4.1 Oscillations

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YOUR NOTES
IB Physics DP 
4.1 Oscillations
CONTENTS
4.1.1 Properties of Oscillations
4.1.2 Simple Harmonic Oscillations
4.1.3 SHM Graphs
4.1.4 Energy in SHM
Page 1 of 21
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4.1.1 Properties of Oscillations YOUR NOTES


Describing Oscillations
An oscillation is defined as follows:
The repetitive variation with time t of the displacement x of an object about the
equilibrium position (x = 0)
A pendulum oscillates between A and B. On a displacement-time graph, the oscillating

motion of the pendulum is represented by a wave, with an amplitude equal to x0
Displacement (x) of a wave is the distance of a point on the wave from its equilibrium
position
It is a vector quantity; it can be positive or negative and it is measured in metres (m)
Period (T) or time period, is the time interval for one complete repetition and it is measured
in seconds (s)
If the oscillations have a constant period, they are said to be isochronous
Diagram showing the time period of a wave

Amplitude (x0) is the maximum value of the displacement on either side of the equilibrium
position is known as the amplitude of the oscillation
Page 2 of 21
Amplitude is measured in metres (m) YOUR NOTES

Wavelength (λ) is the length of one complete oscillation measured from the same point 
on two consecutive waves
Wavelength is measured in metres (m)
Frequency (f) is the number of oscillations per second and it is measured in hertz (Hz)
Hz have the SI units of per second s−1
The frequency and the period of the oscillations are related by the following equation:
Phase & Phase Difference

Phase is a useful way to think about waves
The phase of a wave can be considered in terms of:
Wavelength
Degrees
Radians
One complete oscillation is:
1 wavelength
360°
2π radians
Page 3 of 21
YOUR NOTES

Wavelength λ and amplitude A of a travelling wave

The phase difference between two waves is a measure of how much a point or a wave is in
front or behind another
This can be found from the relative position of the crests or troughs of two different waves
of the same frequency
When the crests of each wave, or the troughs of each wave are aligned, the waves are
in phase
When the crest of one wave aligns with the trough of another, they are in antiphase
The diagram below shows the green wave leads the purple wave by ¼ λ
Two waves ¼ λ out of phase
Page 4 of 21
In contrast, the purple wave is said to lag behind the green wave by ¼ λ YOUR NOTES
Phase difference is measured in fractions of a wavelength, degrees or radians 
The phase difference can be calculated from two different points on the same wave or the
same point on two different waves
The phase difference between two points can be described as:
In phase is 360o or 2π radians
In anti-phase is 180o or π radians
 Worked Example
A child on a swing performs 0.2 oscillations per second.Calculate the period of the
child's oscillations.
Step 1: Write down the frequency of the child's oscillations

f = 0.2 Hz
Step 2: Write down the relationship between the period T and the frequency f
Step 3: Substitute the value of the frequency into the above equation and calculate the
period
1
T=
0.2
T=5 s
Page 5 of 21
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Plane waves on the surface of water at a particular instant are represented by the
diagram below.
The waves have a frequency of 2.5 Hz.Determine:

a) The amplitude
b) The wavelength
c) The phase difference between points A and B
Page 6 of 21
YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
When labelling the wavelength and time period on a diagram:
Make sure that your arrows go from the very top of a wave to the very top of the
next one
If your arrow is too short, you will lose marks
The same goes for labelling amplitude, don’t draw an arrow from the bottom to
the top of the wave, this will lose you marks too.
Page 7 of 21
4.1.2 Simple Harmonic Oscillations YOUR NOTES


Simple Harmonic Oscillations
Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is defined as follows:
The motion of an object whose acceleration is directly proportional but opposite in
direction to the object's displacement from a central equilibrium position
An object is said to perform simple harmonic oscillations when all of the following apply:
The oscillations are isochronous
There is a central equilibrium point
The object's displacement, velocity and acceleration change continuously
There is a restoring force always directed towards the equilibrium point
The magnitude of the restoring force is proportional to the displacement
Page 8 of 21
Conditions for SHM YOUR NOTES

The defining conditions of simple harmonic oscillations are that the restoring force and the 
acceleration must always be:
Directed towards the equilibrium position, and hence, is always in the opposite
direction to the displacement
Directly proportional to the displacement
a ∝ −x
Where:
a = acceleration (m s−2)
x = displacement (m)
The Restoring Force

