A 3D Semi-Empirical On-Road Transient Tire Model: Virginia Tech

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A 3D Semi-Empirical On-Road Transient Tire 2010-01-1916

Published
Model 10/05/2010
Anake Umsrithong
Corina Sandu
Virginia Tech.
Copyright © 2010 SAE International
many flexible filaments of high modulus cord and glass fiber,

ABSTRACT bonded to a matrix of low modulus polymeric material [1, 2].
To realistically predict the dynamics of a vehicle, the forces The tire structure may be classified into two parts:
and moments in the contact patch must be accurately hyperelastic components and laminated rubber composites.
computed. A two-dimensional semi-empirical transient tire The hyperelastic components, such as tire belts, beads, and
model was previously developed in the Advanced Vehicle carcass, are soft and practically incompressible such as: tread
Dynamics Lab (AVDL) at Virginia Tech, and extended the caps, shoulders, inner liner, and bead fillers. The laminated
capabilities of the steady-state tire model also developed at rubber composites normally are stiff and have a highly
AVDL. In this paper, a three-dimensional semi-empirical orthotropic behavior [3].
transient tire model is presented. The tire structure is modeled
by an elastic ring supported on a spring and damper system. Many researchers developed tire models for vehicle dynamic
The elastic ring represents the belt ring and the spring and simulations, such as the magic formula tire model, MF-
damper system represents the sidewall and the tread element. SWIFT model, UniTire model, FTire model family, and
The analysis of the deformation of the tire structure with CDTire model family[4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,
camber angle is performed on a flat surface to obtain the 16]. The magic formula tire model [4, 5] consists of formulas
geometry of the contact patch and the normal pressure that express the longitudinal force, the lateral force and the
distribution. The forces and the moments are formulated aligning moment in steady-state and transient conditions. The
using empirical data and based on theoretical mechanics. formulas contain many coefficients which must be acquired
Illustrative simulations were performed for two scenarios: a from the experimental data by curve fitting technique. The
driving/braking maneuver and a lane changing maneuver. MF-SWIFT model [6, 7, 8] is composed of a rigid ring tire
The simulation results were compared with the 2D semi- model and the magic formula model, which can describe tire
empirical transient tire model results and with the steady-state handling behavior under pure and combined slip conditions
tire model results and validated based on available data from and the tire vibration behavior at relatively high frequency
the literature. excitation. The UniTire model [9, 10, 11, 12] is a semi-
physical tire model, which satisfies the required accuracy but
has a simple form and needs few parameters. It consists of a
INTRODUCTION steady-state part and a non-steady state part. The steady-state
Tire dynamic behavior plays an important role in vehicle part focuses on the dynamic friction coefficient between the
dynamics studies since almost all forces and moments acting tire and the road surface and the direction of the forces
on the vehicle are generated at the tire contact patch and generated at the contact patch. The non-steady state part was
transmitted through the tire structure. Therefore, tire models developed through an approximation of the transfer function.
that accurately describe this dynamic behavior are needed for The FTire model [13, 14] is in fact a family of three tire
vehicle dynamic simulation. However, it is not easy to models: FETire, FTire, and RTire. They combined the
develop the tire model due to the complexity of the tire coarse-mesh finite element tire model with the spatial non-
structure. It consists of several layers of synthetic polymer, linear flex/rigid ring model to describe the tire behavior. It
42 SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1

