Edexcel International A Level Biology: Immunity

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Edexcel International A Level Your notes

Biology
Immunity
Contents
6.6 Tuberculosis & HIV
6.7 Pathogens: Routes of Entry
6.8 Non-Specific Immune Responses
6.9 Specific Immune Responses
6.10 Lymphocytes: Types & Roles
6.11 Developing Immunity
6.12 Pathogens vs Hosts: An Evolutionary Race
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6.6 Tuberculosis & HIV

Your notes
Tuberculosis
A disease is an illness or disorder of the body or mind that leads to poor health
Each disease is associated with a set of signs and symptoms
Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens and are transmissible, meaning that they can be spread
between individuals within a population
Pathogens may include certain species of bacteria, some fungi and all viruses
Note that not all viruses are pathogenic to humans!
An example of a pathogen is the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis which causes the
disease tuberculosis, also known as TB
Transmission of TB
When infected people with the active form of TB cough or sneeze, the Mycobacterium
tuberculosis bacteria enter the air in tiny droplets of liquid released from the lungs
TB is transmitted when uninfected people inhale these droplets
TB spreads more quickly among people living in overcrowded conditions
Once inside the lungs, TB bacteria are engulfed by phagocytes
The bacteria may be able to survive and reproduce while inside phagocytes
Individuals with a healthy immune system will not develop TB at this stage
This is known as the primary infection
Over time the infected phagocytes will become encased in structures called tubercles in the lungs
where the bacteria will remain dormant
It is possible for the bacteria to become activated and overpower the immune system at a later stage,
such as during an HIV infection when the immune system is compromised; the person will
then develop TB
This is known as the active phase of TB
The length of time between infection and developing the disease can vary from a few weeks to a
few years
The first symptoms of TB will include developing a fever, fatigue, coughing and lung inflammation
If left untreated the bacteria will cause extensive damage to the lungs which can result in death due
to respiratory failure
TB may also spread to other parts of the body where it can lead to organ failure if not treated promptly
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HIV
Transmission of HIV Your notes
HIV is the human immunodeficiency virus
Be careful not to refer to it as the HIV virus, as that would mean that you would be using the word
'virus' twice!
HIV contains RNA and is a retrovirus
HIV can be transmitted in body fluids in the following ways
Sexual intercourse
Blood donation
Sharing of needles used by intravenous drug users
From mother to child across the placenta
Mixing of blood between mother and child during birth
From mother to child through breast milk
Replication of HIV
When the virus enters the bloodstream it infects helper T cells, a type of white blood cell that is
normally responsible for activating antibody-producing B cells
It enters the helper T cells by attaching to a receptor molecule on the host cell membrane
The capsid enters the helper T cell and releases the RNA it contains
The viral RNA is used as a template by reverse transcriptase enzymes to produce
a complementary strand of DNA
Once this single-stranded DNA molecule is turned into a double-stranded molecule it can be
successfully inserted into the host DNA
From here it uses the host cell's enzymes to produce more viral components which are assembled
to form new viruses
These bud from the host cell and enter the blood, where they can infect other helper T cells and
repeat the process
At this stage, the individual is HIV positive and may experience flu-like symptoms
This is known as the acute HIV syndrome stage
After the initial infection period, during which HIV replication is rapid, the replication rate drops and the
individual enters the asymptomatic or chronic stage
During this period the person will not show any symptoms, often for years
Gradually the virus reduces the number of helper T cells in the immune system
B cells are no longer activated
No antibodies are produced
The patient begins to suffer from HIV-related symptoms and are now in the symptomatic disease
stage of the infection
The lack of T helper cells decreases the body’s ability to fight off infections, eventually leading to the
final stage of an HIV infection, which is known as advanced AIDS (Acquired immune deficiency
syndrome)
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Your notes
Page 4 of 23
HIV attaches to helper T cells (also called CD4 T-lymphocytes) and uses their cell machinery to
replicate. This leads to decreased lymphocyte numbers which then affects the body's ability to
respond to infection. Note that HIV should not be referred to as the 'HIV virus' as it is here. Your notes
Symptoms of AIDS
Immediately after infection with HIV a patient often suffers mild flu-like symptoms
These symptoms pass and for a period of time infected people might not know they are infected
After several months or years, the viral DNA replicated by the HIV particles becomes active
Virus particles gradually destroy and reduce the number of helper T cells present in a host
This is detrimental as helper T cells play an important role in the specific immune response
They stimulate B cells, the production of antibodies and increased rates of phagocytosis
As a patient can no longer produce antibodies against pathogens, they are immunocompromised
and unable to fight off infections
They begin to suffer from diseases that would usually cause very minor issues in healthy individuals
These diseases are described as opportunistic
Tuberculosis (TB) is a common example
An HIV infection will progress to AIDS when
An individual starts suffering from constant opportunistic infections
The helper T cell count drops below a critical level
The length of time that it takes for an HIV infection to progress to AIDS can vary between individuals but
the disease will follow a standard sequence of symptoms
Initially an AIDS sufferer will only have mild infections of the mucous membranes due to the low
helper T numbers
Over time, however, infections will become more severe e.g. diarrhoea, TB
During the final stages of AIDS a person will suffer from a range of more serious opportunistic
infections
It is these opportunistic diseases that cause an individual with advanced AIDS to die
Several factors affect how quickly HIV will progress into AIDS and how long a person with AIDS will
survive
The number of existing infections
The strain of HIV the person is infected with
Their age
Access to healthcare
Examiner Tip
Try not to confuse the terms HIV and AIDS. Many people use them interchangeably when they actually
mean different things.
HIV is a virus
AIDS is the disease caused by HIV
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6.7 Pathogens: Routes of Entry

