Environmental Biotechnology- EC-2 Question Bank Answers

Planetary Boundaries & Environmental Engineering Role:

 Boundaries: Climate change, biodiversity loss, biogeochemical cycles (nitrogen,
phosphorus), land-system change, ocean acidification, freshwater use, ozone
depletion, aerosol loading, novel entities.
 Engineering Role: Design sustainable systems (water management, pollution
control, waste recycling), reduce CO₂ emissions, advocate renewable energy, and
develop eco-friendly materials.

2. Cellular Interactions in Microbial and Animal World:

 Types: Symbiosis (mutualism, commensalism, parasitism), quorum sensing,
biofilms.
 Example: Ruminants (cows) rely on gut microbes to break down cellulose,
providing nutrients to the cow, while microbes receive a stable environment and
constant food supply.

3. Pesticide Accumulation & Concerns:

 Bioaccumulation: Fat-soluble pesticides accumulate in fatty tissues because they
are not easily metabolized or excreted.
 Concerns: Leads to biomagnification, posing risks to higher animals and humans,
causing toxicity, reproductive issues, and ecosystem imbalances.

4. Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes & Cellular Organelles:

 Prokaryotes: No nucleus, smaller, no organelles (e.g., bacteria).
 Eukaryotes: Nucleus, organelles (e.g., animals, plants).
 Key Organelles:
o Nucleus: Stores DNA.
o Mitochondria: ATP production.
o Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.
 Central Dogma: DNA → RNA → Protein.

5. Classification of Microorganisms Based on Growth Conditions:

 Thermophiles: High temperature.
 Psychrophiles: Cold conditions.
 Acidophiles: Acidic environments.
 Alkaliphiles: Alkaline conditions.
 Halophiles: High salt.
 Aerobes: Require oxygen.
 Anaerobes: No oxygen.

6. Pathways of Cellular Metabolism for ATP Generation:

 Glycolysis: 2 ATP.
 Krebs Cycle: 2 ATP.
 Electron Transport Chain (ETC): 32-34 ATP in aerobic conditions.

7. Conservation of Mass & Energy in Microbial Growth:

 Mass: Consumed nutrients are converted into biomass and byproducts.
 Energy: Metabolism converts substrate energy into ATP, adhering to the law of
energy conservation.

8. Metabolism & Energy Transaction:

 Environmental Biotechnology- EC-2 Question Bank Answers

 Metabolism: Sum of all chemical reactions (catabolism + anabolism).

 Energy Transaction: Catabolic reactions release energy stored as ATP, used in
anabolic processes.

9. ATP Generation in Electron Transport Chain:

 Process: Electrons pass through the chain, creating a proton gradient that drives
ATP synthase.
 Yield: Aerobic respiration generates 36-38 ATP (2 from glycolysis, 2 from Krebs,
32-34 from ETC).
 Justification: Energy from NADH and FADH₂ is efficiently converted into ATP.

10. Shift from Aerobic Oxidation to Anaerobic Fermentation:

 Reason: Without oxygen, cells cannot run the electron transport chain, so they
switch to fermentation to regenerate NAD⁺ for glycolysis, allowing continued ATP
production (albeit less efficiently).

11. Differences Between Anaerobic, Anoxic, and Hypoxic Conditions:

 Anaerobic: No oxygen.
 Anoxic: Extremely low oxygen.
 Hypoxic: Lower than normal oxygen levels, but not completely absent.

12. Short Notes:

 Biomagnification: Increase in toxin concentration up the food chain.
 Bioaugmentation: Adding microbes to enhance pollutant breakdown.
 Biostimulation: Stimulating microbial activity by adding nutrients.
 Bioremediation: Using organisms to degrade environmental contaminants.

13. Basic Mechanisms of Bioremediation:

 Microbial Degradation: Microbes break down pollutants.
 Phytoremediation: Plants absorb contaminants.
 Mycoremediation: Fungi degrade toxins.

