INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

CONCEPT OF RESEARCH
Research in common way refers to a search of knowledge.
Definitions
Research is a scientific investigation that involves the collection, analysis and interpretation of
data to generate knowledge on the geographical phenomena.

Research is a scientific and systematic process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting data
basing on a certain phenomena.

Research is a scientific and systematic investigation in some fields of knowledge or is a

scientific search for relevant information on specific topic.
Characteristics of Research
i) It has a goal. (i.e. it is directed towards solving a specific problem).
ii) It is empirical (i.e. Based on observation and experiment), hence requires accurate
handling of the problem.
iii) It involves collecting new information for a purpose.
iv) It requires expertise.
v) The information obtained is carefully recorded and reported.
vi) It is scientific; it is based on empirical evidence with carefully designed study.

Therefore, Research involves a systematic application of research methods to the

study of issues in Geography or elsewhere.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
 To search for a new knowledge/insights.
 To gain familiarity with a certain phenomena or to achieve new insights into it.
 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
 To develop theory about certain social economic phenomena.
 To test hypothesis so as to find out their reliability.
 To explain/describe about certain phenomena.
 To find solution to the existing problems.
 To make evaluation of a certain issue.

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN DAILY LIFE

1. Research develops or generates new knowledge e.g. one can establish the cause of
downfall of sisal production in Tanga. The information produced can be applied in many
different ways and places.
2. It helps to improve human activities for the betterment of people e.g A society can
develop irrigation scheme when finds out that there is food shortage.
3. Research can be used to develop new theories and laws.
4. It helps to improve various sectors as related to daily life e.g Agriculture, industries, etc.

1
 5. It provides reliable and needed information to data bank.
6. Research enable in finding solutions about the special problems e.g HIV, hunger, etc.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

There are three main types of research basing on the objectives of research:

i. Basic/pure research.
It is Research that provides a fundamental body of knowledge. It is a type of research
which is conducted to collect data to advance or develop a certain scientific knowledge.
(“Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”).
ii. Applied research
It is Research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society. The
knowledge obtained is used to solve an existing problem.
iii. Evaluative research
It is a type of research which is conducted purposely to measure or asses the achievement
of a certain scientific practice. It provides a mechanism to monitor, revise, correct, and
maintain the planned change.
Research Approaches
The above description of the types of research brings to light the fact that there are two basic
approaches to research, in other books these are types of research According to the type of data
to be collected.
i. Quantitative research
Quantitative research is usually involves collecting and converting data into numerical
form so that statistical calculations can be made and conclusions drawn. The data may
include height, weight, distance, age and any information that can be assigned numerical
value. It focuses on the measurement of quantity. It is applicable on phenomena that can
be expressed in terms of quantity like population data, tonnage of oil, crops and minerals.
It tries to answer the question how much? How many?
ii. Qualitative research.
It concerned with qualitative phenomena like human behavior and experience, including
contradictory beliefs, behaviors and emotions. The qualitative approach investigates the
why and how of decision making, not just what, where, when. The data gathered are
purely in form of description. It is alternatively called Descriptive research. It uses the
following methods of data collection: observation, interview, focus group discussion, oral
stories, and document review.
RESEARCH DATA

Data - Is a body of information collected from different sources about a particular

problem.
Types/Sources of Data in Research
There are two main types of data: Primary and Secondary data.
i. Primary data
Is the first hand data collected directly from the field/source, they are obtained through
interviews, questionnaires, observation and focus group discussion.
ii. Secondary data

2
 Is the data collected from documents/ other researches done by other researchers, they are
obtained from published documents through reading books, journals, economics, survey,
census report, official report, videos, etc. they are secondary data because they are not
collected directly from the field.
Field research
This is a task of collecting data physically from the field.
Advantages of Field Research
o Provides researcher with first-hand experience and knowledge.
o Researchers observe the relationship between various things, events, behaviour
and trends.
o Enables the researchers to understand the relationship between human beings and
the natural environment.
o Provides practical knowledge to researchers.
Challenges of Field Research
o They are expensive and time consuming.
o It is difficult for the researchers to distance themselves from biasness in the
research study.
o Documentation of observations is usually difficult as it is not easy to decide the
details to include and to remember all the details if you write your notes later.
o Some data may not be accessed when a researcher is perceived as a stranger to the
community.
o It is difficult for a researcher to get data when the topic is sensitive.
o Failure of the researcher to be flexible in the field in terms of time, cost and
unexpected events.
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Before conducting a research one need to develop a research proposal, it is a document
written by a researcher that provides a detailed description of the proposed study.
The main purpose of the proposal is to show that the proposed research is addressing a
problem that is significant enough to warrant an investigation and will make an original
contribution to knowledge.
A good proposal will demonstrate a clear vision of what you want to investigate, why this is
an interesting topic, how you will approach the research question and what the expected
outcomes will be.
Research proposal involves the following items;
a) Research topic
b) Background to the problem
c) Statement of the problem
d) Objectives of the study
e) Significance of the study
f) Limitation of the study
g) Literature review
h) Research methodology and design
i) Time and budget

3
 Importance of research proposal
The research proposal is an important document and if well designed can be valuable in
forming an outline of your thesis. It serves as a starting point for your proposed research and
can be useful in giving you focus and defining your research plans.
The significances of a research proposal are:
i. It help to show that the problem you propose to investigate is significant enough to
warrant the investigation,
ii. Shows how the method you plan to use is suitable and feasible,
iii. It shows that the results are likely to prove fruitful and will make an original contribution.
iv. It helps you to further define your research question and enables you to demonstrate how
you intend to go about answering that question.
v. The research proposal is able to give an overview of the research project so that other
people understand the scope of the research, the significance of the research, as well as
your proposed methodology and chosen research method.
vi. It eradicates the possible confusion in the intended research work.
vii. It helps to check the strength of the basic items related to the topic before conducting the
actual research work.

