STYLISTIC SYNTAX

Discussion Points
1. The notion of EM and SDs on the syntactical level.
Basic element of syntactical level is a model of a sentence – a predicative chain of
wordforms which is made up of a noun, verbal members which are in a particular
lineal meaningful and formal relations. These models of sentences can contain
denotative and connotative information, make synonymic relations and build
syntactic-stylistic paradigms.
Stylistic syntax deals with specific patterns of syntactic usage, i.e. syntactical
expressive means (EM) and stylistic devices (SD). It is important to distinguish
between neutral and stylistically marked syntactic patterns. A neutral syntactic model
in English typically involves a simple two-member sentence with subject, predicate,
and a few secondary elements arranged in the usual (normal) word order: S – P –
Object direct – Object indirect – Adverbial Modifier. The sentence’s function aligns
with its structure, meaning a declarative sentence should express a statement, not a
question or request, and it should not feel incomplete or excessive.
Any variations from this basic sentence structure are seen as transformations that may
take on stylistic meanings, thus becoming expressive means.
Transformations, such as turning the sentence into negative or interrogative forms,
alter its syntactical meaning but rarely affect its stylistic nature. Other
transformations, however, can result in sentence structures that carry stylistic
significance.
A syntactical stylistic device can be understood based on the definition of a stylistic
device as a method of combining stylistically marked and neutral speech elements
within a specific context. In this sense, a syntactical stylistic device refers to:
a. The techniques and methods of combining sentences within a broader
context.
b. The transposition of the syntactical meaning in context, where a sentence
takes on an additional meaning that is not typical of it.
Therefore, based on the nature of relationships between syntactical structures, the
potential transposition in meanings within a context, and the various methods of
connection within a sentence, we can identify the following categories of syntactical
stylistic devices:
  Stylistic devices that arise from the specific formal and semantic interaction
of syntactical constructions in a context: parallelism, chiasmus, anaphora,
epiphora.
 Stylistic devices that involve the transposition of syntactical meaning within a
context: rhetorical questions.
 Stylistic devices that result from transposition in the types and means of
connection within or between sentences: parcellation, subordination instead
coordination, and coordination instead subordination.
A syntactical expressive means is a sentence structure that carries additional logical
or expressive information, enhancing the pragmatic effect of the utterance and the
speech as a whole.
Depending on how the neutral syntactical pattern is transformed, expressive means in
English syntax can be classified into three categories:
 Expressive means involving the reduction of the syntactical pattern, which
occurs when certain essential elements of the sentence structure are omitted.
This group includes: ellipsis, aposiopesis, nominative sentences, and asyndeton.
 Expressive means based on the redundancy of the syntactical pattern, where
sentence elements are added or deliberately repeated. This group includes:
repetition, enumeration, syntactic tautology, polysyndeton, emphatic
constructions, and parenthesis.
 Expressive means resulting from the disruption of the grammatically fixed
word order within a sentence or the intentional isolation of specific parts of the
sentence. This category includes: stylistic inversion, syntactical split, and
detachment.
2. Syntactical expressive means based on:
 the reduction of the sentence structure: ellipsis, aposiopesis,
nominative sentences, asyndeton;
Ellipsis, the deliberate omission of one or more sentence components, plays a central
role here. The missing elements are either implied by the surrounding context or
inferred from the situation.
Ellipsis is most commonly found in everyday speech. In modern prose, it is
predominantly used in dialogue, where authors intentionally employ it to mirror the
natural omissions found in spoken language, lending authenticity and realism to
fictional conversations. Additionally, elliptical sentences can add conciseness, speed
up the pace, and sometimes create emotional tension in the narrative.
Ellipsis forms the basis of what is known as the telegraphic style, where conjunctions
and unnecessary words are omitted. Nominative (or nominal) sentences, which
consist only of a nominal group, which is semantically and communicatively self-
sufficient, also contribute to this style (one-member sentences with a noun, a
prepositional noun-phrase, or an adverb). Although syntactically different from
elliptical sentences, nominative sentences are similar in their brevity. These sentences
are particularly useful for introducing readers to the setting or situation of the story
(the 'exposition'). For example, the opening lines of “An American Tragedy” by
