is used in the manufacture of sodium carbonate in the Solvay process. Carbon (IV) oxide is dissolved in
water to make aerated drinks to add taste, it is also used to make baking powder.
Properties of Carbon(IV)oxide Gas(Questions)

1. Write the equation for the reaction for the school laboratory preparation of carbon (IV)oxide gas. Any
carbonate reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid should be able to generate carbon (IV)oxide gas.

Chemical equations

1. CaCO + 2HCl → CaCO +H O + CO

3(s) (aq) 3(aq) 2 (l) 2(g)
2. ZnCO + 2HCl → ZnCO +H O + CO
3(s) (aq) 3(aq) 2 (l) 2(g)
3. MgCO + 2HCl → MgCO +H O + CO
3(s) (aq) 3(aq) 2 (l) 2(g)
4. CuCO + 2HCl → CuCO +H O + CO
3(s) (aq) 3(aq) 2 (l) 2(g)
5. NaHCO + HCl → Na CO +H O + CO
3(s) (aq) 2 3(aq) 2 (l) 2(g)
6. KHCO + HCl → K CO +H O + CO
3(s) (aq) 2 3(aq) 2 (l) 2(g)

2. What method of gas collection is used in preparation of Carbon(IV)oxide gas. Explain.

Downward delivery /upward displacement of air/over mercury

Carbon(IV)oxide gas is about 1½ times denser than air.

3. What is the purpose of:

1. water? To absorb the more volatile hydrogen chloride fumes produced during the vigorous reaction.
2. sodium hydrogen carbonate? To absorb the more volatile hydrogen chloride fumes produced during the
vigorous reaction and by reacting with the acid to produce more carbon (IV)oxide gas.

Chemical equation

NaHCO + HCl → Na CO +H O + CO
3(s) (aq) 2 3(aq) 2 (l) 2(g)

4.concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid?

To dry the gas/as a drying agent

5.Describe the smell of carbon(IV)oxide gas

Colourless and odourless

6.Effect on lime water.

Experiment

Bubble carbon(IV)oxide gas into a test tube containing lime water for about three minutes

Observation

White precipitate is formed.

White precipitate dissolved when excess carbon(IV)oxide gas is bubbled.

Explanation

Carbon(IV)oxide gas reacts with lime water(Ca(OH) ) to form an insoluble white precipitate of calcium carbonate.
2
Calcium carbonate reacts with more Carbon(IV) oxide gas to form soluble Calcium hydrogen carbonate.

Chemical equation
Ca(OH) + CO → CaCO +H O
2(aq) 2(g) 3(s) 2 (l)

CaCO +H O + CO → Ca(HCO )
3(aq) 2 (l) 2(g) 3 2(aq)

7.Effects on burning Magnesium ribbon

Experiment

Lower a piece of burning magnesium ribbon into a gas jar containing carbon (IV)oxide gas.

Observation

The ribbon continues to burn with difficulty

White ash/solid is formed.

Black speck/solid/particles formed on the side of gas jar.

Explanation

Carbon(IV)oxide gas does not support combustion/burning. Magnesium burn to produce/release enough heat
energy to decompose Carbon(IV) oxide gas to carbon and oxygen.Magnesium continues to burn in Oxygen forming
white Magnesium Oxide solid/ash.Black speck/particle of carbon/charcoal residue forms on the sides of reaction
flask. During the reaction Carbon(IV) oxide is reduced(Oxidizing agent)to carbon while Magnesium is Oxidized to
Magnesium Oxide.

Chemical equation

2Mg + CO →C + 2MgO
(s) 2(g) (s) (l)

8.Dry and wet litmus papers were separately put in a gas jar containing dry carbon (IV)oxide gas. State and explain
the observations made.

Observation

Blue dry litmus paper remain blue

Red dry litmus paper remain Red

Blue wet/damp/moist litmus paper turn red

Red wet/damp/moist litmus paper remain red

Explanation

Dry Carbon (IV) oxide gas is a molecular compound that does not dissociate/ionize to release H+ and thus has no
effect on litmus papers.