STAGES OF CONDUCTING RESEARCH

Research is always both systematic and purposeful. It is conducted in a certain orderly
manner as shown in the stages below;
1. Problem identification
Formulating the research problem begins during the first steps of the scientific process. The term
problem here refers to the question or idea of interest which should be answered through data
collection.
The researcher identifies a problem to be researched e.g Child labour, poor performance, etc.
Qualities/Characteristics of A Research Problem/Topic
1. The research problem must be carefully selected and come from the researcher’s mind.
2. Must be clear, precise and meaningful.
3. It must relate to the subject of interest e.g A Geographer can do a research on the
following issues; Climate, soil, etc.
4. Specific i.e. clearly related to the intention of the study
5. The research problem must be short and clear to avoid vague and ambiguity.
6. It should be stated in simple language
7. Not too obvious
8. One with reliable linked sources of information
9. It should be under financial affordability
10. It must have variables.
Steps in developing a geographic research problem
i. Identify the issue that requires research attention;
ii. State what would be a favourable situation if that issue is resolved;
iii. State what the current situation is that exists in relative to the favourable situation;
iv. Review the literature available on the problem so as to fill knowledge gap;
v. Show how important your research is.

Sources of Research Problem

4
The following are the sources of research problem/topic:
 The existing situation in the society
 The past research works. These are important sources of research topic since one is
expected to fill the gap of other researchers.
 Personal experience.
 Conclusion from various theories.

2. Literature Review
This involves reading of various publications to know what other scholars/researchers
have done about what you are investigating.
Significance of literature review;
a) It guides the researcher to do a research on what other researchers have not gone
through in order to avoid repetition.
b) It helps a researcher to get more information about the problem he/she intends to
deal with.
c) It saves time by preventing unexpected difficulties.
d) It guides the researcher to adopt different/better methodology for the problem
under investigation.

Sources of literature reviews are journals/reports, books, internet.

3. Research objectives
A research has one general objective from which several specific objectives a researcher
seeks to attain are derived.
The general objective gives a broad response to the research problem. While, specific
objectives break down general objective into smaller logically connected parts.
Specific objectives should be SMART;
o Specific; should have a clear statement focusing on a specific issue.
o Measurable; should consist of measurable variables.
o Attainable; must ensure that those objectives are achievable.
o Realistic; must be relevant.
o Time bound; must be accomplished within a specific time limit.
4. Formulation of Hypothesis and Research Questions
At this stage, the researcher should state clearly the research questions or research
hypotheses. Usually, qualitative studies use research questions instead of hypotheses.
Hypothesis is an assumption/prediction on what one expects to find out in the field. It
shows the relationship between variables under study.
OR; Hypothesis is a prediction of outcome of the results. It is the statement of expected
results.
A hypothesis can be either true or false.
In order to be a good hypothesis that can be tested or studied, a hypothesis:
a) Needs to be simple, clear and logical
b) Must use precise language
c) Should be testable with research or experimentation
d) It should be very specific and limited to the study at hand.
e) It should be relevant to the research problem.
Sources of research hypothesis;

5
  Observation
 Experience
 Suggestions
 Environment

Types of research hypothesis

i. Null hypothesis - Is the one that is stated in negation i.e. it indicates non relationship
between the variables. This is the one which tries to reject the possibility.
For example;
a) There is no relationship between the altitude and temperature of a place.
b) Drought is not the cause of food shortage in Dakawa.
ii. Alternative hypothesis - Is the one stated to indicate the actual expectation. It indicates
relationship between the variables.
For example;
a) There is a negative relationship between the altitude and temperature of a place.
b) Drought is the cause of food shortage in Dakawa.
Functions/ Importance of hypotheses
i. Guide the researcher to stick in his/her right track
ii. Prevent wastage of time and resources in doing unrelated activities
iii. Suggest theories when tested and being approved
iv. They provide a starting point for an investigation

Variables
A variable is defined as a factor of interest that a researcher would like to handle, observe
or manipulate in the research. It is a measurable characteristic in a research.
There are two major types of variables which are as follows:
i. Independent variable. This is the variable the researcher has control over and
thinks will affect the dependent variable. It represents the cause or reason for an
outcome. For example; Factors affecting population size of a given district. The
factors constitute the independent variables.
ii. Dependent variable. This is the change or outcomes which occur as a result of the
independent variable. It responds to the independent variable and it is called so
because it depends on the independent variable.

5. Reconnaissance/Pre-survey
It is the pilot study of the area before the actual data collection is done.
It is a brief survey of the study area so as to be familiar with an area and judge on tools to
be used. Reconnaissance enables the researchers to:
a) Finalise the selection of the study areas for field data collection;
b) Collect preliminary information on the number and location of the study
population;
c) Identify logistical requirements based on local conditions and plan for field data
collection;
d) Familiarize with the area or site where the research will be conducted;
e) Prepare a work plan for conducting research activities.
6. Research Design/Study Design

6
This is the frame work of the research on how data will be collected and processed. It
consists of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher. It is an outline of
what the researcher will do in the whole research process.