Theodore Dreiser read:
E.g. Dusk – of a summer night.
And the tall walls of the commercial heart of an American city of perhaps 400,000
inhabitants – such walls as in time may linger as a mere fable.
Another stylistic device that emphasizes the incomplete nature of sentence structure is
aposiopesis, a term derived from Greek meaning 'silence,' which refers to the
deliberate choice to leave an utterance unfinished. This device is also known as a
"break-in-the-narrative," "stop-short," or "pull-up." It is primarily used in dialogue
or other forms of narrative that mimic spontaneous spoken language, reflecting the
emotional or psychological state of the speaker. A pause can also occur when the
speaker deliberately refrains from continuing, leaving the implications for the listener
to interpret.
At times, a break in the narrative is caused by the speaker's desire to avoid saying
something, often for euphemistic reasons, to avoid mentioning something that may be
considered offensive.
For example: "This is a story about how Baggins had an adventure. He may have lost
the neighbors' respect, but he gained – well, you will see whether he gained anything
in the end" (Tolkien). Here, aposiopesis is used to maintain the intrigue and not reveal
too much too soon.
Dashes (тире) and ellipses (крапка) are commonly used to indicate such a break in
speech. In some fixed phrases, a full stop may also appear, such as in "Good
intentions, but..." or "It depends."
Asyndeton (from the Greek meaning ‘disconnected’) refers to the intentional
omission of conjunctions that would normally connect words, clauses, or sentences.
Stylistically, asyndeton creates a specific rhythm, often making the narrative feel
more measured, dynamic, and intense.
For example: "Out came the chase – in went the horses – on sprang the boys – in got
the travelers" (Dickens).
 the redundancy of sentence structure: repetition, enumeration,
polysyndeton, emphatic constructions, parenthetical clauses;
A paradigmatic approach involves comparing units of the same rank. When the unit in
question is a sentence, we can compare neutral forms with those containing
additional, unnecessary elements.
Structural and material redundancy within a sentence primarily arises from the
increased number of elements used. It's important to note that all extra elements share
a stylistic purpose: they serve to emphasize the idea (or part of the idea) being
conveyed.
Repetition is the recurrence of the same element (word or phrase) within a sentence.
Its purpose is to provide logical emphasis, drawing the reader's (or listener's) attention
to the key idea of the utterance.
Repetition can be classified based on its structural patterns:
o Ordinary repetition occurs without a fixed position in the sentence, with the
repeated unit appearing in different places without a clear regularity – ...a, ...a,
a... For example: "I really don’t see anything romantic in proposing. It is very
romantic to be in love. But there is nothing romantic about a definite proposal"
(O. Wilde).
o Successive repetition involves a series of repeated units placed closely together
– ...a, a, a... For example: "I wanted to knock over the table and hit him until
my arm had no more strength in it, then give him the boot, give him the boot,
give him the boot – I drew a deep breath" (Braine).
o Framing or ring repetition is a type of repetition where the opening word or
phrase is repeated at the end of the sentence or group of sentences, creating a
"frame" around the non-repeated portion – a...a. For example: "He ran away
from the battle. He was an ordinary human being that didn’t want to kill or to
be killed. So he ran away from the battle" (Heym).
o Linking repetition (also known as catch repetition, reduplication, or
anadiplosis) involves repeating the last word or phrase of one part of an
utterance at the beginning of the next part, thereby connecting the two sections
– ...a, a... For instance: "And a great desire for peace, peace of no matter what
kind, swept through her" (Bennett).
 o When this linking technique is used multiple times in a sequence, it becomes
chain repetition – ...a, a...b, b...c, c... This creates an effect of smoothly
progressing logical flow. For example:
"Living is the art of loving.
Loving is the art of caring.
Caring is the art of sharing.
Sharing is the art of living" (Davies).
It should be noted that these are not the only types of repetition. Many other forms
exist, though they do not belong to paradigmatic syntax, as they involve the
recurrence of words across neighboring sentences or even the repetition of entire
sentences. These fall under stylistic devices and are analyzed in a separate section.
Another type of redundancy in sentence structure is syntactical tautology (pleonasm),
which involves the unnecessary repetition of semantically and syntactically identical
words or phrases to emphasize a particular part of the sentence. For example: "Miss
Tillie Webster, she slept forty days and nights without waking up" (O. Henry) or "I
know what the like of you are, I do" (Shaw). Though grammarians often criticize