Wet/damp/moist litmus papers contains water that dissolves/react with dry carbon (IV) oxide gas to form the weak
solution of carbonic (IV) acid(H CO ).
2 3

Carbonic (IV) acid dissociate/ionizes to a few /little free H+ and CO 2-.

3

The few H+ (aq) ions are responsible for turning blue litmus paper to faint red showing the gas is very weakly
acidic.

Chemical equation

H CO → 2H + CO 2-
2 3(aq) +(aq) 3 (aq)
10.Explain why Carbon (IV)oxide cannot be prepared from the reaction of:

marble chips with dilute sulphuric(VI)acid.

Explanation

Reaction forms insoluble calcium sulphate(VI)that cover/coat unreacted marble chips stopping further reaction

Chemical equation

CaCO + H SO → CaSO +H O + CO
3(s) 2 4(aq) 4(s) 2 (l) 2(g)

PbCO + H SO → PbSO +H O + CO
3(s) 2 4(aq) 4(s) 2 (l) 2(g)

BaCO + H SO → BaSO +H O + CO
3(s) 2 4(aq) 4(s) 2 (l) 2(g)

Lead(II)carbonate with dilute Hydrochloric acid.

Reaction forms insoluble Lead(II)Chloride that cover/coat unreacted Lead(II) carbonate stopping further reaction
unless the reaction mixture is heated. Lead(II)Chloride is soluble in hot water.

Chemical equation

PbCO + 2HCl → PbCl +H O + CO

3(s) (aq) 2(s) 2 (l) 2(g)

11.Describe the test for the presence of Carbon (IV)oxide.

Using burning splint

Lower a burning splint into a gas jar suspected to contain Carbon (IV)oxide gas.The burning splint is extinguished.

Using Lime water.

Bubble the gas suspected to be Carbon (IV)oxide gas. A white precipitate that dissolve in excess bubbling is formed.

Chemical equation

Ca(OH) + CO → CaCO +H O
2(aq) 2(g) 3(s) 2 (l)

CaCO +H O + CO → Ca(HCO )
3(aq) 2 (l) 2(g) 3 2(aq)

12.State three main uses of Carbon (IV)oxide gas

1. In the Solvay process for the manufacture of soda ash/sodium carbonate

2. In preservation of aerated drinks
3. As fire extinguisher because it does not support combustion and is denser than air.
4. In manufacture of Baking powder

Watch the video for this lesson on the link below.

The Preparation of Carbon IV Oxide - Video Lesson and PDF Notes Video Lesson

Carbon IV Oxide; Its Ocurrence, Properties, and Uses - Chemistry Form 2

The Properties of Carbon IV Oxide - Video Lesson and PDF Notes

Carbon (IV) oxide (CO₂)

This is the most stable oxide of carbon. In carbon (IV) oxide, the carbon atom forms strong covalent bonds
with two oxygen atoms. Carbon (IV) oxide is a molecular substance. The gas accounts for 0.03% of the
volume of air.

Occurrence

Carbon(IV)oxide is found:

in the air /atmosphere as 0.03% by volume.

a solid carbon(IV)oxide mineral in Esageri near Eldame Ravine and Kerita near Limuru in Kenya.

Carbon (IV) oxide is prepared by reacting calcium carbonate with dilute hydrochloric acid.
Calcium carbonate + Dil. hydrochloric acid → Calcium chloride + Carbon (IV) oxide + Water
CaCO₃(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl₂(aq) + CO₂(g) + H₂O(l)
When dilute hydrochloric acid is added to calcium carbonate, a vigorous effervescence occurs releasing
carbon (IV) oxide gas. The gas is passed through sodium hydrogen carbonate or water to remove traces of
hydrochloric acid fumes in the gas. When required dry, the gas is passed through concentrated sulphuric (VI)
acid. Anhydrous calcium chloride can be used in place of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid as a drying agent.
However, any other carbonate can be used with a suitable acid. Dilute sulphuric (VI) acid should not be
reacted with calcium carbonate, barium carbonate and lead carbonate. This is because insoluble sulphates
produced form a coating on the carbonates and prevent further reaction. For the same reasoned dilute
hydrochloric acid is not reacted with lead carbonate.