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consists of two parts: the structure model and the tread 3. The relationship between the longitudinal slip ratio and
model. The FTire model is used in various applications with the effective longitudinal slip ratio for low frequency input is
extensions such as thermal model, wear model, and tire presented by using the first order differential equation, as
misuse model. The CDTire model [15, 16] is a family of shown in equation (1) [22].
three tire models: CDTire20 (Rigid Ring), CDTire30 (Single
Flexible Ring), and CDTire40 (Multiple Flexible Rings). The
applications of the CDTire model are focused on ride comfort (1)
and durability & reliability studies. The CDTire can be used
only with small deflections of belts and with smooth tread 4. The relationship between the sip angle at the wheel center
surface tires. and the slip angle at the tire contact patch in the transient
steering is expressed by using the second order differential
In the past few years, AVDL developed a steady-state tire equation as in equation (2) [23, 24].
model using analytical mechanics starting from Fiala's tire
model [17] and experimental data from NHTSA, as well as
in-house testing [18]. Next, a two-dimensional semi- (2)
empirical tire model for transient maneuvers was developed
to extend the capabilities of the steady-state tire model to 5. The belt is laminated rubber composited which normally
capture the transient behavior of tire without additional very stiff, so we can assume that the belt ring is flexible but
testing [19]. Recently, the three-dimensional semi-empirical
on-road transient tire model has been developed. This model
can simulate in-plane and out-of-plane tire forces and not extensible. The inextensibility condition yields
moments in steady-state and transient conditions on a flat
surface. The camber angle effects are taken into account.
(3)
In this paper, the overall description and model assumptions
The transient tire model was developed by modeling the tire
are given. It describes in details how the contact patch
structure as a flexible belt ring supported by a spring and
geometry and the contact pressure distribution are calculated;
damper system on a flat surface, as shown in Figure 1.
the analytical-empirical force and moment formulas are
presented. Simulation results are illustrated and benchmarked
against available results from the literature.
3D SEMI-EMPIRICAL ON-ROAD
TRANSIENT TIRE MODEL
Development of the tire model
The 3D semi-empirical transient tire model developed in this
paper is based on observation of experimental data, on the
quasi-static semi-empirical tire model developed by Chan
[18] and on the 2D semi-empirical transient tire model
previously developed by the authors [19]. Throughout this
paper, we used nomenclature, definitions, and the tire
coordinate system based on the SAE standards [20].
Figure 1. Flexible belt ring supported by a spring and
The tire model is developed based on the following
damper system on a flat surface
assumptions.
1. The tire contact patch is a trapezoidal shape with camber The spring and damper system represents the side wall and
angle and is a rectangular shape with zero camber angle, the tread element of the tire. The tire model consists of two
which, according to our observations and the literature [1, 2, components: a physical component and an empirical
18, 21] are reasonable assumptions. component, so it can be considered a semi-empirical model.
The inputs are the slip angle, the longitudinal slip ratio, the
2. The friction coefficients between the tire and the road are
camber angle, the speed, the vertical load, and the road
approximated based on observations of empirical data which
friction. Viscoelastic properties of the tire cause a lag in the
vary with the normal force, the longitudinal slip ratio, and the
slip at the contact patch which we considered can be
slip angle.
realistically described by a 2nd order differential equation.
SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1 43

The physical component has two main parts: It involves the The deformation of radial tire having the camber angle γ,
calculation of the contact patch geometry and the calculation deflection δ, central angles θ1 and θ2, where subscripts 1 and
of the contact pressure distribution. As stated above, we 2 means the front and rear edges of the contact belt
assume that the contact patch has a trapezoidal shape when respectively, and the asterisk (*) expresses the deformed state
the camber angle is not zero and has a rectangular shape of position p, s, and r. From Figure 3, we can calculate the
when the camber angle is zero. The length of the contact taper angle β of the trapezoidal contact area as expressed in
patch on a flat surface can be derived from the geometric equation 7.
diagram. The pressure distribution can be calculated from the
deflection of tire structure (geometric deformation (z), elastic
deformation (ζ), and additional deformation (w*)).
Geometry of contact patch (7)
Tire contact patch length Also, we know that:

The tire contact patch length on flat and curved surfaces can
be simply approximated from a geometric diagram as shown
in Figure 2.
(8)
Then, substituting equation (7) into equation (8) yields
(9)
Figure 2. Geometrical relations between tire contact

length on a flat surface
From Figure 2, the relationship between Ru, Rl, lp, and δ can
be expressed using the Pythagorean Theorem as:
(4)
Where
Figure 3. Tire structure deformations with γ camber

(5)
angle
Contact pressure distribution and vertical

force
(6)
Analysis of the deformation of the tire structure on the road
surface with the camber angle is very complex due to large
Contact patch area with camber angle deformation and nonlinear properties of the tire. Many
The contact area of the belt has a quasi-trapezoidal shape studies tried to solve this problem. Böhm analyzed the
slightly bent in the camber direction as shown in Figure 3. torsional and bending deformation of the belt ring supported

by the elastic foundation under the inflation pressure without

considering the contact deformation and rotating acceleration
[25]. Gong [26] developed the one-dimensional contact
pressure using a flexible ring model, and then Kim and
Savkoor [27] included the damping effects and the finite
friction into account. Shiobara et al. [28] developed a one-
dimensional contact pressure distribution for rolling tire. Kim
et al. [29, 30] extended it to a two-dimensional contact
problem on flat and uneven roads.
Contact-free belt deformation analysis