these structures as characteristic of colloquial or uneducated speech, pleonasm is also
common in nursery rhymes and folk ballads.
Enumeration is the use of similar sentence elements to highlight the entire utterance
or provide a subjective view of the situation, as in: "The principal production of these
towns... appear to be soldiers, sailors, Jews, chalk, shrimps, officers and dock-yard
men" (Dickens). Stylistic enumeration uses grammatically similar but semantically
diverse elements in the sentence.
Polysyndeton, in contrast to asyndeton, is the repeated use of connectives, particularly
conjunctions and prepositions, before each component part of a sentence. This device
makes the sentence more rhythmical, giving prose a verse-like quality.
Additionally, polysyndeton has a separating effect. Although it links similar thoughts
or items, each component stands out distinctly rather than blending into a whole.
Unlike enumeration, which unites the elements, polysyndeton isolates them for
emphasis.
Polysyndeton can also add an elevated tone to the narrative, likely due to its frequent
association with Biblical style, where nearly every sentence or paragraph begins with
"and":
"And the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew and beat upon the
house; and it fell; and great was the fall of it" (Matthew VII).
Emphatic constructions are another form of sentence redundancy, often used to
intensify or contrast a specific sentence part, adding emotional emphasis.
The construction "It is smb/smth who/that" emphasizes the subject. For example:
"That evening it was Dave who read to the boys their bedtime story" (Carter).
Similarly, "It is then that" highlights the time element in a sentence, as in: "It was
on Friday that I met him." Other sentence elements, such as the object or adverbial
modifiers, can also be highlighted, as in: "It was a country cousin that Harris took in"
(Jerome).
An emphatic "do" construction emphasizes the predicate: "I do know it" (Hammett).
Additionally, the verb "go" can function as an intensifier when paired with main
verbs: "Why do you go and say such nasty things about him?"
There are several other emphatic structures, often called cleft sentences by
grammarians (from "cleft," meaning "divided"). These structures add emphasis to
words or the whole sentence. Using is/was with phrases like "the person who" or "the
day when" can bring focus to a subject or predicate:
 "Phil is the secretary." becomes "The secretary is what Phil is" or "What
Phil is is the secretary."
 "Jake went to London on Tuesday to see Colin." becomes "Tuesday was the
day when Jake went to London to see Colin."
To emphasize a verb, "what...do" structures are used, allowing for various verb
forms:
 "She writes science fiction." becomes "What she does is write science
fiction."
An entire sentence can be emphasized with "what" and the verb "happen":
 "The car broke down." becomes "What happened was that the car broke
down."
Additional structures include "All (that)" and expressions with "thing," such as:
 "All you need is love."
 "The only thing I remember is a terrible pain in my head."
To emphasize time, "It was not until..." and "It was only when..." can be used:
 "It was not until I met you that I knew what love is."
In cleft sentences, "this" and "that" often replace "here" and "there" at the
beginning of a sentence:
  "We live there." becomes "That’s where we live."
These structures are valuable in writing, where intonation can't convey emphasis, but
they are also frequently used in spoken language.
Parenthesis (or parenthetic sentences/clauses) are phrases or sentences inserted into a
syntactic structure without being grammatically linked to it. In writing, they are
typically marked off by commas, brackets, or dashes. Parenthetic clauses can serve
various stylistic functions:
 To emphasize some fact: For example, "They had not seen – no one could see –
her distress, not even her grandfather" (Galsworthy).
 To exemplify certain points: Such as, "The dog – a shapeless monster in the night
– buried itself at the other side of the gate and barked terrifically" (Hammett).
 To convey certainty or probability through modal words like may be, probably,
presumably, I suppose, I guess, I am sure, etc. For instance, "My professional
problem, of course, remained" (Kneale).
 To create narrative layers, blending the perspectives or voices of different
characters or narrators, a technique M.M. Bakhtin described as "polyphony":
Example: "He was struck by the thought (what devil’s whisper? – what evil hint of an
evil spirit?) – supposing that he and Roberta – no, say he and Sondra – (no, Sondra
could swim so well, and so could he) – he and Roberta were in a small boat
somewhere and it should capsize at the very time, say, of this dreadful complication
which was so harassing him? What an escape! What a relief from a gigantic and by
now really destroying problem! On the other hand – hold – not so fast! – for could a
man even think of such a solution in connection with so difficult a problem as this