Properties of carbon (IV) oxide

Carbon (IV) oxide is a colourless, odourless gas. The gas is denser than air and this explains why it is
collected by down ward delivery.
Carbon (IV) oxide neither burns nor supports combustion. This is why the gas puts off a burning candle.
The gas is acidic, and turns the universal indicator solution red.
Carbon (IV) oxide gas slightly dissolves in water to form carbonic acid, a weak acid.
Carbon (IV) oxide + Water → Carbonic acid
CO₂(g) + H₂O(g) → H₂CO₃(g)
 Carbon (IV) oxide gas is acidic and readily reacts with sodium hydroxide solution to form sodium carbonate.
Sodium hydroxide + Carbon (IV) oxide → Sodium carbonate + Water
2NaOH(aq) + CO₂(g) → Na₂CO₃(aq) + H₂O(l)
If the gas is in excess, a further reaction occurs that leads to the formation of sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Sodium carbonate + Water + Carbon (IV) oxide → Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Na₂CO₃(aq) + H₂O(l) + CO₂(g) → 2NaHCO₃(aq)

When Carbon (IV) oxide is bubbled through calcium hydroxide for a short while, a white precipitate is formed.
The white precipitate is due to the formation of the insoluble calcium carbonate.
This is the confirmatory test for carbon (IV) oxide.
Calcium hydroxide + Carbon (IV) oxide → Calcium carbonate + Water
Ca(OH)₂(aq) + CO₂(g) → CaCO₃(s) + H₂O(l)

When the gas is passed through the mixture for a while the white precipitate dissolves to form a colourless
solution of calcium hydrogen carbonate.
Calcium carbonate + Water + Calcium (IV) oxide → Calcium hydrogen carbonate
CaCO₃(s) + H₂O(l) + CO₂(g) → Ca(HCO₃)₂(aq)

Although the gas does not support combustion, burning magnesium continues to burn in it to produce a
white powder of magnesium oxide and black specks of carbon. The burning magnesium produces a lot of
heat that decomposes carbon (IV) oxide to carbon and oxygen.
Magnesium + Carbon (IV) oxide → Magnesium oxide + Carbon
2Mg(s) + CO₂(g) → 2MgO(s) + C(s)
The addition of dilute nitric (V) acid dissolves magnesium oxide leaving black specks of carbon.

Uses of Carbon (IV) oxide gas

Carbon (IV) oxide gas is used as a refrigerating agent for perishable goods. This is because solid carbon (IV)
oxide sublimes when heated, leaving no residue.
Carbon (IV) oxide is non-flammable and has a higher density than air therefore it forms a ‘blanket’ on fire
cutting off oxygen supply. It is therefore used to extinguish fires.
One type of a fire extinguisher shown in fig 6.5 (b), contains Carbon (IV) oxide under high pressure. This type
can be used intermittently without refilling after each use.
It is used in the manufacture of sodium carbonate in the Solvay process. Carbon (IV) oxide is dissolved in
water to make aerated drinks to add taste, it is also used to make baking powder.

Watch the video for this lesson on the link below.

The Properties of Carbon IV Oxide - Video Lesson and PDF Notes Video Lesson

Preparation of Carbon II Oxide - Chemistry Form 2

Preparation of Carbon II Oxide - Video Lesson and PDF Notes

Carbon (II) Oxide

This is another oxide of carbon in which a carbon atom forms three covalent bonds with one oxygen atom. It
is a molecular substance.
Carbon (II) oxide may be prepared by dehydrating methanoic acid using concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid.

Ethanedioic acid (oxalic acid) may be used in place of methanoic acid

The gaseous mixture should be passed through a concentrated solution of sodium hydroxide to remove the
carbon (IV) oxide, CO₂.
The gas may also be prepared by passing Carbon (IV) oxide over heated charcoal
Physical properties of Carbon (II) oxide

Carbon (II) oxide gas is colourless, odourless and slightly less dense than air. It has a low boiling point of -
111ºC. The low boiling point is because of the weak forces of attraction between the molecules. The gas is
slightly soluble in water. The solution formed is neutral.
The gas is extremely poisonous. It combines with haemoglobin in the blood to form a stable compound
known as carboxy-haemoglobin. The carboxy-haemoglobin formed prevents formation of oxyhaemoglobin
leading to suffocation.