Research design tries to answer questions like;-

 What to do and how to do it?
 What is the study about?
 Why is the study being made?
 Where will the study be carried out? (Case study/ Sample area)
 What types of data are needed?
 Where data can be found?
 What period of time will the study include?
 What techniques of data collection will be used?
Research design must contain the following;-
 Clear statement of the research problem
 Procedures and techniques (ways/methods) to be used in the process of gathering
data.
 Introducing the population to be studied/ involved in the study (Sample)
 Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data (data analysis techniques)
 Time frame and estimated financial matters in every period of study.
Characteristics of a good research design;-
 It should be flexible
 It should be appropriate and efficient (be able to minimize biases and
experimental errors and opportunities to get more information).
 It should be able to yield maximum information with minimum expenditure of
time and money.
Importance of research design;-
 Increases efficiency in operational part of the entire research
 It paves room for comments and critics from scholars/people
 It increases coherence of ideas due to plan/design set
 It assures reliability of the results/conclusion/outcomes
 It encourages the researcher to collect divertive/agreeable information on the topic
within limited time and resources.

Selecting a target population and sample;-

Sample and Sampling
The people that the researcher has in mind from whom he/she can obtain information are
called the target population. The target population may be defined by human or
animals, objects, institutions, interest groups, and many others, with common
characteristics that are of interest to the researcher.
Research sample is defined as part of the entire population in the research chosen
systematically from the target population through which generalization is made.
Sampling is the process of collecting samples from the population.

7
The basic issues to be considered in selecting representative sample for the target
population are:-
 Be sure of the entire population/target population.
 Identification of sample size
 Techniques of obtaining sample during study (sampling procedures).
 Budgetary influence.
Sample size:- this depends on the nature of the target population the researcher is dealing
with. It is recommended to include 50% of the population as sample if the entire
population is in hundreds, and 5% to 20% if it is in thousands.
Characteristics of a good sample
 Representativeness: It should reflect the target population. If the population of
coffee farmers consists of male and female farmers, the sample should also
proportionally consist of farmers from both genders;
 Accuracy: It should be free from biasness;
 Adequacy: A good sample must sufficient in size to be reliable.
Sampling design
This is a framework that serves as a basis for the selection of a sample. It refers to the
technique or procedure the researcher adopts for selecting items for the sample.
Types of Sampling
There are two main categories of sampling, namely probability sampling and non-
probability sampling.

A. Probability sampling
In this type every individual in a population has an equal chance to be included in
the sample. There are several types of probability sampling as follows:
i. Simple random sampling
This technique provides an equal chance to every member in a population
to be included in the study. The method, which is sometimes called equal
chance sampling technique or pure probability sampling technique, is of
rotary system.
EXAMPLE: The selection of ten (10) individuals out of the population of
twenty (20);
Twenty pieces of paper are prepared where ten of them are numbered 1 to
10, and then all pieces are folded for the twenty individuals to pick up one
each. Individuals who will get numbered papers will be included in the
study as sample.
Merits/Advantages
 It saves time in the selection of the sample.
 Each member has an equal chance to be selected for the study as it
reduces biasness.
 The method portraits fairness in getting a sample.

Demerits/ Disadvantages
 It is sometimes biased if the administration of the technique is not
well done.
 It can omit important elements. The better sample may not be
chosen.
8
  It is very tiresome.
 It is time consuming especially when the population is high.
 It is representative in Heterogeneous population.
(Heterogeneous population; means a population with different
characteristics).
ii. Stratified sampling
The technique involves identification of groups of different characteristics
in the population where samples from each group/strata are randomly
selected.
Example: A researcher wishes to get a sample of 20 students from 5
schools he/she will have to select 4 students from each.
Merits/Advantages
 It reduces omission of important elements (ensures proportionate
representation).
 It helps to identify the characteristics of the strata (sub-group)
Demerits/ Disadvantages
 It is time consuming method due to its complexity in obtaining actual
sample.
iii. Cluster sampling
It is the sampling technique where large target population is set into
groups and the researcher selects a group randomly and each member in
the group participates in the research.
Merits/Advantages
 It saves time and resources to deal with large population.
 It increases the efficiency in the field work especially in widely scattered
population.
Demerits/ Disadvantages
 Most people do not get chance to be involved in the study because some
clusters are left out during sample selection.
iv. Systematic sampling
This involves selection of the sample randomly at regular intervals from
the sampling frame.
For example: interviewing the second, forth, sixth, eighth and the tenth
person in that order.
Merits/Advantages
 It reduces the possibility of bias in selection due to the criteria set.
Demerits/ Disadvantages
 Some people/elements can’t get chance to be involved in the sample due
to the criteria set.
 It is difficult/time consuming to arrange large population before selection.
B. Non-probability sampling
In this type not every member in a population has an equal chance to be included
in the sample. The forms of non-probability sampling include;
i) Purposive/Judgmental sampling