One of the defining conditions of simple harmonic motion is the existence of a restoring
force
Examples of restoring forces are:
The component of the weight of a pendulum's bob that is parallel and opposite to the
displacement of the bob
The force of a spring, whose magnitude is given by Hooke's law
For a pendulum, the restoring force is provided by the component of the bob's weight that
is perpendicular to the tension in the pendulum's string. For a mass-spring system, the
restoring force is provided by the force of the spring.
For a mass-spring system in simple harmonic motion, the relationship between the
restoring force and the displacement of the object can be written as follows:
F = – kx
Page 9 of 21
Where: YOUR NOTES

F = restoring force (N) 
k = spring constant (N m–1)
x = displacement from the equilibrium position (m)
Graph of force against displacement for an object oscillating with SHM

Force and displacement in SHM have a linear relationship where the gradient of the graph
represents the constant
In this case, the spring constant k
An object in SHM will also have a restoring force to return it to its equilibrium position
This restoring force will be directly proportional, but in the opposite direction, to the
displacement of the object from its equilibrium position
Acceleration & Displacement
According to Newton's Second Law, the net force on an object is directly proportional to
the object's acceleration, F ∝ a for a constant mass
F = ma
Where
F = force (N)
m = mass (kg)
a = acceleration (m s−2)
Since F = ma (Newton's second law), and F = −kx (Hooke's law), the equations can be set as
equal to one another:
ma = – kx
Rearranging to show the relationship between acceleration and displacement gives:
k
a=− m x
Page 10 of 21
This equation shows that YOUR NOTES

There is a linear relationship between the acceleration of the object moving with 
simple harmonic motion and its displacement from its equilibrium position
The minus sign shows that when the mass on the spring is displaced to the right
The direction of the acceleration is to the left and vice versa
In other words, a and x are always in opposite directions to each other
This equation shows acceleration is directly proportional but in the opposite direction to
displacement for an object in SHM
a ∝ −x
Therefore, it can be stated that:
a = −kx
Where
a = acceleration
k = is a constant but in this instance not the spring constant
x = displacement
Note that in physics, k is the standard letter used for an undefined constant
Graph of acceleration against displacement for an object oscillating with SHM
Page 11 of 21
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A pendulum's bob oscillates about a central equilibrium position. The amplitude of
the oscillations is 4.0 cm. The maximum value of the bob's acceleration is 2.0 m s–2.
Determine the magnitude of the bob's acceleration when the displacement from
the equilibrium position is equal to 1.0 cm.
You may ignore energy losses.
Step 1: List the known quantities

Amplitude of the oscillations, x0 = 4.0 cm = 0.04 m
Maximum acceleration, a = 2.0 m s–2
Displacement, x = 1.0 cm = 0.01 m
Remember to convert the amplitude of the oscillations and the displacement from
centimetres (cm) into metres (m)
Step 2: Recall the relationship between the maximum acceleration a and the
displacement x
The maximum acceleration a occurs at the position of maximum displacement x = x0
a = – kx0
Step 3: Rearrange the above equation to calculate the constant of proportionality k
Step 4: Substitute the numbers into the above equation
k = – 50 s–2
Step 5: Use this value of k to calculate the acceleration a' when the displacement is x =
0.01 m
a' = – kx
a' = – (– 50) s–2 × 0.01 m
a' = 0.50 m s–2
Page 12 of 21
4.1.3 SHM Graphs YOUR NOTES


SHM Graphs
Displacement & Velocity
The displacement-time graph for an object moving with SHM is a sinusoidal curve if:
The object starts to oscillate from the equilibrium position.
The equilibrium position is x = 0 at t = 0
The displacement-time graph is a cosine curve if
The object starts to oscillate from the position of maximum displacement.
Maximum displacement is x = x0 at t = 0
The maxima and minima on the graph are the values of maximum displacement (x0) of the
oscillating object on either side of the equilibrium position
The velocity-time graph is obtained by taking the gradients of tangents to all points on
the displacement-time graph
The velocity-time graph is a cosine curve if:
The object starts to oscillate from the equilibrium position when x = 0 at t = 0
The displacement-time graph is a sine curve
The velocity-time graph is a sine curve if:
The object starts to oscillate from the position of maximum displacement when x = x0
at t = 0
The displacement-time graph is a cosine curve
The maxima and minima on the graph are the values of maximum velocity (v0) of the
oscillating object as it passes the equilibrium position
The difference in the sign of the velocity accounts for the different directions of the
velocity vector as the object passes through the equilibrium position (i.e. from right to
left or vice versa)
Page 13 of 21
YOUR NOTES