Chemical properties of Carbon (II) oxide

Carbon (II) oxide burns in air with a blue flame to form Carbon (IV) oxide.
Carbon (II) oxide + Oxygen → Carbon (IV) oxide
Carbon (II) oxide gas readily removes combined oxygen from metals low in the reactivity series such as
copper, lead and iron. It is in turn oxidized to carbon (II) oxide. Therefore carbon (II) oxide is a reducing
agent.
The reducing property of carbon (II) oxide makes the gas useful in the extraction of some metals from their
oxides.

Copper (II) Oxide + Carbon (II) Oxide → Copper + Carbon (iv) Oxide
CuO(s) + CO(g) → Cu(s) + CO₂(g)

Zinc (II) Oxide + Carbon (II) oxide → Zinc + Carbon (Iv) Oxide
ZnO(s) + CO(g) → Zn(s) + CO₂(g)

Lead (II) Oxide + Carbon (II) Oxide → Lead + Carbon (IV) Oxide
PbO(s) + CO(g) → PbO(s) + CO₂(g)

Iron (III) Oxide + Carbon (II) Oxide → Iron + Carbon (IV) oxide
Fe₂O₃(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + CO₂(g)
 Carbon (II) oxide is encountered almost in everyday situations through combustion of charcoal and fossil
fuels such as kerosene, diesel, petrol and coal.

Region A: Region a in this region plenty of air enters the jiko allowing complete combustion of carbon to
carbon (IV) oxide.
Carbon + Oxygen → Carbon (IV) oxide

Region B: The carbon (IV) oxide produced in region ‘A’ rises up to region ‘B’ where it is reduced.
Carbon (IV) oxide + Carbon → Carbon (II) oxide

Region C: Here, there is enough oxygen therefore carbon (II) oxide produced in region B burns to form
carbon (IV) oxide.
Carbon (II) oxide + Oxygen → Carbon (IV) oxide

In case of insufficient air, some carbon (II) oxide produced in region B is released into the atmosphere. This is
common in poorly ventilated rooms.

Watch the video for this lesson on the link below.

Preparation of Carbon II Oxide - Video Lesson and PDF Notes Video Lesson

Properties of Carbon II Oxide - Chemistry Form 2

The Physical and Chemical Properties of Carbon II Oxide - Video Lesson and PDF
Notes

Carbon (II) Oxide

This is another oxide of carbon in which a carbon atom forms three covalent bonds with one oxygen atom. It
is a molecular substance.
Carbon (II) oxide may be prepared by dehydrating methanoic acid using concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid.
 Ethanedioic acid (oxalic acid) may be used in place of methanoic acid

The gaseous mixture should be passed through a concentrated solution of sodium hydroxide to remove the
carbon (IV) oxide, CO₂.
The gas may also be prepared by passing Carbon (IV) oxide over heated charcoal

Physical properties of Carbon (II) oxide

Carbon (II) oxide gas is colourless, odourless and slightly less dense than air. It has a low boiling point of -
111ºC. The low boiling point is because of the weak forces of attraction between the molecules. The gas is
slightly soluble in water. The solution formed is neutral.
 The gas is extremely poisonous. It combines with haemoglobin in the blood to form a stable compound
known as carboxy-haemoglobin. The carboxy-haemoglobin formed prevents formation of oxyhaemoglobin
leading to suffocation.

Chemical properties of Carbon (II) oxide

Carbon (II) oxide burns in air with a blue flame to form Carbon (IV) oxide.
Carbon (II) oxide + Oxygen → Carbon (IV) oxide
Carbon (II) oxide gas readily removes combined oxygen from metals low in the reactivity series such as
copper, lead and iron. It is in turn oxidized to carbon (II) oxide. Therefore carbon (II) oxide is a reducing
agent.
The reducing property of carbon (II) oxide makes the gas useful in the extraction of some metals from their
oxides.