9
 It is the judgmental sampling in which a researcher uses his/her
knowledge to choose individuals to be samples. Selection of items is
based on a certain purpose, for example only large scale farmers.
ii) Quota sampling
Selection of an item is left to the researcher’s discretion/decision to
meet assigned number. The researcher chooses the individuals
according to specific qualities.
iii) Snowball sampling
The researcher begins with the few individuals available, then those
individual recommend others who will continue to provide
information.
iv) Convenience sampling
Sample is selected incidentally and includes only the people who are
easily found for the sample needed. It is usually used for pilot rather
than actual because it is biased.
7. Data Collection
This is the stage in research where the researcher collects information using various tools/
ways/ methods like observation, interview, questionnaire, check list and group discussion.
Factors influencing selection of appropriate data collection method:
 Nature, scope and goal of enquiry (research problem) i.e. searching for primary data,
secondary data or both.
 Availability of fund.
 Time factor.
 Preciseness (clarity) of information.
Data Collection Tools/Methods
The following are the basic and common method to collect primary data in the field.
1) OBSERVATION
It is a systematic data collection method where by a researcher uses his/her five senses of
hearing, tasting, smelling, seeing and touching to observe the phenomena and record what is
observed.
Types of Observation
a. Participant/direct observation
In this method the researcher becomes part of people under study. He/ she participates fully
on a particular event and observe directly.
b. Non – Participant observation
In this method the researcher observes the action, behaviors and activities of the researched
group without participating or being seen by the participants. He/she observes people without
interacting with them.

Advantages of observation
 It is good in the study of behavior which cannot be easily recorded.
 One can obtain additional information to the former information collected by other tools.
 It is useful in occasions where respondents cannot provide verbal information like
animals and children.
 It enables the researcher to overcome language barrier.

10
  Primary and up-to-date information is collected. This reduces the chances of hiding or
exaggerating some of the facts because the researcher observes the phenomenon in a
natural setting.
 Helps to develop skills like observation, recording, interpreting and imaging geographical
phenomena.
 Data are recorded as they occur.
 It is a quick method of data collection.
 It is flexible to use wherever and whenever needed.

Challenges of observation
 It is expensive if the sites are scattered.
 Sometimes it is time consuming
 If the researcher is not educated enough then limited information can be collected.
 It is not suitable for large samples or large population.
 It can give wrong information especially when the respondent discovers that they are
researched.
 Sometime it may involve risk taking especially when you are observing people that are
doing something illegal in the society.
 It is subjective (taking place within the mind and modified by individual bias) because
data is based on personal observation.
2) INTERVIEW
This is a verbal interaction between a researcher and a respondent.
It is the method of data collection which depends on oral questions between interviewee
(one who answers the questions) and interviewer (one who asks the questions).
It can be done in two ways - face to face interview or telephone, zoom and Skype
interview.
Advantages of interview
 The interview enables a researcher to obtain required information quickly.
 Not restricted, it is flexible. There is great opportunity to restructure the questions since
the researcher can observe directly and recognize the feelings; attitude; reactions;
gestures and all body language communication of the respondents.
 Interview can adapt to situation and gets as much information as required.
 Provide data which is not possible to get through questionnaires. It is useful for
respondents who cannot read and write, but can answer questions in a normal verbal way.
 Interview method can also employ observation method.
 Interview gives/yield high responses because it is difficult for the interviewee to refuse
completely to answer the question or ignore the interviewer.
 Supplementary (extra) information can be collected
 It is easy to control the size of sample through adding or reducing the number of
respondents.
 More information can be collected since the researcher can be able to elaborate more on
the issue concerned.
 Can be held with both literate and illiterate respondents
Challenges of interview
 In case of language barrier between the interviewer and the respondent, it may be
impossible to collect data.

11
 It is time consuming method especially when the sample is large and the research is
conducted in areas with spaced population. It is not appropriate for a large sample.
 It needs a researcher who has experience, knowledge and skills on research so as to get
proper information.
 It is costly and expensive because a researcher has to move from one place to another to
meet respondents.
 If the respondents are suspicious of the information required they can give irrelevant
information.
TYPES OF INTERVIEWS
A. Structured Interview
The interview which follows the pre-set questions is known as structured interview. It is
the type of interview in which the same questions are asked to respondents.
The researcher prepares questions which he/she asks each respondent in a good order and
manner.
Major Characteristics of structured Interview
 Questions are planned before the interview
 There is limitation of participant’s flexibility in asking questions.
 Interviewers and interviewees with low exposure on the topic can participate
because the questions are well designed to meet the needs of the tentative
assumptions.
Advantages
 A researcher can compare answers from different respondents to see their validity.
 It is possible to use quantitative analysis to analyze the data.
 It is not time consuming.
Disadvantages
 It is inflexible; researcher cannot ask more questions apart from those prepared
before.
 Some hidden information cannot be obtained easily.
B. Unstructured Interview
The interview without questions to follow is known as non-structured (unstructured)
interview.
Probing is commonly used to get deeper information. The questions vary from one
respondent to another.
Major Characteristics of unstructured Interview
 Questions are formulated on spot
 There is greater freedom of approach to questioning
 People with low knowledge or low exposure on the study topic can’t participate
as interviewers as well as interviewees.
Advantages
 More information can be revealed because of high degrees of freedom.
 Respondents are given chances to say more on what they are asked.
Disadvantages
 It is time consuming because it involves probing questions.
 Researcher can’t be able to compare answers given because different questions
are asked to different respondents.
 If it is not controlled/ planned it may collect irrelevant information.