The equilibrium equations of forces and moments of the
contact-free belt element in radial, tangential, and lateral can
be derived from Figure 4, as shown in equations (10), (11),
(12), (13), (14), respectively. Figure 4. Forces and moments applied to the contact-
free belt element in motion
The equilibrium equation in z direction Substituting equation 12 into equation 13 yields
(10) (15)
Where Where
(11)
The equilibrium equation in x direction

(16)
And
(12)
The equilibrium equation in y direction (17)
(13)
(18)
Where
Solving equations (10), (15), (17) and (18) and using the
inextensibility condition, we get the solutions of w,v,u,ϕ as
(14)

(24)
Contact belt deformation analysis

The in-plane shapes of the deformed belt and the deformed
tread surface is assumed to be slightly bent trapezoids [31], as
shown in Figure 5. We can define the relative displacement
between the belt and the tread surface as:
(19)
(25)
A is the maximum relative displacement between the belt and

the tread surface.
(20)
(26)
To find the integral constants C1-6, B1-3, K1,2, we used the
is a geometrical function of the oblique side of the
boundary conditions at the contact end and the symmetry trapezoidal contact area.
condition. After we obtained the solution for w, v, u, ϕ, we
could calculate the vertical deflection of the contact-free belt
at the contact end, transverse shearing force, twisting torque,
and in-plane bending moment which are needed in contact
belt deformation analysis, as shown in the following (27)
equations.
Then the contact shear stress in circumferential and lateral
The vertical deflection of the contact-free belt at the contact directions can be calculated by
end is
(21) (28)
The transverse shearing force is Therefore, the camber thrust can be given by the following
equation
(22)
The twisting torque is (29)
Next, we considered the deformation of the contact belt in the

vertical direction. The total deflection of the contact belt (w*)
is the superimposed solution from two parts: the standard flat
(23) deflection (w0) and the additional deflection which are
described mathematically as:
The in-plane bending moment is

Figure 5. Deformation of the belt associated with the relative displacement to the tread surface
Figure 6. Forces and moments applied to the contact belt element in motion
After we determine the standard flat deflection, and the

additional deflection as shown in Appendix A, the normal
(30) pressure distribution is described by the following equation.
(31)
(34)
Where
The tire vertical force is a function of the normal contact
pressure distribution acting on the tire contact patch. We can
calculate the vertical force by integrating the normal contact
(32) pressure distribution over the contact area.
The belt structure in the contact area has been approximated

by a flat plate with pressure distribution Pz. The equilibrium
equation of the contact belt in the vertical direction is
obtained from Figure 6 as: (35)
When the vehicle is accelerating or braking, the vertical force

at the front wheel and at the rear wheel change due to the
longitudinal load transfer. In this model, the load transfer
(33) between the front and rear wheels while accelerating or
braking is taken into account, as shown below.

Vertical load at the front wheel:
(36)
Vertical load at the rear wheel:
(37)
Some studies showed that the lateral load transfer influences

vehicle handling behavior [32, 33]. Therefore, the lateral load a). Zero camber angle
transfer while cornering is also taken into account in this
model, as described in equation (38) (neglecting the influence
of the roll angle). We assume that the initial lateral
acceleration is zero when the vehicle starts cornering. The
lateral acceleration is calculated next using the lateral force
output from the tire model, as shown in equation (39).
(38)
b). 2 degrees camber angle

(39) Figure 7. Contact pressure distribution a) zero camber
Figure 7 shows the contact pressure distribution on a flat angle b) 2 degrees camber angle
surface with zero camber angle and 2 degrees camber angle.
Longitudinal and lateral Forces

The longitudinal force and the lateral force are generated at
the tire contact patch, which consists of two regions: (42)
1). Adhesion region: The longitudinal force and the lateral 2). Sliding region: When the stresses exceed the limit of the
force per unit length of the circumference can be derived by tread elements, the trailing edge of the contact patch starts to
using the deflection of the tread elements and the sidewall be a sliding region. In this case, the longitudinal force and the
[18], as given by equations (40) and (41). lateral force can be defined as
(40)
(43)
(41) (44)
kx, ky are the stiffness per unit length for the tread elements in
In order to calculate the longitudinal and the lateral forces,
x and y directions, which can be calculated as
we need to know the length of the adhesion region (la), that