Your notes
Pathogens: Routes of Entry
In order for a pathogen to cause disease it must enter the body of the host
Body openings, e.g. the mouth, eyes, and urinary tract, provide easy access for pathogens to
enter
Pathogens may enter directly into the bloodstream through breaks in the skin
Pathogens may be transmitted in a variety of ways
Vectors
These are living organisms that carry pathogens and transmit them between hosts
Insects, such as flies and mosquitoes, are common vectors for diseases like malaria and yellow fever
Inhalation
Droplets from the respiratory tract will be suspended in the air when an infected person coughs,
sneezes or talks
These droplets contain pathogens that can be inhaled by healthy people
The airways provide an entry point into the respiratory system of a new host and another infection
occurs, e.g. flu, measles, tuberculosis
Ingestion
Pathogens can enter through the digestive system when we ingest contaminated food or drink
This is especially probable if food is undercooked, as heat destroys most of the pathogens
These pathogens can make their way through the lining of the gut and cause disease (e.g.
cholera, Salmonella poisoning)
Indirect contact
Inanimate objects can contain large numbers of pathogens that may be transferred between hosts
An infected individual may touch or cough on an object which is later touched by a healthy
individual who transfers the pathogens to their mouth or nose by touching their face
Examples include bedding, towels, and surfaces
Direct contact
Pathogens that spread this way will require some part of the host, e.g. skin, body fluids, to come into
direct contact with a healthy individual
Pathogens that spread by this route can then pass through the mucous membranes and enter the
bloodstream, e.g.
When shaking hands with another person who then puts their hand to their nose or mouth
During sexual transmission
Examples include HIV, ebola, syphilis
Inoculation
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This typically occurs when a pathogen enters the body through broken skin, providing it with a direct
route into the bloodstream
Transmission could be through sexual contact, sharing needles during drug use, or bites or scratches Your notes
from infected animals
Examples include hepatitis B, HIV, tetanus, and rabies
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Barriers to Pathogenic Entry

Skin Your notes
The skin provides a physical barrier against infection
If the skin is damaged it leaves the exposed tissue beneath vulnerable to pathogens
The blood clotting mechanism of the body plays an important role in preventing pathogen entry in the
case of damage to the skin
Blood clotting takes time, however, so a few pathogens may still enter before a clot forms
Microorganisms of the gut and skin
Collectively these harmless microorganisms are known as the gut or skin flora
They compete with pathogens for resources, thereby limiting their numbers and therefore their ability
to infect the body
Stomach acid
The hydrochloric acid that makes up a large part of the gastric juices in the stomach creates an acidic
environment that is unfavourable to many pathogens present on food and drink
Sometimes a few of these pathogens may survive and make their way to the intestines where they
infect the gut wall cells and cause disease
Lysozyme
Secretions of the mucosal surfaces, e.g. tears, saliva, and mucus, contains an enzyme called lysozyme
This enzyme will damage bacterial cell walls, causing them to burst, or lyse
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Your notes
The body has various barriers that prevent the entry of pathogens
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6.8 Non-Specific Immune Responses