without committing a crime in his heart, really – a horrible, terrible crime?" (Dreiser).
This layering allows the narrative to reflect the inner conflict and shifting perspectives
of the character.
 the violation of word order: stylistic inversion, detachment.
The predominance of the S–P–O word order in English makes any change in sentence
structure noticeable, with the initial and final positions being the most emphasized.
This standard order may be altered in two ways: complete inversion, where the
predicate (or predicative) precedes the subject (e.g., "Rude am I in my speech"
(Shakespeare); "A good generous prayer it was" (Mark Twain)); and partial
inversion, where an object or adverbial modifier appears before the subject-predicate
pair (e.g., "Talent Mr. Micawber has; capital Mr. Micawber has not" (Dickens)).
Scholars classify these as complete and partial inversion.
Stylistic inversion should not be confused with grammatical inversion, which occurs
as a rule in interrogative sentences. Stylistic inversion aims to add logical emphasis or
convey an additional emotional tone to the statement.
Separation (or syntactical split) involves breaking apart syntactical units that
traditionally follow a set component order. Very often it concerns a noun phrase
comprising the attributive prepositional adjunct, which may be removed from the
word it modifies. Separation can take two forms:
o the split within a structure that maintains direct word order: e.g., "He had
never seen the truth before, about anything" (Warren).
o the split of the components in the structure with inversion: e.g., "Of his own
class he saw nothing" (London), where the attributive adjunct precedes the S-P
group.
One reason for syntactical split is the inclusion of parenthetic elements—words or
phrases that reflect the speaker’s attitude toward the topic, as in: "He was a big, bony
man of perhaps sixty with harshly lined features" (Cronin).
Stylistically, a syntactical split serves to highlight the separated phrase for emphasis.
Detachment is a stylistic technique that isolates a secondary part of a sentence using
punctuation and intonation for emphasis. This device can involve various structural
patterns, allowing almost any secondary sentence element to be detached; however,
detached attributes are particularly noticeable.
For example: "Daylight was dying, the moon rising, gold behind the poplars"
(Galsworthy). Compare this to: "Daylight was dying, the gold moon rising behind the
poplars."
The key feature of detachment is that the separated parts function as semi-independent
units within the sentence, giving the impression of an independent, standalone phrase
or word. This isolation causes the detached element to stand out in contrast to the rest
of the sentence, emphasizing it as especially significant.
Detachment is similar to inversion (some scholars even consider it a form of
inversion) with overlapping functions, though it has a more pronounced impact by
presenting key parts of the sentence as independently important from the author’s
perspective.
3. Syntactical stylistic devices based on:
 the interaction of syntactical constructions: parallelism, chiasmus,
anaphora, epiphora;
The stylistic device of parallelism occurs when sentence structures are regularly
repeated or follow a specific pattern, making them noticeable and stylistically
effective. This involves similar syntactical structures across successive sentences,
often referred to as parallel constructions. Essentially, parallelism resembles
repetition, but it is focused on repeating sentence structures rather than specific
words. For example: "The cock is crowing, / The stream is flowing" (Wordsworth).
Parallel constructions may also be reinforced by the repetition of words, conjunctions,
or prepositions (polysyndeton). They can be categorized as complete, incomplete, or
partial. Complete parallelism (also called balance) occurs when the syntactical
structure in one sentence is identical to that in the next, as in: "Farewell to the forests
and wild hanging woods, / Farewell to the torrents and loud-pouring floods" (Burns).
Incomplete parallelism omits some elements in the parallel structure to avoid
redundancy, often creating an ellipsis, such as: "If we are Frenchmen we adore our
mother; if Englishmen we love dogs and virtue" (Jerome).
Partial parallelism appears when only the beginning or end of neighboring sentences
shares a similar structure, for example: "The windows had been painted and the door.
The bicycle shed had been tidied so that you wouldn’t recognize it. The classrooms
had been polished till they gleamed" (Binchy).
In literature, parallelism primarily serves to enhance communication and emotional
impact. This device also introduces rhythm to the text, making it a common feature in
poetry.
A unique form of parallelism known as chiasmus involves a "crossing" structure,
derived from the Greek letter χ (Chi). In chiasmus, the second part of the sentence
inverts the order of the first part, such as in: "He sat and watched me, I sat and
watched him" (Hammett). This technique draws emphasis to the latter part of the