Figure 8. Velocity and slip ratio input profile
can be obtained using the elliptical boundary to limit the

effective tire force, which yields equation (45).
(48)
The aligning moment is derived from the change in the
pneumatic trail, which depends on the lateral force.
Normally, tire testing for aligning moment is performed at
zero longitudinal slip. Because of this, the longitudinal stress
effect is negligible.
(45)
Finally, we combine all forces from the adhesion region and
from the sliding region, and also include the effect of the
camber thrust and of the anisotropic friction conditions, to
(49)
obtain the longitudinal and the lateral forces, which can now
be described mathematically as illustrated in equations (46)
and (47). SIMULATION AND RESULTS
We selected two scenarios for simulation, to illustrate the
The longitudinal force is obtained as: transient behavior of the tire model as reflected by the
longitudinal force response and by the slip angle variation.
Longitudinal response
(46) The simulation is performed assuming that the vehicle travels
at constant velocity (30 km/h) with zero slip angle and zero
The lateral force is obtained as: camber angle. Then, at time, t = 0 second, the car starts to
accelerate to reach 2 m/s2 and the acceleration rate is kept
constant until time, t = 3.5 seconds. After that the car travels
with constant speed at 48 km/h for 2.5 seconds, as it can be
(47) seen in Figure 8.
From Figure 9, one can see that the 2D & 3D transient tire
Aligning and overturning moments models are able to capture both steady-state and transient
The overturning and the aligning moments are formulated responses in longitudinal direction, but the steady-state tire
from the empirical data and using theoretical mechanics. The model is limited to the steady-state part. The 3D transient tire
overturning moment depends on the lateral force, vertical model shows some lagging responses compare to the 2D
force, slip angle, and camber angle. transient tire model. Moreover, while the velocity is

Figure 9. Longitudinal force responses
Figure 10. Slip angle input profile
constantly increasing (between 2 sec. and 3 sec.) we notice km/h, with zero longitudinal slip ratio and with 0, 2, 4, 6
that the longitudinal force is linearly decreasing. degree camber angles.
Lateral response From the results shown in Figures 11 and 12, the 2D & 3D
The response of the tire model due to the variation of the transient tire models capture both transient lateral force
wheel slip angle is studied in this simulation. The wheel slip response and transient aligning moment response, while the
angles are the inputs to the tire model. Changing the wheel steady-state tire model cannot capture the lag behavior of the
slip angle will produce a change in the slip angle at the tire tire in transient maneuver. The 3D transient tire model gives
contact patch in a lagging manner, due to the viscoelastic the lower values for the maximum aligning moment at both
properties of the side wall. The simulation performed uses front and rear of a vehicle than the steady-state and 2D
sinusoidal function as slip angle inputs and yields the slip transient tire models. This is due to the lateral load transfer
angle at tire contact patch, as shown in Figure 10. The lateral which is included in the 3D transient tire model. It results in
force and the aligning moment of the tire model are different vertical loads on left and right tires which yields to
calculated when the vehicle traveled at a constant speed of 30 the unequal lateral force and aligning moment. Therefore, the
tire lag effect and the lateral load transfer are shown to be

Figure 11. Lateral force responses
Figure 12. Aligning moment responses
important factors of the transient tire dynamics, and are well SUMMARY/CONCLUSIONS
captured by the model developed here.
The 3D semi-empirical on-road transient tire model was
From Figures 13 and 14, the camber effects on the lateral developed by including the effects of vertical load, velocity,
force and aligning moment in transient maneuver. The larger longitudinal and lateral load transfers, camber angle, and tire
the camber angle is, the larger the camber effect is on the lag using analytical methods and experimental data. The
lateral response. The camber thrust influenced the lateral transient maneuver simulations were performed for two
force, which increased when turning right and decreased transient case studies: accelerating/braking and lane change
when turning left (with positive camber angle). maneuver to illustrate the transient behavior of the tire and to
compare the transient model with the steady-state and 2D