Copper (II) Oxide + Carbon (II) Oxide → Copper + Carbon (iv) Oxide
CuO(s) + CO(g) → Cu(s) + CO₂(g)

Zinc (II) Oxide + Carbon (II) oxide → Zinc + Carbon (Iv) Oxide
ZnO(s) + CO(g) → Zn(s) + CO₂(g)

Lead (II) Oxide + Carbon (II) Oxide → Lead + Carbon (IV) Oxide
PbO(s) + CO(g) → PbO(s) + CO₂(g)

Iron (III) Oxide + Carbon (II) Oxide → Iron + Carbon (IV) oxide
Fe₂O₃(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + CO₂(g)

Carbon (II) oxide is encountered almost in everyday situations through combustion of charcoal and fossil
fuels such as kerosene, diesel, petrol and coal.

Region A: Region a in this region plenty of air enters the jiko allowing complete combustion of carbon to
carbon (IV) oxide.
Carbon + Oxygen → Carbon (IV) oxide
 Region B: The carbon (IV) oxide produced in region ‘A’ rises up to region ‘B’ where it is reduced.
Carbon (IV) oxide + Carbon → Carbon (II) oxide

Region C: Here, there is enough oxygen therefore carbon (II) oxide produced in region B burns to form
carbon (IV) oxide.
Carbon (II) oxide + Oxygen → Carbon (IV) oxide

In case of insufficient air, some carbon (II) oxide produced in region B is released into the atmosphere. This is
common in poorly ventilated rooms.

Watch the video for this lesson on the link below.

The Physical and Chemical Properties of Carbon II Oxide - Video Lesson and PDF Notes Video Lesson

Carbonates and Hydrogen Carbonates - Chemistry Form 2

The Chemical Properties of Carbonates and Hydrogen Carbonates - Video Lesson and
PDF Notes

Carbonates and Hydrogen carbonates

Carbonates are salts of metal ions or ammonium ions with carbonate ions. The carbonate ions are indirectly
obtained from carbonic acid (H₂CO₃) formed when carbon (IV) oxide is dissolved in water. Carbonates occur
naturally in rocks as limestone (CaCO₃), malachite (CuCO₃.Cu(OH)₂ and dolomite, CaCO₃.MgCO₃. In Kenya,
dolomite is mined in Kariandusi near Gilgil.
Hydrogen carbonates are salts derived from carbonic acid formed by the partial displacement of hydrogen
by a metal or ammonium radical. Hydrogen carbonates of sodium, potassium and ammonium exist as solids
at room temperature, whereas those of calcium and magnesium only exist in solution. The hydrogen
carbonates of other metals do not exist

Reaction of carbonates and hydrogen carbonates with dilute acids

All carbonates gives off carbon (IV) oxide when reacted with acids. For example;

Calcium carbonate + Dil. Hydrochloric acid → Calcium chloride + Carbon (IV) oxide + Water
CaCO₃(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl₂(aq) + CO₂(g) + H₂O(l)
 Sodium hydrogen carbonate + Dilute hydrochloric acid → Sodium chloride + water + Carbon (IV) oxide
NaHCO₃ (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H₂O (l) + CO₂ (g)

Lead carbonate + Dil. Nitric acid → Lead + Carbon (IV) oxide + Water
PbCO₃ (s) + 2 HNO₃ (aq) → Pb(NO₃)₂ (aq) + CO₂ (g) + H₂O (l)

Sodium carbonate + Dil. Sulphuric (VI) acid → Sodium sulphate + Carbon (IV) oxide + Water
Na₂CO₃ (aq) + H₂SO₄ (aq) → Na₂SO₄ (aq) + CO₂ (g) + H₂O (l)

The reaction between calcium carbonate or lead carbonate with dilute sulphuric acid does not go to
completion. This is due to the formation of insoluble calcium sulphate and lead sulphate respectively. The
insoluble sulphates form a coating on the carbonate and prevent further reaction. The reaction between lead
carbonate and hydrochloric acid also does not go to completion because of the formation of the insoluble
lead chloride.