Your notes
Non-specific Immune Responses
There are two types of immune response in the body once a pathogen enters
Non-specific
This response is the same, regardless of the pathogen that invades the body
Specific
This is a response specific to a particular pathogen
The immune system is able to recognise specific pathogens due to the presence of antigens
on their cell surface
Antigens are molecules such as proteins or glycoproteins located on the surface of cells;
their role is to act as an ID tag, identifying a cell as being 'self' or 'non-self'
Pathogens have non-self antigens, so the immune system recognises them as not
belonging to the body
When a pathogen invades tissue the non-specific immune response begins immediately; this includes
Inflammation
Interferons
Phagocytosis
Inflammation
The surrounding area of a wound can sometimes become swollen, warm and painful to touch; this is
inflammation
Body cells called mast cells respond to tissue damage by secreting the molecule histamine
Histamine is a chemical signalling molecule that enables cell signalling, or communication
between cells
Histamine stimulates the following responses
Vasodilation increases blood flow through capillaries
Capillary walls become 'leaky', or more permeable, allowing fluid to enter the tissues and
creating swelling
Some plasma proteins leave the blood when the capillaries become more permeable
Phagocytes leave the blood and enter the tissue to engulf foreign particles
Cells release cytokines, another cell signalling molecule that triggers an immune response in the
infected area
Interferons
Cells infected by viruses produce anti-viral proteins called interferons
Interferons prevent viruses from spreading to uninfected cells
They inhibit the production of viral proteins, preventing the virus from replicating
They activate white blood cells involved with the specific immune response to destroy infected
cells
They increase the non-specific immune response e.g. by promoting inflammation
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Phagocytosis
Phagocytes are a type of white blood cell responsible for removing dead cells and invasive Your notes
microorganisms; they do this by engulfing and digesting them
The process of engulfing and digesting is known as phagocytosis
Phagocytes travel throughout the body and can leave the blood by squeezing through capillary walls
During an infection they are released in large numbers
Mode of action
Chemicals released by pathogens, as well as chemicals released by the body cells under attack,
e.g. histamine, attract phagocytes to the site where the pathogens are located
They move towards pathogens and recognise the antigens on the surface of the pathogen as
being non-self
The cell surface membrane of a phagocyte extends out and around the pathogen, engulfing
it and trapping the pathogen within a phagocytic vacuole
This part of the process is known as endocytosis
Enzymes are released into the phagocytic vacuole when lysosomes fuse with it
These digestive enzymes, which includes lysozyme, digest the pathogen
After digesting the pathogen, the phagocyte will present the antigens of the pathogen on its cell
surface membrane
The phagocyte becomes what is known as an antigen presenting cell
The presentation of antigens initiates the specific immune response
Phagocytes engulf pathogens in the process of phagocytosis, enclosing them in a phagocytic vacuole.
Lysosomes fuse with the vacuole, releasing enzymes which digest the pathogen
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6.9 Specific Immune Responses

Your notes
Specific Immune Responses
Antigens
Every cell in the human body has markers on its cell surface membrane that identify it
Microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses also have their own unique markers
These markers are called antigens and they allow cell-to-cell recognition
Antigens are found on cell surface membranes, bacterial cell walls, or the surfaces of viruses
Some glycolipids and glycoproteins on the outside of cell surface membranes act as antigens
Antigens can be either self antigens or non-self antigens
Antigens produced by the organism's own body cells are known as self antigens
Self antigens do not stimulate an immune response
Antigens not produced by the organism’s own body cells are known as non-self antigens
Non-self antigens stimulate an immune response
E.g. the antigens found on pathogenic bacteria and viruses, or on the surface of a
transplanted organ
After pathogens are engulfed by phagocytosis, phagocytes transfer the antigens of the digested
pathogen to their cell surface membrane, becoming antigen presenting cells
Antigen presenting cells such as macrophages activate the specific immune response
This occurs when the white blood cells of the specific immune response, known as
lymphocytes, bind to the presented antigens with specific receptors on their cell surface
membranes
Note that macrophages are a type of phagocytic white blood cell
Antibody structure
Antibodies are secreted by specialised white blood cell known as plasma cells
Antibodies are Y-shaped molecules sometimes known as immunoglobulins
Antibodies consist of four polypeptide chains; two ‘heavy’ chains attached by disulfide
bonds to two ‘light’ chains
'Heavy' chains are long while 'light' chains are short
Each polypeptide chain has a constant region and variable region
The constant regions do not vary within a class of antibody
There are 5 classes of mammalian antibodies, each with different roles
The amino acid sequences in the variable region are different for each antibody
The variable region is where the antibody binds to an antigen to form an antigen-antibody
complex
At the end of the variable region is a site called the antigen binding site
The antigen binding sites vary greatly, giving the antibody its specificity for binding
to antigens
The ‘hinge’ region, where the disulfide bonds join the heavy chains, gives flexibility to the antibody
molecule, allowing the antigen binding site to be placed at different angles when binding to antigens
This region is not present in all classes of antibodies
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Antibodies can be either membrane-bound or secreted directly into the blood