Displacement-time & velocity-time graphs for an object oscillating with SHM. The object
starts oscillating from the equilibrium position (x = 0 and t = 0)
Acceleration
The acceleration-time graph is obtained by taking the gradients of tangents to all points
on the velocity-time graph
The graph is a negative sine curve if:
The object starts to oscillate from the equilibrium position when x = 0 at t = 0
The graph is a negative cosine curve if:
The object starts to oscillate from the position of maximum displacement when x = x0
at t = 0
The maxima and minima on the graph are the values of maximum acceleration (a0) of the
oscillating object at the positions of maximum displacement (x = x0)
Once again, the difference in sign indicates a difference in the direction of the
acceleration vector
Page 14 of 21
YOUR NOTES

An acceleration-time graph for an object oscillating with SHM. The object starts oscillating
from the equilibrium position (x = 0 and t = 0)
Note that all graphs must have the same period
The only two differences between the graphs are:
The shift in time - i.e. there is a phase difference of 90° between successive graphs
The amplitude of the wave form - i.e. the different amplitudes of the three graphs are
the values of maximum displacement x0, maximum velocity v0 and maximum
acceleration a0 of the oscillating object
 Worked Example
Below is the displacement-time graph for an object oscillating with SHM.
(i) Determine the period of the oscillations

(ii) Calculate the frequency of the oscillations
(iii) Mark a point on the graph where the velocity is zero, label this with "v = 0"
(iv) Mark a point on the graph where the velocity is maximum and positive, label this
with "v0"
(v) Mark a point on the graph where the acceleration is maximum and positive, label
this with "a0"
(vi) Determine the value of the maximum velocity v0
Page 15 of 21
(i) Identify the period T of the oscillating object on the graph YOUR NOTES
Mark the time between any two identical points on the graph (e.g. two peaks) 
T = 0.20 s
(ii) Calculate the frequency f
Step 1: Write down the relationship between frequency and period
Step 2: Substitute the value of the period you have determined in part (i)
f = 5 Hz
(iii) Identify any position of zero velocity on the displacement-time graph and label this
"v = 0"
The velocity of an object oscillating with SHM is zero at the positions of maximum
displacement x = x0
Hence, the velocity is zero at any minima or maxima on the displacement-time graph
(e.g. at t = 0.10 s)
Page 16 of 21
YOUR NOTES

(iv) Identify any position of maximum positive velocity on the displacement-time graph
and label this "v0"
An object oscillating with SHM has its maximum velocity at the equilibrium position (x =
0)
Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement
The velocity is the gradient of the tangent to a point of zero displacement
The gradient must be positive (e.g. at t = 0.15 s)
(v) Identify any position of maximum positive acceleration on the displacement-time

graph and label this "a0"
An object oscillating with SHM has its maximum acceleration at the positions of
maximum displacement (x = x0)
Acceleration is proportional to negative displacement
The acceleration is maximum and positive when the displacement is maximum and
negative
The acceleration is maximum and positive at any minima on the displacement-time
graph (e.g. at t = 0.30 s)
Page 17 of 21
YOUR NOTES

(vi)
Step 1: Draw the tangent to the point of maximum positive velocity identified in Step 4
(i.e. at t = 0.15 s)
Step 2: Calculate the gradient of the tangent to get the value of the maximum velocity
v0 in centimetres per second (cm s–1)
Gradient = 67 cm s–1
v0 = 67 cm s–1
Page 18 of 21
4.1.4 Energy in SHM YOUR NOTES