12
 NB; When the researcher makes use of this technique, he/she must use well-
structured questions, semi-structured questions and unstructured questions. It is
important that a mixture of these questions is used because it is the best in
interviews.
Note; Basing on number of participants in the interview session, there are three types
of interview namely;

i. One to one
ii. Many to many
iii. Many to one (panel interview)
Interview can also be classified as personal (face to face) interview and telephone
interview.
Procedures for conducting an interview
i. Explain briefly the purpose of the interview.
ii. Create friendly atmosphere where two people can talk easily.
iii. Instill confidence and trust to the respondent by assuring his/her information
given would be confidential.
iv. Encourage the interviewee to keep on talking by maintaining warmth and
friendliness. It enables respondent to express in detail their thought and feelings.
v. Do not record the responses unless it is necessary to do so.
vi. Be neutral in note taking and don’t suggest any answer.
vii. Use simple language which will be understood by the interviewee.
viii. The questions should be direct and clear.

3) QUESTIONNAIRES
This is a tool of gathering information through a series of written question related to the
objectives of the study which are given to the respondent to be answered. The questions
demand short answers with brief clarification.
Components / Essentials of questionnaires;
 It should have a Title
 It should clearly explain the aim of the study
 It should have Response instructions – how to fill in the responses/answers
 It should have Bibliographical information – personal information like age,
marital status, gender, qualification and source of income.
 The actual question statements
o Questions should be as simple as possible and the organization should
start from simple to more complex questions.
o Questions should be arranged in a logical sequence usually reflecting the
arrangement of research objectives.
o Personal and sensitive questions should be avoided
o Questions should be clear.
o Questions should be as short as possible.
 Return instructions – should be written at the end, Eg:- deposit well filled in
questionnaires in the box provided.
 Gratitude section – a word of thanks to the respondent(s) should be written at the
end of the questionnaire.

13
 Advantages of questionnaires
 It is time saving method where very large sample can be involved within short time.
 Researchers get a lot of information from different respondent and from different area in
the country.
 It is well planned (structured). Research assistants with minimum training can be used to
administer the questionnaires.
 It can be analysed more scientifically than other forms of research.
 It has the possibility of using distant respondents.
 Omission of names makes the respondent to respond to the questions.
 Data collected can easily be compared.
Challenges
 It is selective in nature as it is applicable only to literate people.
 It is not flexible since the questions are structured in advance.
 It cannot capture people’s emotions, behaviour or feelings.
 It time consuming. Delay in filling in the questionnaire can emerge especially in personal
delivery with collection after time interval.
 Some questionnaires may be lost especially in mailed administration.
 It is difficult to elaborate points in the questions that might have been misinterpreted by
the respondents.
 Some respondents may not be honest in writing their opinions. Others may use abusive
language. Thus it may be difficult to get the right information required.
 It is expensive to prepare.
TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
I. Structured/closed - Ended questionnaires
These are questions which are accompanied by a list of all possible alternatives from
which respondent select the answer that is best. They can only make indication of
accepting or rejecting the statement(s). Examples include yes, no, true or false responses.
The respondents are limited on answering the questions.
ADVANTAGES
 They are easier to analyze.
 They are easier to administer because each item is followed by an alternative answer
DISADVANTAGES
 Are more difficult to construct because categories must be well thought out.
 Responses are limited; the respondent is required to answer the questions according to the
researcher’s choice.
II. Unstructured/open – ended questionnaires
Are question where by the respondents are free to express their views through brief
clarification.
Example: Are girls stronger academically than boys?............... Why?
…………………………………………………………………
They permit respondent to respond in his/her words. The space provided is however an
indicator of whether a brief or long answers is required

ADVANTAGES
 Allow a greater chance of responses.

14
  Simple to formulate because a researcher does not have to come up with appropriate
response categories.
 Can stimulate a person to think about his/her feelings and to express what he/she consider
most important.
DISADVANTAGES
 When the respondent is not fine, he/she may give information which does not answer the
concerned research questions.
 It is time consuming
PROCEDURES CONSIDERED IN PREPARING QUESTIONNAIRE
 Questions should be short and straight forward
 Question asked should follow the order
 Question should be polite
 Question should be free from bias
Mode of administering questionnaires:
 Mailing
 Personal administration with on spot collection
 Personal delivery with collection after time interval

Mail Questionnaires
This is the type of questionnaires which involves mailing questions to the respondent.
It can be through post mail, email, etc.
4) Focus Group Discussion
It is the method of gathering data which involves an intensive discussion done by a small
group of people. They are asked about their perceptions, opinions, beliefs and attitudes
towards a certain problem that the researcher requires the information.
Normally it is done in groups of 5 to 8 people in order to give an opportunity to every
member to participate in the discussion.
A researcher guides the discussion and records the data from what is discussed by the
members.
ADVANTAGES
 Data collected are reliable because of thorough checks and balances among the
participants
 Researcher becomes an active person in the discussion
 A large amount of data can be collected from a small group of participants
 Respondent get skills of writing , speaking and coordinating
 Makes respondents understand the topic well
 Allows critical thinking to the participants
 Makes the research topic to be live and interesting among participants

CHALLENGES
 Not easy to analyse and compile the data collected since the method produces a lot of
information.
 If not well-guided, participants may extend discussion to irrelevant stories outside the
scope of study
 Very small sample is used
 Selection of sample may be affected by biasness

15
  If not well organized some participants may dominate the discussion.
 It is time consuming as the discussion involves interaction of different views.
5) Check list
This is the method of gathering data where the list of items to be verified is made. The
presence or absence, the quality and quantity of such items will be the observed information
of the study.
6) Content analysis
This is the method of gathering information from records. Extensive and intensive reading is
made.
7) Case study
It is a very popular method which involves a careful and complete observation of a unit, a
family, an institution, cultural group or even entire community. It emphasizes on intensive
investigation of the particular unit under consideration.