Membrane-bound antibodies are attached to the surface of lymphocytes
The membrane-bound antibodies have an extra section of polypeptide chain within their heavy Your notes
chains which forms the attachment to lymphocytes
Antibodies are Y-shaped molecules consisting of four polypeptide chains. Note that the term epitope
here refers to the part of the antigen that is recognised by the immune system; the variable regions of
the antibody are complementary to the epitope of the antigen, allowing them to bind
Antibody function
Antibodies bind to specific antigens that trigger the specific immune response
Antibodies function to disable pathogens in several ways
Pathogens enter host cells by binding to them using receptors on their surface; antibodies can
bind to these receptors, preventing pathogens from infecting host cells
Antibodies can act as anti-toxins by binding to toxins produced by pathogens, e.g. the bacteria
that cause diphtheria and tetanus; this neutralises the toxins
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Antibodies cause pathogens to clump together, a process known as agglutination; this reduces
the chance that the pathogens will spread through the body and makes it possible for phagocytes
to engulf a number of pathogens at one time Your notes
Antibodies cause agglutination, which makes it difficult for the pathogens to infect host cells. This also
makes it easier for the phagocytes to engulf the trapped pathogens
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6.10 Lymphocytes: Types & Roles

Your notes
Lymphocytes: Types & Roles
There are two types of lymphocyte that play a particular role in the specific immune response
T cells
B cells
Note that lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell
T cells
T cells, sometimes known as T lymphocytes, are produced in the bone marrow and finish maturing in
the thymus, which is where the T in their name comes from
Mature T cells have specific cell surface receptors called T cell receptors
These receptors have a similar structure to antibodies and are each specific to a particular type of
antigen
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Your notes
Mature T cells have many different types of receptor on the cell surface membrane; these receptors will
bind to different antigens on antigen presenting cells
T cells are activated when they encounter and bind to their specific antigen on the surface of an
antigen presenting cell
This antigen-presenting cell might be a macrophage, an infected body cell, or
the pathogen itself
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These activated T cells divide by mitosis to increase in number

Dividing by mitosis produces genetically identical cells, or clones, so all of the daughter cells will
have the same type of T cell receptor on their surface Your notes
There are three main types of T cell
T helper cells
Release chemical signalling molecules that help to activate B cells
Release chemical signalling molecules that help to activate T killer cells
Release chemicals called cytokines, that label pathogens and infected cells for
phagocytosis
T killer cells
Bind to and destroy infected cells displaying the relevant specific antigen
T memory cells
Remain in the blood and enable a faster specific immune response if the same pathogen is
encountered again in the future
B cells
B cells, also known as B lymphocytes, are a second type of white blood cell in the specific immune
response
B cells remain in the bone marrow as they mature, hence the B in their name
B cells have many specific receptors on their cell surface membrane
The receptors are in fact antibodies, and are known as antibody receptors
Each B cell has a different type of antibody receptor, meaning that each B cell can bind to a
different type of antigen
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Your notes
Mature B cells each have different types of antibody receptors on their cell surface membrane
If the corresponding antigen enters the body, B cells with the correct cell surface antibodies will be
able to recognise it and bind to it
When the B cell binds to an antigen it forms an antigen-antibody complex
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The binding of the B cell to its specific antigen, along with the cell signalling molecules produced by T
helper cells, activates the B cell
Once activated the B cells divide repeatedly by mitosis, producing many clones of the original Your notes
activated B cell
There are two main types of B cell
Effector cells, which differentiate into plasma cells
Plasma cells produce specific antibodies to combat non-self antigens
Memory cells
Remain in the blood to allow a faster immune response to the same pathogen in the future
During a primary immune response B cells divide by mitosis to form plasma cells and memory cells. Note
that a primary response occurs the first time an individual comes into contact with a particular
pathogen
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6.11 Developing Immunity