phrase, adding variation and breaking up the rhythm of conventional parallelism.
According to I.R. Galperin, chiasmus is strictly syntactical, relying solely on the
arrangement of sentence parts rather than specific words: "Down dropped the breeze,
the sails dropped down" (Coleridge). However, if the arrangement remains consistent
and only the words themselves are reversed, it’s considered lexical chiasmus: "In the
days of old men made the manners; manners now make men" (Byron).
Chiasmus often appears in titles of articles and books, such as Roman Jakobson’s
essay titled The Poetry of Grammar and the Grammar of Poetry, and can lend itself to
wordplay in expressions: "Soldiers face powder, girls powder faces" or "A handsome
man kisses misses, an ugly one misses kisses."
Anaphora is another syntactical device, characterized by the repetition of initial
elements across consecutive sentences or lines, as in: "My heart’s in the Highlands,
my heart is not here, / My heart’s in the Highlands, a-chasing the deer" (Burns).
Its counterpart, epiphora, is the recurrence of elements at the end of each unit: "If he
wishes to float into fairyland, he reads a book; if he wishes to dash into the thick of
battle, he reads a book; if he wishes to soar into heaven, he reads a book"
(Chesterton).
Both anaphora and epiphora enhance memory retention by repeating key segments,
establish rhythm, and can make prose feel poetic. Epiphora, in particular, also
emphasizes the non-repeating parts, making them stand out due to their novelty.
 the transposition of syntactical meaning in context: rhetorical
questions;
Grammatical structures, specifically syntactical forms, are sometimes applied outside
their typical functions due to semantic transposition, allowing them to convey
meanings they don’t usually express. For example, the concepts of affirmation,
negation, and interrogation in sentences can sometimes interchange and substitute for
one another. Such functional shifts, or "deviations," are significant for their stylistic
impact.
One prominent example is the rhetorical question, which conveys a strong negation
or affirmation rather than genuinely seeking an answer. As described by Professor
Popov, a rhetorical question is essentially a firm statement combined with emphasis.
In O. Henry's Hearts and Crosses, a character exclaims, "Don’t I remember!"—a
forceful way of saying, "I do remember!" Here, the interrogative form intensifies the
intended affirmation more than a straightforward statement would.
Negation can also be expressed through questions, as seen in: "What’s the good of a
man behind a bit of glass? ... What use is he there and what’s the good of their
banks?" (Jerome). These questions imply negation: There’s no good... There’s no
use...
Rhetorical questions frequently appear in modern literature to reflect a character's
inner turmoil, thoughts, or reflections, as in Agatha Christie’s, "And then, like a
douche of cold water, came the horrible thought, was she right?" Such questions are
also essential in oratory, where they effectively underscore the speaker's points.
Analyzing rhetorical questions reveals that they serve multiple purposes beyond
conveying basic affirmation or negation. They can add modal nuances such as doubt,
challenge, irony, or scorn. For instance, in Binchy’s dialogue, “But scutting apart they
were good children, weren’t they? They’d do the school and Shanearing credit when
the Bishop came, wouldn’t they?” rhetorical questions add a layer of irony and scorn,
emphasizing the speaker’s attitude.
 the transposition of types and forms of connection: parcellation.
Sentence structures featuring adjusted connections have a distinct expressiveness,
giving them stylistic value.
Parcellation is the intentional division of a sentence into two or more isolated parts,
each separated by a pause and a period. For instance: “It angered him finally. With a
curious sort of anger” (Gilford).
In parcellation, one sentence is split into multiple communicative segments or
phrases. The primary phrase, containing the main part of the message, is called the
basic segment; any additional phrase with dependent content is the parcellate.
Despite this separation, strong semantic and grammatical ties remain between the
segments, allowing the original sentence to be easily reassembled: It angered him
finally with a curious sort of anger.
The parcellated portion acts as an afterthought and can sometimes be connected to the
main phrase through coordinating conjunctions like and, or, or but, or remain
separate. For example: "Then the pain began. Slow. Deliberate. Methodical. And
professional" (Robinson).
As a stylistic technique, parcellation draws from the natural flow of spoken language,
so it is especially common in dialogue, reported speech, and first-person narrative,
often reflecting the voice of a character. Example: "I got a small apartment over the
place. And, well, sometimes I stay over. In the apartment. Like the last few nights"
(Uhnak).
Parcellation creates a distinct rhythm, giving the prose a sense of immediacy and
drawing the reader into the situation, thereby enhancing emotional impact.

PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT
1. Find syntactical EMs and SDs used. Explain their stylistic
functions in the given context:
1) “We hadn’t read anything private really,” begged Nuala, who was younger
and more frightened. Frightened she had reason to be.
 Syntactical EM: Stylistic inversion ("Frightened she had reason to be")
 Stylistic function: The inversion emphasizes Nuala’s emotional state,
highlighting her fear. By placing “frightened” at the beginning, the sentence
conveys her fear more vividly, adding intensity to her response.
2) “Oh I hate small men and I will write about them no more but in passing I
would like to say that’s what my brother Richard is: small. He has small
hands, small feet, a small waist, small children, a small wife, and when he
comes to our cocktail parties he sits in a small chair. If you pick up a book
of his, you will find his name, ‘Richard Norton,’ on the flyleaf in his very
small handwriting. He emanates, in my opinion, a disgusting aura of
smallness.”
 Syntactical EMs: Repetition and enumeration ("small hands, small feet, a
small waist, small children, a small wife...")
 Stylistic function: The repetition of “small” and enumeration emphasize the
narrator's contempt for Richard’s “smallness” in all aspects, both literal and
figurative. This creates a humorous and satirical tone, intensifying the
narrator’s disdain.
3) “I wanted to knock over the table and hit him until my arm had no more
strength in it, then give him the boot, give him the boot, give him the boot –
I drew a deep breath.”
 Syntactical EMs: Successive repetition, asyndeton ("give him the boot, give
him the boot, give him the boot")
 Stylistic function: The repetition of “give him the boot” highlights the
speaker’s intense anger and desire for physical retaliation. The lack of
conjunctions (asyndeton) accelerates the pace, reflecting the speaker’s
impulsive fury.
4) “Of her father’s being groundlessly suspected, she felt sure. Sure. Sure.”
 Syntactical EMs: Ellipsis (omission of additional explanatory words),
repetition ("Sure. Sure.")
 Stylistic function: The repetition of “sure” reinforces her unwavering
confidence in her father’s innocence. The fragmented structure mirrors her
inner resolve and leaves no room for doubt, thus strengthening the declarative
tone.
5) “Failure meant poverty, poverty meant squalor, squalor led, in the final
stages, to the smells of stagnation of B. Inn Alley.”
 Syntactical EMs: * Parallelism, linking repetition (each phrase is linked to the
next)
 Stylistic function: The chain of parallel constructions intensifies the sense of
inevitability in the descent from failure to squalor. Each step is linked as though
one outcome inescapably leads to the next, reinforcing a sense of doom and
futility.
6) “Living is the art of loving. Loving is the art of caring. Caring is the art of
sharing. Sharing is the art of living.”
 Syntactical EMs: Chain repetition (parallelism, chiasmus) (circular structure
where the final line repeats the first)
 Stylistic function: The parallelism and circular structure emphasize the
interconnectedness of living, loving, caring, and sharing. This creates a
harmonious, almost poetic rhythm, reflecting a philosophical meditation on the
nature of life and relationships.
7) “I notice that father’s is a large hand, but never a heavy one when it
touches me, and that father’s is a rough voice but never an angry one when
it speaks to me.”
 Syntactical EM: Parallelism, ellipsis
 Stylistic function: The parallel structure emphasizes the contrasting qualities
of the father’s hands and voice, highlighting his dual nature: strong yet gentle.
The ellipsis omits repeated words (e.g., "hand" and "voice" in the second
clause), enhancing readability and rhythm while drawing focus to the
descriptive adjectives.
8) “I have been accused of bad taste. This has disturbed me not so much for
my own sake (since I am used to the slights and arrows of outrageous
fortune) as for the sake of criticism in general.”
 Syntactical EMs: Parenthetical clause, inversion
 Stylistic function: The parenthetical clause provides background on the
speaker’s tolerance for criticism, adding depth to his perspective. The inversion
of “not so much for my own sake” places emphasis on “not,” underscoring the
speaker's resilience and the more significant issue: criticism's effect on his
profession.
9) “<…> she could be seen by those few who cared to look, wearing a long
black skirt with a dusty appearance, a T-shirt of a slightly different shade
 of black – it had been washed fifty times at least – and a waistcoat in dark
striped cotton.”
 Syntactical EMs: Enumeration, parenthetical clause
 Stylistic function: The enumeration of clothing items builds a detailed visual
of the character, while the parenthetical clause (“it had been washed fifty times
at least”) adds a layer of informality and realism, suggesting a life of routine or
hardship. Together, these devices enrich the reader’s image of the character’s
appearance.
10) “I understood him (who wouldn’t?), but I suspected his motives.”
 Syntactical EMs: Parenthetical clause, rhetorical question
 Stylistic function: The rhetorical question within the parenthesis invites the
reader to share in the speaker's understanding while hinting at skepticism. This
device highlights the speaker’s ambivalence, enhancing the complexity of the
relationship.
11) “He looked at her and suddenly she saw that he did like her.”
 Syntactical EM: Emphatic construction
 Stylistic function: The use of “did like” instead of “liked” is an emphatic
construction, emphasizing the speaker’s realization and surprise. This
construction adds emotional weight, marking a shift in the character’s
perception.
12) “Still, it was Vera’s decision. It was after all she who had bought the house,
and filled it with valuable things. It was Vera who made the day-to-day
decisions about how they spent the money which was mainly her money.”
 Syntactical EMs: * Repetition, anaphora, emphatic construction
 Stylistic function: The repetition of “It was Vera” and “it was after all she”
emphasizes her authority and responsibility, reinforcing her influence and the
control she wields in her household. This structure underscores her
independence and sense of ownership, giving the reader insight into her
character.
 Repetition: The phrase "It was Vera" is repeated twice, creating emphasis on
Vera's role and reinforcing her authority in the context.
 Anaphora: This is the repetition of the beginning phrase "It was" at the start of
consecutive clauses ("It was Vera’s decision" and "It was Vera who made...").
 This repeated structure draws focus to Vera's actions and decisions,
emphasizing her importance in the narrative.
 Emphatic Construction: The phrase “it was after all she who had bought the
house” is an emphatic structure that stresses Vera’s primary role. The use of “it
was she who...” adds weight, suggesting a stronger claim or sense of
responsibility than a simpler structure would (e.g., "she bought the house").
13. "They sat in supportive silence <…> as they watched their schoolfriend Maura,
pregnant and happy, marry Gerry O’Sullivan, small, handsome, with one best man but
no other friend or family in the church" (M. Binchy)
 Enumeration: The listing of adjectives for both Maura ("pregnant and happy")
and Gerry ("small, handsome") provides vivid detail that highlights their
physical and emotional states.
 Parcellation: The phrase "with one best man but no other friend or family in
the church" is separated to add an afterthought, emphasizing Gerry’s solitude at
the wedding.
 Emphatic Construction: The structure stresses "no other friend or family,"
focusing on the isolation of the groom.
Function: These elements create a solemn atmosphere and subtly underline the
bittersweet nature of the event.