Figure 13. Camber effects on Lateral force
Figure 14. Camber effects on Aligning moment
transient tire models previously developed at AVDL. The (e.g., temperature and tread design) which will improve the
results presented show that the transient tire model captures accuracy of the model.
the transient behavior of the tire well. The 3D semi-empirical
on-road transient tire model gives more realistic results REFERENCES
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Vol. 23, No. 1, 26-51. Empirical constants in Eq. (2)
32. Clover, C.L. and Bernard, J.E., “The Influence of Lateral
Load Transfer on Directional Response,” SAE Technical Ω
Paper 930763, 1993, doi:10.4271/930763. Spin velocity [rad/s]
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Inflation pressure [N/m2]
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CONTACT INFORMATION b
Width of the belt ring [m]
Anake Umsrithong
PhD Candidate
Mechanical Engineering Department ρ
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Mass of the tread per unit area [kg/m2]
Blacksburg, VA 24061
[email protected]
Ru
Telephone: (607) 262-0646
Unloaded radius of tire [m]
Corina Sandu
Associate professor, PhD. Rl
Mechanical Engineering Department Loaded radius of tire [m]
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Blacksburg, VA 24061
[email protected] Ra
Telephone: (540) 231-7467 Radius of the belt ring [m]
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Rt
Radius of the tread surface [m]
This work has been partially supported by NSF through the
NSF GOALI award CMMI-0700278 and by NASA Langley
through the VIPER award. δ
Total deflection of the tire structure [m]
DEFINITIONS/ABBREVIATIONS
V
s Forward velocity [m/s]
Longitudinal slip ratio
Fx
Sc Longitudinal force [N]
Effective longitudinal slip ratio
Fy
as Lateral force [N]
Empirical constant of Eq. (1)
Fz
α Vertical force [N]
Slip angle at the wheel center [rad]
Mz
αc Aligning moment [N.m]
Slip angle at the tire contact patch [rad]

γ ϕ
Camber angle [rad] Twisting angle about x axis [rad]
β F
Tapered angle of the trapezoidal contact area [rad] Transverse shearing force [N]
Kr Min
Radial spring constant of the sidewall [N/m2] In-plane bending moment [N.m]
Kt T
Twisting torque about x axis of the contact-free belt
Tangential spring constant of the sidewall [N/m2]
[N.m]
Km
Spring constant per unit area of the tread rubber [N/
m2] Axial force and its increment in the belt [N/m]
Cr w* (x, y)
Coefficient of radial viscosity of the sidewall [N.s/m2] Total deflection of the contact belt [m]
Ct
Coefficient of tangential viscosity of the sidewall [N.s/ Additional deflection of the contact belt [m]
m2]
w0 (x, y)
Cm Standard flat deflection of contact belt [m]
Coefficient of viscosity of the tread rubber [N.s/m2]
αi(i = 1 ∼ 5)
Constant coefficients in Eq. (10)
Radial spring constant of one face sidewall in the

γi(i = 1, 2)
contact region [N/m2]
Constant coefficients in Eq. (12)
κi (i = 1 ∼ 4)
Radial coefficient of viscosity of one face sidewall in Constant coefficients in Eq. (13)
the contact region [N.s/m2]
βi (i = 1 ∼ 3)
v Constant coefficients in Eq. (15)
Displacement in the tangential direction [m]
Ci(i = 1 ∼ 6)
w Integral constants in Eq. (10)
Displacement in the inward normal direction [m]
Bi(i = l ∼ 3)
u Integral constants in Eq. (15)
Displacement in the lateral direction [m]

θ Cz1, Cz2
Angular coordinate in the counter clockwise direction Stiffness shape adjustment factors
starting from the bottom of the belt [rad]
σx
θ0, θ1, θ2 Longitudinal force per unit length of the
Half central angle at crown center, front edge, and rear circumference [N/m]
edge, respectively [rad]
σy
Wf Lateral force per unit length of the circumference [N/
Vertical load at the front wheel [N] m]
Wr Kb
Vertical load at the rear wheel [N] Combined stiffness of the tread belt and the sidewall
[N/m]
m
Mass of vehicle [kg] kx, ky
Stiffness per unit length for the tread elements in x and
l y directions [N/m2]
Wheel base [m]
Cs
h Tire longitudinal stiffness [N/%slip]
Height of center of gravity of vehicle [m]
tw
Tire cornering stiffness [N/rad]
Track width of vehicle [m]
μsx, μsy
l1
Sliding coefficient of friction in longitudinal direction
Distance from front wheel to center of gravity of
and in lateral direction, respectively
vehicle [m]
μsy
l2
Sliding coefficient of friction in lateral direction
Distance from rear wheel to center of gravity of
vehicle [m]
μpx, μpy
lp Peak coefficient of friction in longitudinal direction
and in lateral direction, respectively
Length of the contact patch [m]
Cγ
la
Camber inclination stiffness [N/rad]
Length of the adhesion region [m]
Cmxγ, Cmxα
Kz
Empirical shape factors in Eq. (48)
Tire vertical stiffness [N/m]
Cmz1, Cmz2, Cmz3