Your notes
Developing Immunity
Developing immunity
The immune system is activated when a new antigen is encountered
This launches a primary immune response consisting of a non-specific immune response followed by
a specific immune response
The primary response occurs the first time an antigen is encountered by the immune system
Since it is the first time the immune system has encountered the antigen, the numbers of T and B cells
with the correct membrane receptors present in the blood will be low
It will take time for the correct T and B cells to be activated and to divide and differentiate into different
cell types
It can take several days before plasma cells develop and are able to start producing antibodies
against an antigen
This is the reason why an infected person will experience symptoms of the disease the first time
they contract it
Both T and B cells produce memory cells during the primary response, which will remain in the blood
after an infection is over
The presence of memory cells means that a person is said to be immune to the pathogen
Should the immune system encounter the same antigen again in the future it will launch a secondary
immune response which will be much faster and stronger than the primary response
Memory cells are present in larger quantities than the mature lymphocytes at the start of the
primary response, so the correct memory cells are able to detect an antigen, activate, divide by
mitosis, and differentiate much more quickly
Antibodies are produced more quickly and in larger quantities in a secondary response
This will often eliminate the pathogen before the infected person can show symptoms
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Your notes
The secondary response is much larger and faster than the primary response due to the presence of
memory cells in the blood
Active immunity
Active immunity is acquired when an antigen enters the body triggering a specific immune response
Active immunity can be
Natural; acquired through exposure to pathogens
Artificial; acquired through vaccination
In both cases the body produces memory cells, giving the person long-term immunity
Passive immunity
Passive immunity is acquired without an immune response; antibodies are gained from another
source, not produced by the infected person
Passive immunity can be
Natural
Foetuses receive antibodies across the placenta from their mothers
Babies receive antibodies in breast milk
Artificial
People can be given an injection / transfusion of antibodies e.g. the tetanus antitoxin
The antibodies will have been collected from people or animals whose immune system had
been triggered by a vaccination to produce antibodies
As the person’s immune system has not been activated, there are no memory cells that can enable
antibody production in a secondary response; if a person is reinfected they would need another
infusion of antibodies
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Comparing Active & Passive Immunity Table
Your notes
Vaccines
A vaccine contains antigens that are intentionally put into the body to induce artificial active immunity
Vaccines can contain dead or weakened pathogens, less harmful strains of a pathogen, antigens
alone, or a piece of genetic material that codes for the antigens
Vaccines are administered either by injection or by mouth
Vaccinations produce long-term immunity as they cause memory cells to be created.
The immune system recognises the antigen when re-encountered and produces antibodies in a faster,
stronger secondary response
This is the main reason why vaccinated individuals typically do not show symptoms of the diseases
they were vaccinated against
Antigenic variation can mean that vaccinations need to be constantly modified to keep up with the
changes to a pathogen's antigens
Antigenic changes are the result of mutation
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6.12 Pathogens vs Hosts: An Evolutionary Race

Your notes
Pathogens vs Hosts: An Evolutionary Race
Vertebrates have evolved over millions of years to have immune systems that are capable of dealing
with a wide range of different pathogens
Pathogens, however, have also evolved and have developed different ways of evading their host's
immune system
This battle between host and pathogen is known as an evolutionary race; each organism develops
new ways in which to have an advantage over the other
This evolutionary race is sometimes referred to as an evolutionary arms race
Evasion mechanisms developed by pathogens serve as support for this theory
HIV evasion mechanisms
The virus kills helper T cells after it infects them which reduces the number of cells that could detect
the presence of the virus and activate the production of antibodies
HIV shows antigenic variability due to the high mutation rate in the genes coding for antigen proteins
This forms new strains of the virus which each require a new primary immune response
Memory cells for one strain will not recognise the antigens of another strain
The virus prevents infected cells from presenting their antigens on the cell surface membrane, making
it very difficult for the relevant white blood cells to recognise and destroy the infected cells
Mycobacterium tuberculosis evasion mechanisms
Once engulfed by phagocytes in the lungs the bacteria produce substances that will prevent a
lysosome from fusing with the phagocytic vacuole
This prevents the bacteria from being broken down by digestive enzymes, leaving them to multiply
within the phagocyte
As with HIV the bacteria can disrupt antigen presentation in infected phagocytes, making it difficult
for the immune system to recognise and destroy these cells
Page 23 of 23

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Edexcel International A Level Your notes

6.6 Tuberculosis & HIV

6.7 Pathogens: Routes of Entry

Barriers to Pathogenic Entry

6.8 Non-Specific Immune Responses

6.9 Specific Immune Responses

Antibodies can be either membrane-bound or secreted directly into the blood

6.10 Lymphocytes: Types & Roles

These activated T cells divide by mitosis to increase in number

6.11 Developing Immunity

Comparing Active & Passive Immunity Table

6.12 Pathogens vs Hosts: An Evolutionary Race

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