14. Difference Between Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative Cells:

 Gram-Positive: Thick peptidoglycan, stains purple, no outer membrane.
 Gram-Negative: Thin peptidoglycan, stains pink, has outer membrane with
lipopolysaccharides.

15. Ozone Formation and Degradation in the Stratosphere:

 Formation: UV rays split O₂ into O atoms, which combine with O₂ to form O₃.
 Degradation: UV or chemicals like CFCs break O₃ back into O₂ and O.

16. Components of Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, and Lithosphere:

 Atmosphere: Gases (N₂, O₂, CO₂).
 Hydrosphere: Water bodies (oceans, lakes, rivers).
 Lithosphere: Earth’s crust, soil, rocks.

17. Role of Biotechnology in Environmental Remediation:

 Applications: Bioremediation using engineered microbes, genetic engineering for
pollutant breakdown, phytoremediation, and water purification techniques.
 Environmental Biotechnology- EC-2 Question Bank Answers

18. Clean Technologies in Environmental Biotechnology:

 Definition: Technologies that minimize environmental impact, including biofuels,
waste recycling, pollution control, and sustainable production processes.

1. Classification of Microbes Based on Growth Conditions:

 Temperature:
o Psychrophiles: Thrive in cold (<15°C).
o Mesophiles: Moderate (20-45°C).
o Thermophiles: Heat-loving (>45°C).
 Oxygen Requirements:
o Aerobes: Require oxygen.
o Anaerobes: Grow without oxygen.
o Facultative Anaerobes: Can utilize oxygen or grow anaerobically.
 pH:
o Acidophiles: Prefer acidic conditions (pH < 6).
o Alkaliphiles: Prefer alkaline conditions (pH > 8).
 Salinity:
o Halophiles: Thrive in high salt concentrations.
2. Distinction Between Biomarkers and Bioindicators:
 Biomarkers: Specific biological molecules or responses used to indicate exposure
to environmental contaminants or biological states (e.g., proteins, metabolites).
 Bioindicators: Organisms or biological responses used to assess the health of an
ecosystem or the level of pollution (e.g., lichen sensitivity to air quality).
3. Notes on Bioaugmentation, Bioaccumulation, and Biostimulation:
 Bioaugmentation:
o Definition: Addition of specific microbial strains to enhance degradation of
pollutants.
o Example: Introducing oil-degrading bacteria in oil spill remediation.
 Bioaccumulation:
o Definition: Accumulation of substances, such as toxins, in an organism over
time.
o Example: Heavy metals in fish tissues, leading to biomagnification in
predators.
 Biostimulation:
o Definition: Addition of nutrients to stimulate existing microbial
populations for biodegradation.
o Example: Adding nitrogen and phosphorus to enhance microbial
degradation of hydrocarbons.
4. In-Situ Bioremediation with a Case Study:
 Definition: Treatment of contaminated soil or water directly at the site of
contamination, using natural or enhanced microbial processes.
 Case Study: The cleanup of the Exxon Valdez oil spill involved in-situ
bioremediation, where nutrients were added to stimulate native microbial
populations to degrade the spilled oil in affected marine environments.
5. Carcinogenicity of PAHs:
 Explanation: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) are known to be
carcinogenic, and their carcinogenic potential increases with the number of
aromatic rings. More complex PAH structures can lead to greater DNA
interaction and adduct formation, resulting in increased mutation rates.
6. Biomarkers and Their Types:
 Environmental Biotechnology- EC-2 Question Bank Answers