Action of Heat on Carbonate and Hydrogen Carbonates

All carbonates except the carbonates of potassium and sodium decompose when heated to produce a metal
oxide and carbon (IV) oxide. The ease of decomposition depends on the position of the metal in the reactivity
series. Those lower in the reactivity series are easily decomposed.

Ammonium carbonate decomposes when heated to produce ammonia, carbon (IV) oxide and water.
 Hydrogen carbonates decompose on heating to produce a carbonate, carbon (IV) oxide and water.

The calcium carbonate is further decomposed by heat to produce an oxide and hydrogen carbonate.

Watch the video for this lesson on the link below.

The Chemical Properties of Carbonates and Hydrogen Carbonates - Video Lesson and PDF Notes Video
Lesson

Extraction of Trona - Chemistry Form 2

The Occurence and Extraction of Trona - Video Lesson and PDF Notes

Large Scale Production of Sodium Carbonate and Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate

Sodium carbonate is an important raw material in the glass and paper industries. It is also used in water
treatment plants. This important raw material is obtained in two ways extraction from trona and preparation
by Solvay process.

Extraction from Trona

Trona is a double salt containing sodium carbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate and water of crystallisation,
Na₂CO₃.NaHCO₃.H₂O, found in some lakes in the Rift valley. These lakes have only in-lets but no out-lets

Lake Magadi contains large amounts of solid trona and small amounts of sodium chloride.
Trona is dug by bucket dredges and taken to the washery where it is washed in water to remove mud and
small rocks. The wet trona is then centrifuged to remove water and to purify it further. The dry trona is then
heated to about 300ºC in a kiln to decompose the sodium carbonate.
 After removal of the trona from the lake, a solution rich in sodium chloride remains. The solution is pumped
into shallow basins where evaporation takes place until the percentage of sodium chloride is 14%. The
solution is then transfered to another basin for crystalisation.
During the day when the temperature is about 40ºC trona crystalises and is removed.
During the night when the temperature is about 21ºC sodium chloride crystalises and is removed.

Solvay Process

In places where trona is not available, sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate are manufactured
by the Solvay process. The raw materials for this process are sodium chloride, calcium carbonate, coke and
ammonia. These raw materials are readily available and cheap.

Ammonia is dissolved in brine in the Solvay tower to produce ammoniacal brine. A lot of heat is produced in
the process. The amount of heat produced is controlled by regulating the flow of brine into the Solvay tower.
The ammoniacal brine is then pumped into the carbonator from the top where it trickles down the carbonator
while carbon (IV) oxide from the kiln is pumped from the base. The carbonator has to be cooled regularly to
reduce the amount of heat produced in it. Sodium hydrogen carbonate being less soluble than ammonium
chloride at low temperatures, forms crystals in the lower cooled part of the carbonator.

The reactions that take place in the carbonator are as follows:

Ammonia + Carbon (IV) oxide + Water → Ammonium hydrogen carbonate

NH₃(g) + CO₂(g) + H₂O(l) → NH₄HCO₃(aq)

Ammonium hydrogen carbonate + Sodium chloride → Sodium hydrogen carbonate + Ammonium chloride
NH₄HCO₃(aq) + NaCl(aq) → NaHCO₃(s) + NHC₄(aq)

The reaction in the carbonator can be summarized by the equation below:

 Ammonia + Carbon (IV) oxide + Sodium chloride + Water → Sodium hydrogen carbonate + Ammonium
chloride
NH₃(g) + CO₂(g) + NaCl(aq) + H₂O(l) → NaHCO₃(s) + NH₄Cl(aq

Sodium hydrogen carbonate is separated from ammonium chloride by filtration. Sodium hydrogen carbonate
is dried and decomposed by heat at 300ºC to produce sodium carbonate.