14. "Women are not made for attack. Wait they must" (J. Conrad)
 Stylistic Inversion: The inversion "Wait they must" places emphasis on the
necessity of waiting, rather than following the standard word order "They must
wait."
Function: The inversion adds formality and emphasis, highlighting patience as a
defining trait for the women described.

15. "Michael dropped things sometimes. His mother’s china he never touched" (M.
Binchy)
 Inversion: "His mother’s china he never touched" deviates from typical order
to emphasize the importance of the china and Michael's carefulness with it.
Function: This inversion highlights the value Michael places on his mother's
possessions, suggesting respect and care.
16. "Malay camp. A row of streets crossing another row of streets. Mostly narrow
streets. Mostly dirty streets. Mostly dark streets" (P. Abrahams)
 Ellipsis: The sentence omits verbs, creating fragmentary statements ("Mostly
narrow streets. Mostly dirty streets") to focus on the qualities of the streets.
 Repetition: "Mostly" is repeated at the beginning of each fragment.
 Anaphora: The repetition of "Mostly" at the start of each phrase serves as an
anaphoric device.
Function: These features evoke a sense of monotony and bleakness, emphasizing the
uniform and dreary character of the camp.

17. "Gray, grimy, vital Leeds, great industrial city of the north, the seat of Emma’s
power and his grandfather’s and David Kallinski’s family" (B.T. Bradford)
 Enumeration: A list of descriptive adjectives and phrases emphasizes different
aspects of Leeds.
 Detachment: The description "great industrial city of the north" is set apart,
almost parenthetically, to provide additional detail about Leeds.
Function: These devices build an intricate portrayal of the city, highlighting its
significance and industrial strength.

18. "His forehead was narrow, his face wide, his head large, and his nose all on one
side" (Ch. Dickens)
 Parallelism: The sentence structure repeats ("his forehead was narrow, his face
wide"), creating rhythm.
 Enumeration: Listing physical features emphasizes the unusual and comic
appearance of the character.
Function: These devices emphasize the distinct, exaggerated appearance of the
character in a humorous, memorable way.

19. "I’m a horse doctor, animal man. Do some farming, too. Near Tulip, Texas" (T.
Capote)
  Ellipsis: The sentence fragments omit subjects and verbs ("Do some farming,
too") to create a conversational, casual tone.
 Nominative Sentences: "Near Tulip, Texas" functions as a stand-alone
nominative element, adding locational context succinctly.
Function: The terse structure conveys a laid-back, colloquial feel that aligns with the
speaker’s rural lifestyle.