 Definition: Biomarkers are biological indicators used to measure the effects of

exposure to environmental agents or to assess disease states.
 Types:
o Biochemical Markers: Molecules indicating biochemical processes (e.g.,
enzymes).
o Genetic Markers: Variations in DNA associated with a specific disease.
o Physiological Markers: Observable traits or conditions (e.g., blood
pressure).
7. Bacterial and Fungal Metabolism for PAH:
 Bacterial Metabolism: Many bacteria can metabolize PAHs through enzymatic
pathways, utilizing oxygen for aerobic degradation or using anaerobic pathways
in oxygen-limited environments.
 Fungal Metabolism: Fungi can degrade PAHs via oxidative pathways, producing
enzymes like laccases and peroxidases that facilitate the breakdown of complex
aromatic structures.
8. Techniques for Sampling Gaseous and Particulate Air Pollutants:
 Gaseous Pollutants:
o Passive Sampling: Uses diffusion tubes to collect gases over time.
o Active Sampling: Employs pumps to draw air through sorbent tubes for
specific gases.
 Particulate Pollutants:
o Filtration: Air is drawn through filters that capture particulate matter
(PM10, PM2.5).
o Cascade Impactors: Separate particles by size through stages of impaction.
9. Working Principle of Air Pollution Control Devices:
 Electrostatic Precipitator: Uses electric charges to remove particles from flue
gases. Particles are charged and attracted to oppositely charged plates, removing
them from the gas stream.
 Cyclone Separator: Utilizes centrifugal force to separate particles from gas. Gas
enters tangentially, creating a vortex that forces larger particles to the wall, where
they fall into a collection hopper.
 Venturi Scrubber: Utilizes a narrowing pipe to create a vacuum, pulling in
scrubbing liquid that captures pollutants. The gas and liquid mixture is then
separated, and pollutants are collected.
 Environmental Biotechnology- EC-2 Question Bank Answers

Previous Year Question Paper

Q.1. What are the different microbial classification systems based on evolution, cell structure
and growth conditions? [8]

Microbial Classification Systems:

1. Based on Evolution (Phylogenetic Classification):
o Three-Domain System:
 Bacteria: Prokaryotic microorganisms, found in various environments.
 Archaea: Prokaryotic, distinct from bacteria in genetic and biochemical
properties, often found in extreme environments.
 Eukarya: Eukaryotic organisms including plants, animals, fungi, and
protists.
o Five-Kingdom Classification:
 Monera: Prokaryotes (Bacteria and Archaea).
 Protista: Unicellular eukaryotes (protozoa, algae).
 Fungi: Eukaryotic organisms (yeasts, molds).
 Plantae: Photosynthetic eukaryotes (plants).
 Animalia: Multicellular eukaryotic organisms (animals).
2. Based on Cell Structure:
o Prokaryotes:
 No nucleus, no membrane-bound organelles.
 Example: Bacteria, Archaea.
o Eukaryotes:
 Contain a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
 Example: Algae, Fungi, Protozoa.
o Gram-Positive vs. Gram-Negative Bacteria (based on cell wall structure):
 Gram-Positive: Thick peptidoglycan layer, stains purple.
 Gram-Negative: Thin peptidoglycan layer, outer membrane, stains
pink.
3. Based on Growth Conditions:
o Temperature:
 Psychrophiles: Cold-loving microbes (below 15°C).
 Mesophiles: Moderate temperature (20-45°C).
 Thermophiles: Heat-loving microbes (above 45°C).
 Hyperthermophiles: Extreme heat (above 80°C).
o Oxygen Requirements:
 Aerobes: Require oxygen.
 Anaerobes: Grow without oxygen.
 Facultative Anaerobes: Can grow with or without oxygen.
o pH:
 Acidophiles: Grow in acidic conditions (pH < 6).
 Alkaliphiles: Grow in alkaline conditions (pH > 8).
o Salinity:
 Halophiles: Salt-loving microbes, found in high-salt environments.
o Pressure:
 Barophiles: Thrive under high pressure (deep-sea environments).
These classification systems provide a framework to understand microbial diversity,
adaptation, and ecological roles.
 Environmental Biotechnology- EC-2 Question Bank Answers

Q.2. Explain anabolism and catabolism. How is energy transacted among these processes?
Explain the reason for the shift in metabolism to fermentation under anaerobic
conditions.
[2+ 2+
3=7]

Anabolism and Catabolism:

1. Anabolism:
o Definition: The set of metabolic pathways that construct molecules from
smaller units. It requires energy input.
o Functions: Synthesis of complex molecules like proteins, nucleic acids, and
polysaccharides from simpler ones.
o Examples:
 Protein synthesis from amino acids.
 DNA replication.
2. Catabolism:
o Definition: The set of metabolic pathways that break down molecules into
smaller units, releasing energy.
o Functions: Degradation of complex molecules to generate energy and basic
building blocks for anabolic processes.
o Examples:
 Glycolysis (glucose breakdown into pyruvate).
 Krebs cycle (further breakdown of acetyl-CoA).
Energy Transaction:
 ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the primary energy carrier in cells.
o Catabolic Processes: Generate ATP by breaking down substrates (e.g.,
glucose), releasing energy stored in chemical bonds.
o Anabolic Processes: Use ATP to drive the synthesis of complex molecules,
requiring energy input from the breakdown of ATP into ADP (Adenosine
Diphosphate) and inorganic phosphate.
Shift to Fermentation Under Anaerobic Conditions:
 Reason for Shift: In the absence of oxygen, cells cannot utilize the electron transport
chain, which is essential for aerobic respiration and efficient ATP production.
 Anaerobic Fermentation:
o Process: Glycolysis occurs to generate a small amount of ATP (2 ATP per
glucose). The resulting pyruvate is then converted into lactic acid (in animals)
or ethanol and carbon dioxide (in yeast) to regenerate NAD⁺.
o Importance: This regeneration of NAD⁺ allows glycolysis to continue,
providing a minimal ATP yield without oxygen. Thus, fermentation allows
cells to maintain some level of energy production even in anaerobic
environments.
 Environmental Biotechnology- EC-2 Question Bank Answers

Q.3. What are the different techniques commonly used for biomass measurement? How can
you quantify and differentiate live and dead cells? [8]

Q.4. Discuss briefly the mechanism of energy generation (ATP synthesis) in an eukaryotic
cell.

Mechanism of Energy Generation (ATP Synthesis) in Eukaryotic Cells:

1. Glycolysis:
o Location: Cytoplasm.
o Process: Glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate.
o ATP Yield: 2 ATP molecules are produced (net gain) and 2 NADH molecules
are generated.
2. Pyruvate Oxidation:
o Location: Mitochondrial matrix.
o Process: Each pyruvate is converted into acetyl-CoA, producing CO₂ and
reducing NAD⁺ to NADH.
o ATP Yield: No ATP is produced directly here.
3. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle):
o Location: Mitochondrial matrix.
o Process: Acetyl-CoA enters the cycle, undergoing a series of reactions that
release CO₂ and generate electron carriers.
o ATP Yield: 2 ATP (via substrate-level phosphorylation) per glucose molecule,
along with 6 NADH and 2 FADH₂.
4. Electron Transport Chain (ETC):
o Location: Inner mitochondrial membrane.
o Process:
 NADH and FADH₂ donate electrons to the ETC.
 Electrons pass through a series of protein complexes (Complexes I-IV),
leading to the pumping of protons (H⁺) from the mitochondrial matrix
into the intermembrane space, creating a proton gradient.
o Chemiosmosis: Protons flow back into the matrix through ATP synthase
(Complex V), driving the conversion of ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) into
ATP.
5. Oxygen as Final Electron Acceptor:
o Oxygen combines with electrons and protons to form water, allowing the ETC
to continue functioning.
ATP Yield:
 Total ATP from Glucose: Approximately 36-38 ATP molecules can be generated per
glucose molecule when considering glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and the ETC.
 Efficiency: This method of ATP production is highly efficient, making use of the
energy stored in chemical bonds through a combination of substrate-level
phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation.
This multi-step process illustrates the sophisticated mechanism of energy generation in
eukaryotic cells, emphasizing the importance of mitochondria as the powerhouse of the cell.

[7]