The initial carbon (IV) oxide used in the process is mainly from the decomposed calcium carbonate and the
burning of coke in the kiln.
The ammonia used in this process is obtained from the Haber process. The calcium oxide produced in the
limestone kiln is slaked (combined) with water and mixed with the filtrate ammonium chloride to produce
ammonia gas, water and calcium chloride.
The Solvay process is one of the best examples of an efficient industrial chemical process, because pollution
problems are considerably reduced. The carbon (IV) oxide and ammonia gases produced are recycled to
minimise costs.
The water produced is also recycled to minimise thermal effects on the water source near the plant. The
process does not involve large consumption of energy because the coke burned in the kiln supplies the
necessary heat in the process. The only by-product in the process which is not recycled is calcium chloride
and it has a wide range of uses. The best site for the Solvay process plant should be close to a river or large
source of water to cool down the carbonator.
Sodium carbonate is used in water softening, glass making, paper industry and making of sodium silicate.
The sodium silicate is used in the making of detergents.
Sodium hydrogen carbonate is used in the making of health drinks and as baking powder in the food
industry.

Effects of Carbon (IV) oxide and Carbon (II) oxide on the Environment

The level of carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere is increasing due to the use of fossil fuels such as petrol,
diesel, natural gas and coal. This increase is causing global warming due to he green house effect. Some of
the effects of global warming include melting of polar ice caps which leads to the rise in the sea water levels
and erratic weather patterns.
Vehicle exhaust fumes make-up more than 60% of all the carbon (II) oxide emitted into the atmosphere.
Carbon (II) oxide emmissions are highest during cold weather. This is because low temperatures make
combustion less complete. Carbon (II) oxide can cause death through suffocation. Luckily, carbon (II) oxide is
quickly removed from the atmosphere by micro-organisms in the soil.

The Carbon Cycle

The way in which carbon compounds circulate in nature constitutes the carbon cycle.
 The processes that release carbon (IV) oxide to the atmosphere include combustion of fuels, respiration in
both animals and plants, fermentation, decomposition of carbonates and hydrogen carbonates. Those
processes that remove carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere include photosynthesis in plants, dissolving of
carbon (IV) oxide in seas and oceans. The amount of carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere has remained fairly
constant at 0.03% owing to the delicate balance between the processes that absorb he gas and those that
evolve it. Lately, the balance is being interfered with by human activity leading to an increase in the level of
carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere thus causing global warming since carbon (IV) oxide has a greenhouse
effect.

Watch the video for this lesson on the link below.

The Occurence and Extraction of Trona - Video Lesson and PDF Notes Video Lesson

The Solvay Process - Chemistry Form 2

The Extraction and Manufacture of Sodium Carbonate through the Solvay Process -
Video Lesson and PDF Notes

Large Scale Production of Sodium Carbonate and Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate

Sodium carbonate is an important raw material in the glass and paper industries. It is also used in water
treatment plants. This important raw material is obtained in two ways extraction from trona and preparation
by Solvay process.

Extraction from Trona

Trona is a double salt containing sodium carbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate and water of crystallisation,
Na₂CO₃.NaHCO₃.H₂O, found in some lakes in the Rift valley. These lakes have only in-lets but no out-lets

Lake Magadi contains large amounts of solid trona and small amounts of sodium chloride.
 Trona is dug by bucket dredges and taken to the washery where it is washed in water to remove mud and
small rocks. The wet trona is then centrifuged to remove water and to purify it further. The dry trona is then
heated to about 300ºC in a kiln to decompose the sodium carbonate.
After removal of the trona from the lake, a solution rich in sodium chloride remains. The solution is pumped
into shallow basins where evaporation takes place until the percentage of sodium chloride is 14%. The
solution is then transferred to another basin for crystallisation.
During the day when the temperature is about 40ºC trona crystalises and is removed.
During the night when the temperature is about 21ºC sodium chloride crystalises and is removed.

Solvay Process

In places where trona is not available, sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate are manufactured
by the Solvay process. The raw materials for this process are sodium chloride, calcium carbonate, coke and
ammonia. These raw materials are readily available and cheap.

Ammonia is dissolved in brine in the Solvay tower to produce ammoniacal brine. A lot of heat is produced in
the process. The amount of heat produced is controlled by regulating the flow of brine into the Solvay tower.
The ammoniacal brine is then pumped into the carbonator from the top where it trickles down the carbonator
while carbon (IV) oxide from the kiln is pumped from the base. The carbonator has to be cooled regularly to
reduce the amount of heat produced in it. Sodium hydrogen carbonate being less soluble than ammonium
chloride at low temperatures, forms crystals in the lower cooled part of the carbonator.

The reactions that take place in the carbonator are as follows:

Ammonia + Carbon (IV) oxide + Water → Ammonium hydrogen carbonate

NH₃(g) + CO₂(g) + H₂O(l) → NH₄HCO₃(aq)

Ammonium hydrogen carbonate + Sodium chloride → Sodium hydrogen carbonate + Ammonium chloride
NH₄HCO₃(aq) + NaCl(aq) → NaHCO₃(s) + NHC₄(aq)
The reaction in the carbonator can be summarized by the equation below:

Ammonia + Carbon (IV) oxide + Sodium chloride + Water → Sodium hydrogen carbonate + Ammonium
chloride
NH₃(g) + CO₂(g) + NaCl(aq) + H₂O(l) → NaHCO₃(s) + NH₄Cl(aq

Sodium hydrogen carbonate is separated from ammonium chloride by filtration. Sodium hydrogen carbonate
is dried and decomposed by heat at 300ºC to produce sodium carbonate.

The initial carbon (IV) oxide used in the process is mainly from the decomposed calcium carbonate and the
burning of coke in the kiln.
The ammonia used in this process is obtained from the Haber process. The calcium oxide produced in the
limestone kiln is slaked (combined) with water and mixed with the filtrate ammonium chloride to produce
ammonia gas, water and calcium chloride.
The Solvay process is one of the best examples of an efficient industrial chemical process, because pollution
problems are considerably reduced. The carbon (IV) oxide and ammonia gases produced are recycled to
minimise costs.
The water produced is also recycled to minimise thermal effects on the water source near the plant. The
process does not involve large consumption of energy because the coke burned in the kiln supplies the
necessary heat in the process. The only by-product in the process which is not recycled is calcium chloride
and it has a wide range of uses. The best site for the Solvay process plant should be close to a river or large
source of water to cool down the carbonator.
Sodium carbonate is used in water softening, glass making, paper industry and making of sodium silicate.
The sodium silicate is used in the making of detergents.
Sodium hydrogen carbonate is used in the making of health drinks and as baking powder in the food
industry.

Effects of Carbon (IV) oxide and Carbon (II) oxide on the Environment

The level of carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere is increasing due to the use of fossil fuels such as petrol,
diesel, natural gas and coal. This increase is causing global warming due to he green house effect. Some of
the effects of global warming include melting of polar ice caps which leads to the rise in the sea water levels
and erratic weather patterns.
Vehicle exhaust fumes make-up more than 60% of all the carbon (II) oxide emitted into the atmosphere.
Carbon (II) oxide emissions are highest during cold weather. This is because low temperatures make
combustion less complete. Carbon (II) oxide can cause death through suffocation. Luckily, carbon (II) oxide is
quickly removed from the atmosphere by micro-organisms in the soil.

The Carbon Cycle

The way in which carbon compounds circulate in nature constitutes the carbon cycle.
 The processes that release carbon (IV) oxide to the atmosphere include combustion of fuels, respiration in
both animals and plants, fermentation, decomposition of carbonates and hydrogen carbonates. Those
processes that remove carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere include photosynthesis in plants, dissolving of
carbon (IV) oxide in seas and oceans. The amount of carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere has remained fairly
constant at 0.03% owing to the delicate balance between the processes that absorb he gas and those that
evolve it. Lately, the balance is being interfered with by human activity leading to an increase in the level of
carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere thus causing global warming since carbon (IV) oxide has a greenhouse
effect.

Watch the video for this lesson on the link below.

The Extraction and Manufacture of Sodium Carbonate through the Solvay Process - Video Lesson and PDF
Notes Video Lesson

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Chemistry Form 2 Notes - Form 2 PDF Notes Lesson Videos and PDFs

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