7. Data Processing and Analysis

Data Processing: It involves arrangement of raw data into their readable form. It includes
validation, sorting, classification, calculation and organization of data.

Data Analysis: This is the stage in research where collected information is inspected,
rearranged, modified and transformed so as to extract useful information. Data is changed
into numerical form or sensible ideas, analysed (simplified) by using analysis techniques then
presented using tables, graphs, charts and maps.

8. Data Presentation and Interpretation

Data Presentation: This depends on the nature of the data.

 Quantitative data presentation involves the use of statistical techniques such as tables,
graphs and diagrams.
 Qualitative data are presented in textual format such as direct quotes or paraphrasing.
Data Interpretation: In this stage data is organized and assembled to permit drawing of
conclusion and actions basing on the facts collected.
After getting the right information the analyzed data is interpreted in different statistical
graphs, charts, figures, etc. That can be understood by everyone.

9. Testing Hypothesis

The hypothesis had to be tested against the data obtained. In this stage the researcher finds out if
the information gathered and analysed support the hypothesis on not. The hypothesis can either
be accepted or rejected. The rejected hypotheses can be modified to comply with the collected
information (reality). However, if the hypothesis appears wrong, the researcher has to go back to
the problem and start afresh.

10. Report Writing

16
This is the last step in research where a researcher communicates his or her findings to other
researchers or the public.
The following are the importance of research report.
a) It explains what has been done.
b) It exposes the problems which have been researched and their implications.
c) It fully presents the outcome of the research data.
d) It provides the data about the problem.

THE REPORT FORMAT

The research report should have three main parts;

a) Preliminary pages
b) Main body
c) Conclusion
A. PRELIMINARY PAGES
They save as the guide to the reader. Preliminary pages of the report are written in roman
numbers.
1st Page: Title of the research
2nd Page: Declaration and copyright; that the work belongs to the said researcher.
3rd Page: Acknowledgement. (Researcher’s gratitude to all whom in one way or another helped
him/her to be successful)
th
4 Page: Table of contents.
5th Page: List of tables (if any)
6th Page: List of figures
7th Page: Abstract –This summarize the whole research work. It should not be more than 120
words.
B. THE MAIN BODY
It contains five chapters;

Chapter 1 Introduction
The Chapter contains the following parts;
 Background of the study.
 Statement of the research problem.
 Objective of the study.
 Research Questions or Hypotheses.
 The scope of the study.
 Significance of the study.

Chapter 2 Literature Review

This section covers the literature review of other researchers who did a similar research in the
past.
It defines key terms and concepts used in the study.
Also the researcher establishes the knowledge gap from the existing literature.

Chapter 3 Research Methodology

This describes the methodology adopted in conducting the study/research; e.g;-

17
  How the study was carried out.
 Location of the study area.
 Tools of data collection and data analysis techniques.

Chapter 4 Research findings and Discussion

The section presents the findings of the research. The findings must be discussed, linked and
compared with other existing empirical studies.

Chapter 5 Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

Provide detailed summary of the findings and the implications drawn from the results. It involves
also checking whether the objectives of the study have been achieved.
Recommendations are presented for improving the situation and for further studies.

Supplementary pages (end matters)

This section includes Bibliography and Appendices. They are presented at the end of the report.
 Bibliography involves a list of references consulted when writing the research report.
 References are a list of all reading materials cited in the report.
 Appendices are a list of attachments for referring when reading the report.
(Eg; Copies of research tools, research permits and other information, which could not
be included in the main document)
The uses of research outputs and recommendations
1. Help to improve the knowledge of the people e.g Discovery of diseases.
2. The results help in finding solutions to the problems facing the society e.g Diseases,
social inequalities, and famine.
3. The results improve economic and social activities e.g Introduction of new breeds of
cattle.
4. Research can lead to exploitation of new resources like minerals and fossil fuel.
5. It helps to identify the specific need of each community e.g Community A needs schools,
Community B needs water, etc.
6. Research results are useful in protecting and conserving the environment.
7. They are used in formulating government policies.

NATURAL REGIONS OF THE WORLD

CLIMATE AND NATURAL REGIONS

18
 Climatic Types of the World and Their Characteristics
The world climatic types on the basis of temperature are classified into four basic types;

I. HOT CLIMATES

Is the climatic type of the world characterized by mean annual temperature which is over 21ºC
and has the following natural vegetation; Equatorial Forests, Monsoon Forest and Tropical
Grassland scrub e.g Equatorial, Tropical Desert, Monsoon and Marine areas.

II. WARM CLIMATES

Is the world’s climatic type whereby no month has the temperature of less than 7ºC and have the
following natural vegetation, Evergreen Woodland and Grassland Temperate Forest e.g West
Margin and China Type.

III. COOL CLIMATES

Is the world’s climatic type whereby one to five month have temperature below 7ºC and have the
following natural vegetation; Temperate Forest, Grassland and Scrub e.g British Type, Cool
Temperate Interior and Laurentian Type.

IV. COLD CLIMATES

Is the world’s climatic type whereby six months or more have temperature below 7ºC and the
natural vegetation are Nil, Mosses, Lichen and Coniferous Forest e.g Polar, Tundra, West
Margin, etc.

FACTORS INFLUENCING CLIMATE

The characteristics of various type of climate are a result of the following factors;

A. Latitude

-Influences temperatures on the surface of the earth whereby the areas nearer to the Equator
experience higher temperature than those far away.

-Shifting of the overhead position of the sun is determined by latitudes and has an influence on
climate.

B. Altitude

-Influences temperature and pressure of a region.

-Low altitude regions are warmer and experience high atmospheric pressure while high altitude
areas are cooler and have low pressure.

19
 C. Distance from the sea

-Has an influence in both temperature and rainfall of a region. During summer onshore winds
have cooling effect on the land which is warm.

-During winter the sea is warmer than the land.

d) Aspect

Aspect refers to the direction in which a slope faces e.g in The Northern Hemisphere, the
Southern ward slopes are warmer than the North ward facing slopes. This is because the North
slopes never receive direct sunshine as the sun in this region never gets over head.

-Windward slopes of highlands receive much higher rainfall than the Leeward slopes.

e) Ocean Currents

Current flowing along the Coasts tend to modify the climate of the Coastal regions. Where
onshore wind blow over a cold ocean current are cooled from the below and the moisture they
are carrying is condensed and dropped over the sea as rain.

f) Prevailing Winds

Wind is a medium of transfer of heat and moisture over the land. If wind is blowing from a warm
region, it has the warming effects over the region it is blowing across and if wind will blow from
cold region it will be cold and will cool the land over which it is blowing.

g) Human Activities

Like development of settlements, agriculture and construction of dams and creation of man made
lakes have influence on climate. In recent times we are realizing the effects of human activities
in causing climate change, caused by clearing of forests , draining and cultivating swamp areas,
emission of Chlorofluorocarbons and other gases from factories and motor vehicles.

NATURAL REGIONS OF THE WORLD

Natural Regions are geographical areas with uniform physical characteristics that distinguish it
from other natural regions.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THESE REGIONS

- They experience similar problems.

- They have same geographical back ground.
- Are unified by the same certain latitudes which help in locating them over.
- Tend to have almost the same type of soil and vegetation cover.
- They have the same occupation such as a mining, agriculture and animal husbandry.

20
TYPES/ CLASSIFICATIONS OF NATURAL REGIONS
1. Equatorial Regions.
2. Tropical/savannah Region.
3. Mediterranean.
4. Hot Desert.
5. Warm Temperate Interior Region.
6. Cold Temperate Continental Region (SIBERIAN TYPE).
7. Cool Temperate West margin Region (BRITISH TYPE).
8. Cool Temperate Eastern margin Region (LAURENTIAN TYPE).
9. Warm Temperate Eastern coast margin Region (CHINA TYPE).
10. Monsoon Region.
11.Mountain Region.
12. Tundra and Polar Region.

1. EQUATORIAL REGIONS

Location: The religion is found between 0° - 5° North and South of the equator.
Area found: west coastal Nigeria S.W and S. Central Ghana, Congo, and Amazon basin / East
Indies.

Characteristics of Equatorial
- High temperature about 27°c throughout the year.
- Annual temperature range is 2°c.
- Rainfall is heavy throughout the year.
- The Annual rainfall is about 2000mm.
- There are no seasons of the year.
- Type of rainfall is convectional.
Crops grown are cassava, groundnuts, maize, millet, beans, bananas.

Human activities: Plantation agriculture, fishing, cultivation, peasantry sedentary agriculture.

Common animals found: Monkey, gorillas, crocodiles, and hippopotamus.

2. TROPICAL REGION /GRASSLAND/SAVANNAH/SUDAN TYPE

Location: the region is found between 5° - 20°North and South of the equator Between
equatorial and tropical desert.
Area found: East and Central Africa, Brazilian plateau, Venezuela, Africa and N. Australia.
Climate: hot wet summer season, warm dry winter, rainfall is moderate. Torrential rainfall
associated with thunderstorms in annual range of temperature increases with the distance from
equator.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPICAL REGION

-High temperature range from 20°c - 32°c.

21
-Temperature range is 8°c.
Total rain varies from 500mm to 1500mm.
Vegetation: tall grasses which lie dormant in dry season e.g Miombo, palm, acacia,gum tree.
Human activities: Livestock keeping and cultivation.
Animals found: Lion, leopard, zebra, giraffe.
crops grown: cotton .

3. MEDITERRANEAN REGION
It is found between 30° - 45° North and south of the equator around Mediterranean ocean only.
Areas found
- South Eastern Australia, central Chile, central California, north and South America.

CHARACTERISTICS OFMEDITERRANEAN REGION

- Mean temperature is about 20°c - 25°c.
- Annual temperature rainfall is about 500mm to 760mm.
- Has two (2) types of climatic conditions (season) per annual.
- They face problems like TSUNAMI.
- Type of rainfall is cyclonic rainfall.
- The climatic condition is dry in summer and cool wet in winter.
- It is a coastal belt region.
- Rain has 2 seasons, not throughout the year.