Kz0
Empirical shape factors in Eq. (49)
Dynamic stiffness at zero camber and slip angle [N/m]

Dy, Dz
Bending stiffness of belt about y and z axes,
respectively [N.m2]
Dxx, Dyy, Dxy, Dss

Bending stiffness of FRR composite belt [N.m]
G
Shear modulus of rubber [N/m2]
H
Thickness of the tread [m]
ax, ay
Acceleration in longitudinal and lateral directions,
respectively [m/s2]
Pz (x, y)
Contact pressure distribution [N/m2]
Qy
Camber thrust [N]

APPENDIX A
DETERMINATION OF THE
STANDARD FLAT DEFLECTION
AND THE ADDITIONAL
DEFLECTION
Determination of standard flat deflection

(w1 and w2)
w1 and w2 are determined by using the equilibrium equations
about the vertical force (Fz) and the twisting moment (T)
about the x axis at the contact end.
Figure A1. Moment equilibrium about x axis at the
The vertical force can be described in two ways: upward and contact end
downward definitions. (Estimated by neglecting terms)
Upward definition: Determination of additional deflection

The additional deflection can be determined by using the
equilibrium equation in vertical direction at contact belt (Eq.
(A1) 33) and boundary conditions at the contact edge

as shown in equations A4, A5, A6, A7.
Downward definition:
The boundary conditions for transverse shearing force:
(A4)
(A5)
(A2)
The boundary conditions for out-of-plane bending moment:

From Figure A1, we can derive the moment equilibrium
equation as:
(A6)
(A3)
We can determine w1 and w2 by solving equations A1, A2, (A7)

A3.
The Galerkin's method is used to solve . We introduce
two weight functions of ρ1(x, y) and ρ2(x, y) as:
(A8)

By applying the weight functions to equilibrium equation

(Eq. 33) and boundary conditions at the contact edge (Eq. A4,
A5, A6, A7), we have six equations to determine a0 - a5, as
shown below in (A9).
(A9)
Where
(A10)

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Downloaded from SAE International by Oxford Brookes University - Welcome to SAE Mobilus Academic Digital Library , Wednesday, November

A 3D Semi-Empirical On-Road Transient Tire 2010-01-1916

Copyright © 2010 SAE International

many flexible filaments of high modulus cord and glass fiber,

42 SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1

SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1 43

Geometry of contact patch (7)

Tire contact patch length Also, we know that:

Then, substituting equation (7) into equation (8) yields

Figure 2. Geometrical relations between tire contact

Figure 3. Tire structure deformations with γ camber

Contact pressure distribution and vertical

44 SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1

by the elastic foundation under the inflation pressure without

Contact-free belt deformation analysis

The equilibrium equation in z direction Substituting equation 12 into equation 13 yields

The equilibrium equation in x direction

The equilibrium equation in y direction (17)

SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1 45

Contact belt deformation analysis

A is the maximum relative displacement between the belt and

The twisting torque is (29)

Next, we considered the deformation of the contact belt in the

46 SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1

After we determine the standard flat deflection, and the

The belt structure in the contact area has been approximated

When the vehicle is accelerating or braking, the vertical force

SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1 47

Vertical load at the front wheel:

Vertical load at the rear wheel:

Some studies showed that the lateral load transfer influences

b). 2 degrees camber angle

Longitudinal and lateral Forces

48 SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1

Figure 8. Velocity and slip ratio input profile

can be obtained using the elliptical boundary to limit the

SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1 49

Figure 9. Longitudinal force responses

Figure 10. Slip angle input profile

50 SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1

Figure 11. Lateral force responses

Figure 12. Aligning moment responses

SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1 51

Figure 13. Camber effects on Lateral force

Figure 14. Camber effects on Aligning moment

52 SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1

SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1 53

with Camber Angle”, Tire Science and Technology, TSTCA, a1, a2

54 SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1

Radial spring constant of one face sidewall in the

SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1 55

Cmz1, Cmz2, Cmz3

56 SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1

Dxx, Dyy, Dxy, Dss

SAE Int. J. Commer. Veh. | Volume 3 | Issue 1 57

Determination of standard flat deflection

Upward definition: Determination of additional deflection

(A1) 33) and boundary conditions at the contact edge

The boundary conditions for out-of-plane bending moment: