1.

Differences between distance-vector and link-state routing protocols:

i) Routing Information Exchange: Distance-vector protocols exchange routing information with their
directly connected neighbors, typically by broadcasting their entire routing table. In contrast, link-state
protocols exchange information about the state of their own links with all other routers in the network.
Each router then builds its own topological map of the entire network.

ii) Update Trigger: Distance-vector protocols update their routing tables periodically or when there is a
change in the network topology. These updates are typically triggered by a timer. On the other hand,
link-state protocols send updates only when there is a change in the link-state information. This means
that updates are triggered by events, such as a link failure or recovery.

iii) Convergence Time: Distance-vector protocols generally have slower convergence times compared to
link-state protocols. This is because distance-vector protocols rely on periodic updates, and it takes time
for the updates to propagate through the network. Link-state protocols, on the other hand, converge
quickly since they have up-to-date information about the entire network.

2. Consequences of connection failure in different network topologies:

i) Mesh Topology: In a mesh topology, where each device is connected to every other device, the failure
of a single connection would not cause a significant impact on the overall network. Traffic can be
rerouted through alternative paths, ensuring that communication between devices can still occur.
However, if multiple connections fail simultaneously, it may lead to isolated segments within the
network.

ii) Star Topology: In a star topology, where all devices are connected to a central hub, the failure of a
connection between a device and the hub would isolate that particular device from the network. Other
devices in the network can still communicate with each other through the hub, but the disconnected
device would lose connectivity.

iii) Bus Topology: In a bus topology, where all devices are connected to a common communication line,
the failure of a connection would sever the communication between the affected device and the rest of
the network. The device would be isolated, and communication with other devices would be disrupted
until the connection is restored.

iv) Ring Topology: In a ring topology, where devices are connected in a closed loop, the failure of a single
connection can disrupt the entire network. If a connection breaks, it can cause the entire ring to become
fragmented, resulting in the loss of connectivity between devices.

3. Example of a device operating all seven layers of the OSI Reference Model:

A router is an example of a device that operates all seven layers of the OSI Reference Model. Routers
receive data packets from one network and forward them to another network, making forwarding
decisions based on the network layer (Layer 3) information. They also perform functions related to the
other layers, such as encapsulation and decapsulation, error detection and correction, flow control, and
addressing.

4. Definition of protocol architecture and elements of TCP/IP:

i) Protocol architecture refers to the hierarchical arrangement of protocols that define how data is
transmitted, received, and processed in a network. It provides a structured framework for organizing
and implementing network protocols.

ii) Protocol architectures should work by defining the functions and interactions of different protocols at
each layer of the architecture. This includes specifying the format of data units, the rules for data
exchange, error handling, addressing, routing, and other related aspects. The protocols should work
together seamlessly to enable communication between network devices.

iii) Examples of protocol architectures in networking include the TCP/IP protocol suite, which is used for
internet communication, and the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, which is a conceptual
framework for understanding network protocols.

5. Link-state Routing Process performed when a router switches ON:

When a router switches on, the following five link-state routing processes are performed:
i) Neighbor Discovery: The router identifies and establishes adjacencies with its directly connected
neighbors. This involves exchanging hello packets to discover neighboring routers.

ii) Link-State Advertisement (LSA): Each router generates link-state advertisements that describe the
state of its own links. This information includes the cost or metric of each link, its status (up or down),
and other relevant details.

iii) Link-State Database (LSDB) Synchronization: Routers exchange their LSAs to build a complete picture
of the network topology. They update their link-state databases by incorporating the LSAs received from
other routers.

iv) Shortest Path Calculation: Using the link-state information in the LSDB, each router calculates the
shortest path to reach every other router in the network. This is typically done using a shortest path
algorithm like Dijkstra's algorithm.

v) Routing Table Generation: Based on the shortest path calculations, each router generates its routing
table, which contains the next-hop information for reaching destination networks. The routing table is
used to make forwarding decisions for incoming packets.

6. Difference in service offered to applications by TCP and UDP protocols:

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol) are transport layer protocols
that provide different services to applications.

TCP offers a reliable, connection-oriented service to applications. It ensures thatdata is delivered

without errors, in the correct order, and with flow control and congestion control mechanisms. TCP
establishes a connection between the sender and receiver, performs error detection and retransmission
of lost packets, and guarantees the reliable delivery of data. It is suitable for applications that require
data integrity and reliability, such as web browsing, file transfer, and email.