20. "This is a story how a Baggins had an adventure. He may have lost the
neighbours’ respect, but he gained – well, you will see whether he gained anything in
the end" (A. Tolkien)
 Aposiopesis: The dash before "well" indicates an interruption in thought,
building suspense and anticipation.
 Parenthetical Clause: "well" serves as a parenthetical element, breaking the
flow to add an informal comment.
 Repetition: The word "gained" repeats, drawing attention to the potential
positive outcome of the adventure.
Function: These devices create a conversational tone, engage the reader's curiosity,
and build suspense regarding the story’s conclusion.
29. "Де ж тії пестощі вітру летючого,
Де ж тії квітоньки гаю пахучого,
Де ж тії ночі сріблясто-блакитні,
Де ж тії ранки рожеві, привітні,
Де ж тії усміхи сонця блискучого?!" (О. Олесь)
 Anaphora: Repetition of "Де ж тії" at the beginning of each line.
 Epiphora: Repetition of "блискучого" at the end.
 Repetition: Continuous use of "Де ж тії" emphasizes the longing for these
idealized images.
Function: The anaphora and repetition emphasize the sense of nostalgia and
yearning, as the speaker questions the absence of these beautiful, cherished elements
of nature.

30. "З вікон вагона видно степ, пробуджений весною" (Ю. Яновський)
  Inversion: "З вікон вагона видно степ" places emphasis on the scene
observed from the train window.
 Parenthetical Clause: "пробуджений весною" acts as an additional
descriptive element, enriching the scene.
Function: The inversion draws attention to the visual experience of observing the
landscape, evoking the freshness of spring.

31. "Марта ревнувала Антона. Вперто, затаєно, сильно" (М. Коцюбинський)

 Ellipsis: The sentence is reduced, omitting the subject in the second phrase.
 Enumeration: "Вперто, затаєно, сильно" describes the intensity of Marta's
jealousy in a succinct, impactful list.
Function: Ellipsis and enumeration create a concise and powerful image of Marta’s
feelings, emphasizing the depth of her emotions.

32. "Вони реготали, мов діти. Вона — тонко і дзвінко, як молода дівчина. Він —
грубіше, передчасним баском двадцятилітнього парубка" (М. Коцюбинський)
 Ellipsis: Omission of repeated phrases for brevity ("Вона — … Він — …").
 Parcellation: The characteristics of each laugh are separated, highlighting each
person's unique quality.
Function: Parcellation and ellipsis enhance the contrast between the characters,
vividly illustrating their distinct personalities and dynamics.

33. "Світає, край неба палає,

Соловейко в темнім гаї сонце зустрічає" (Т. Шевченко)
 Parallelism: The structure of the two lines mirrors each other.
 Asyndeton: The lines are joined without conjunctions, giving a fluid and
flowing rhythm.
Function: The parallelism and asyndeton evoke a harmonious and serene dawn,
capturing the beauty of the natural scene.

34. "Наорано, насіяно, та нікому жати" (нар. творчість)

  Ellipsis: The phrase omits the subjects, focusing on actions.
 Parallelism: Repeated structure in the initial words "Наорано, насіяно."
Function: The ellipsis and parallelism emphasize the futility of work when no one is
there to reap its rewards, creating a sense of melancholy.

35. "Ніч темна і тиха була

Я стояла, мій друже з тобою.
Я дивилась на тебе з журбою,
Ніч темна і тиха була." (Л. Українка)
 Repetition: "Ніч темна і тиха була" repeats at the beginning and end.
 Parallelism: Structural repetition in "Я стояла… Я дивилась…"
Function: The repetition frames the memory, creating a contemplative, circular
structure that highlights the poignancy of the scene.

36. "Хтось ударив без жалю по серці моїм, —

І забилося серце в вогні золотім...
І посипались іскри ясні,
І в дзвінкі обернулись пісні" (О. Олесь)
 Anaphora: "І" at the beginning of lines 2, 3, and 4 emphasizes the sequence of
events.
 Parcellation: Each line presents a new, vivid image, contributing to a gradual
unfolding of emotions.
 Inversion: “По серці моїм” places focus on the heart as the recipient of the
action.
Function: These devices build intensity, creating a dynamic, emotional progression
that illustrates the transformation of pain into creativity and beauty.