Energy in SHM
The total energy of an object oscillating with SHM is the sum of its potential energy
(gravitational or elastic) and kinetic energy
E = EP + EK
Where:
E = total energy in joules (J)
EP = potential energy in joules (J)
EK = kinetic energy in joules (J)
Graph of total energy E, potential energy EP and kinetic energy EK of an object oscillating
with SHM
If energy losses due to friction or drag are zero or ignored, the total energy E of the system
is conserved
The potential energy store of the object is at a maximum at the point of maximum
displacement from the equilibrium position
The point of maximum displacement is amplitude x0
Kinetic energy is zero at amplitude
Potential energy is equal to the total energy of the system at this point
Energy is transferred from the object's potential energy store to its kinetic energy store as
the object moves from amplitude to the equilibrium position
The object has both potential and kinetic energy
The sum of the potential and kinetic energy is equal to the total energy of the system
The total energy of the system is conserved
The kinetic energy store of the object is at a maximum at the equilibrium position
This is because velocity is at a maximum as the object passes through the equilibrium
position
Page 19 of 21
Kinetic energy is equal to the total energy of the system at this point YOUR NOTES
Energy is transferred from the object's kinetic energy store to its potential energy store as 
the object moves from the equilibrium position to amplitude
The object has both potential and kinetic energy
The sum of the potential and kinetic energy is equal to the total energy of the system
The total energy of the system is conserved
 Worked Example
The following graph shows the variation with displacement of the kinetic energy of
an object of mass 0.50 kg oscillating with SHM. Energy losses can be neglected.
(i) Determine the total energy of the object

(ii) Determine the amplitude of the object's oscillations
(iii) Calculate the maximum velocity of the object in metres per second (m s–1)
(iv) Determine the potential energy of the object when the displacement is x = 1.0
cm
(i) Determine the total energy of the object by reading the maximum value of the kinetic
energy from the graph
From the graph, read the maximum value of the object's kinetic energy (EK)MAX = 60 mJ
Recall that, at the equilibrium position (x = 0), the total energy E is exactly equal to the
maximum value of the kinetic energy (EK)MAX
Since energy losses can be neglected, the total energy is constant
E = 60 mJ
(ii) Read the amplitude of the object's oscillations from the graph
The maximum displacement positions are the locations on either side of the
equilibrium position where the kinetic energy is zero EK = 0
x0 = 2.0 cm
(iii)
Step 1: Recall the equation for the kinetic energy EK of an object in terms of its mass m
and velocity v
Page 20 of 21
YOUR NOTES
Step 2: Rearrange the above equation to calculate the velocity v 
Step 3: Substitute the numbers into the equation to calculate the maximum velocity of
the object
Mass of the object, m = 0.50 kg
You must convert the maximum kinetic energy must from millijoules (mJ) into joules (J)
EK = 60 mJ = 0.06 J
v = 0.49 m s–1
(iv)
Step 1: Read the value of the kinetic energy EK of the object when the displacement is x =
1.0 cm
EK = 50 mJ
Step 2: Write down the relationship between total energy E, kinetic energy EK and
potential energy EP
E = EP + EK
Step 3: Rearrange the above equation to calculate the potential energy EP
EP = E – EK
Step 4: Substitute the numbers in the above equation
EK = 50 mJ
E = 60 mJ
EP = 60 mJ – 50 mJ
EP = 10 mJ
Page 21 of 21

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4.1.1 Properties of Oscillations YOUR NOTES

A pendulum oscillates between A and B. On a displacement-time graph, the oscillating

Diagram showing the time period of a wave

Amplitude is measured in metres (m) YOUR NOTES

Phase & Phase Difference

Wavelength λ and amplitude A of a travelling wave

Two waves ¼ λ out of phase

Step 1: Write down the frequency of the child's oscillations

The waves have a frequency of 2.5 Hz.Determine:

4.1.2 Simple Harmonic Oscillations YOUR NOTES

Conditions for SHM YOUR NOTES

The Restoring Force

Where: YOUR NOTES

Graph of force against displacement for an object oscillating with SHM

This equation shows that YOUR NOTES

Graph of acceleration against displacement for an object oscillating with SHM

Step 1: List the known quantities

Step 4: Substitute the numbers into the above equation

4.1.3 SHM Graphs YOUR NOTES

(i) Determine the period of the oscillations

(v) Identify any position of maximum positive acceleration on the displacement-time

4.1.4 Energy in SHM YOUR NOTES

(i) Determine the total energy of the object

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