UDP, on the other hand, offers an unreliable, connectionless service to applications. It does not provide
error recovery or congestion control mechanisms. UDP simply encapsulates the application data into
datagrams and sends them to the destination without any guarantees of delivery or order. UDP is useful
for applications that prioritize low latency and can tolerate some packet loss, such as real-time
streaming, online gaming, and DNS.

The main difference between TCP and UDP is the trade-off between reliability and efficiency. TCP
sacrifices efficiency for reliability by implementing mechanisms for error detection, retransmission, and
flow control, while UDP offers lower overhead and faster transmission but with no guarantees of
reliability.

7. Characteristics of the transport layer UDP:

The transport layer User Datagram Protocol (UDP) has the following characteristics:

i) Connectionless: UDP is a connectionless protocol, which means it does not establish a formal
connection between the sender and receiver before transmitting data. Each UDP datagram is
independent and can be sent and received without any prior setup.

ii) Unreliable: UDP does not provide any mechanisms for error recovery or retransmission of lost
packets. It does not guarantee the delivery or order of packets. If a packet is lost during transmission,
there is no automatic recovery mechanism in UDP.

iii) Low overhead: UDP has minimal overhead compared to TCP. It adds only a small header to each
datagram. This makes UDP more efficient in terms of processing and bandwidth usage.

iv) Datagram-oriented: UDP treats each packet as an individual datagram. Each datagram is independent
and can be addressed and routed individually. This allows for greater flexibility but also means that UDP
does not reassemble packets or provide sequencing and flow control.

v) Simple: UDP is a simple protocol with fewer features and mechanisms compared to TCP. It is
lightweight and suitable for applications that require low latency and can tolerate some packet loss.

vi) Broadcast and multicast support: UDP supports broadcasting and multicasting of packets, allowing
data to be sent to multiple recipients simultaneously.
vii) Port-based addressing: UDP uses port numbers to identify applications or services on a device. This
allows multiple applications to use UDP simultaneously on the same device, with each application being
identified by a unique port number.

8. Brief explanations of the concepts:

i) HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface): HDMI is a digital interface used for transmitting high-
definition audio and video signals between devices. It is commonly used to connect devices such as
televisions, monitors, Blu-ray players, and game consoles. HDMI supports high-quality audio and video
transmission, including support for various resolutions, color depths, and audio formats. It uses a single
cable for both audio and video transmission, simplifying connectivity.

ii) 10BaseT: 10BaseT is an Ethernet standard that defines the physical and data link layer specifications
for twisted pair copper cabling. It operates at a speed of 10 Mbps (megabits per second) and uses a star
topology, where devices are connected to a central hub or switch. 10BaseT is one of the most common
Ethernet standards used in local area networks (LANs). It uses unshielded twisted pair (UTP) or shielded
twisted pair (STP) cables for data transmission.

iii) CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection): CSMA/CD is an access control
method used in Ethernet networks. It allows multiple devices to share a common communication
medium (such as a coaxial cable or twisted pair) and helps prevent data collisions. Before transmitting
data, a device using CSMA/CD listens for carrier signals on the medium. If no carrier is detected, the
device starts transmitting. If multiple devices transmit simultaneously and a collision occurs, the devices
stop transmitting, wait for a random period of time, and then retransmit.

9. Description, application, and limitations of the following:

i) Twisted Pair Cable: Twisted pair cable consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together. It is
commonly used for Ethernet networks, telephone lines, and other data transmission applications.
Twisted pair cables are relatively inexpensive, easy to install, and flexible. However, they are susceptible
to electromagnetic interference (EMI) and have limited bandwidth compared to other cable types.
ii) Coaxial Cable: Coaxial cable consists of a central conductor surrounded by an insulating layer, a
metallic shield, and an outer insulating layer. It is commonly used for cable television (CATV) networks,
broadband internet connections, and CCTV systems. Coaxial cables provide better shielding against EMI
compared to twisted pair cables and have higher bandwidth capabilities. However, they are thicker and
less flexible than twisted pair cables.

iii) Optical Fiber: Optical fiber is a transmission medium. Optical cable, also called fiber optic cable, is a
type of cable that uses light to transmit data. It consists of a core made of glass or plastic that's
surrounded by a cladding, and the light travels through the core by bouncing off the cladding. Optical
cable has several advantages over traditional copper cable, including higher bandwidth, greater
reliability, and lower latency. However, it's more expensive to install and can be difficult to repair if
damaged.