Animal found
- Elephant, rhino, zebra, lion, buffalo.

Human activities
- Tourism, agriculture, fishing and navigation.
- Crops are wheat potatoes, vegetable, maize and fruit cultivation, as orange, lemon and grape
fruits.

4. HOT DESERT
It is located between 15° - 30° latitudes North and south of the equator.Hot Desert of the world
are Sahara, Kalahari, Attacama and Namib desert.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HOT DESERT

- Very high temperature of about 40°c during day time.
- There is very little rainfall usually less than 250 mm a year.

Vegetation
- There is no complete cover of vegetation on the land because is too scanty.
- It consist mostly of thorny club bushes and cacti tropics.

Crops grown are dates, palm, cotton, rice, tobacco,fruit tree and tomato.

Economic activities
- Trading, mining, low agriculture over irrigation around coastal areas.

22
5. WARM TEMPERATE INTERIOR REGION (STEPPE TYPE)

Location : it is located 20° - 35° North and South of the equator.

Areas found
Australia, Argentina, Mexico, USA (Oklahoma, Texas, place of Manchuria).

CHARACTERISTICS OF STEPPE TYPEREGION

- Short warm summer and long cold winter.
- Two seasonal in the year.
- Rainfall is very little because of the dry winds (winds without moisture).
- Type of rainfall is conventional rainfall caused by low pressure system.
- Total annual rain 380mm -700mm, depending on distance of the sea.
- Temperature range from 15ºc- 25ºc depending on place location.
- Maximum temperature during daytime exceed 30ºc.
- When temperature falls less than Oºc the land is covered with ice (snow).
- The area experience low rainfall in general which form in spring and early summer.

Human activities
- Animal rearing ( cattle and sheep ranching ) to large grassland.
- Agriculture, main crop cultivate is wheat, maize, linseed.
- Mining in grassland (coal, oil, and iron ores).

Environmental Problem
- Environmental pollution (air) due to industries.
- Deforestation.
- Snow fall destroy crops.
- Floods, soil erosion.
- Dust storm, thunderstorms.
- Drought condition.
- Leaching.

6. COLD TEMPERATE CONTINENTAL REGION (SIBERIAN TYPE)

Location.
Northern hemisphere along 60ºN in Europe, Asia and Northern America.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SIBERIAN TYPE

Location.
- Short warm summer season, long cold winter season warmest month reached about 30ºc.
- Annual temperature range is 37ºc very high due to distance from the sea.
- Minimum temperature during night may be less than 40ºc.
- Most rain falls in summer associated with thunderstorms.
- Type of rain is convectional rainfall.
- Average rainfall is 500mm.

Vegetation

23
- Coniferous forest ( but fewer than in equatorial climate).
- Trees are evergreen; leaves are needle shaped, thick and leathery in order to reduce loss of
moisture by transpiration.
- Conical shaped trees do not permit the accumulation of snow.

Human activities
- Agriculture.
- Lumbering.
- Fishing.
- Mining and trapping.

Soil
- Coarse, infertile soil which do not favor agriculture. Agriculture is rarely practiced due to short
time of grow season.

Animals found
- Animal have short ears and tails, fur so as to adapt to seasonal changes (e.g. moose , caribou
fox).

.
- Flooding.
- Leaching.
- Glacial erosion.
- Soil infertility.
- Frost destroys crops.
- Environmental pollution.

7. COOL TEMPERATE WEST COAST MARGIN REGION (BRITISH TYPE)

Location
It is located in Western sides of continents between 45º-60ºN and S of the equator.
Areas found
-Northern Western Canada, Coast of South Chile and Southern Island of New Zealand.

CHARACTERISTICS OFBRITISH TYPE

- Type of rainfall is cyclonic and orographic which is distributed throughout the year.
- Total annual rain is 760mm but varies with distance from sea.
- Windward slopes receive heavier rain than leeward slope.
- Coastal regions are in oceanic influence (near the ocean).

Vegetation
Deciduous trees are dominant (but are cleared to allow farming).

Human activities
- Main activity is mining and manufacturing industries.
- Few people practice agriculture in Northern Europe.
- Cattle, sheep, growing wheat and fruit develop in farming.

24
- Availability of coniferous trees/forests encourages lumbering activities.

Environmental Problem
- Deforestation due to lumbering, overgrazing.
- Establishment of settlement and cultivation.
- Water,air,soil pollution (also water borne diseases due to water pollution).
- floods due to poor drainage,soil erosion.
- Earthquake and volcanic eruption that affect coast lands destruction of properties.
- Soil leaching,soil acidification and decline of soil fertility.

8. COOL TEMPERATURE EASTERN MARGIN REGION (LAURENTIAN TYPE)

Location
It is located on eastern side between 35° and 50° Northern and Southern Hemisphere.

Areas found
East Canada, north china, Korea, north Japan, England, USA.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LAURENTIAN TYPE

- Two (2) seasons per year warm in summer and cold in winter. Rain throughout the year.
- Summer temperature , range from 12°c - 18°c.
- Annual range is high in summer about 25°c, it differs in America 25°c and in Asia 29°c.
- In winter low temperature range 10°c - 4°c, in America and 15°c - 4°c in Asia.
- Cold winds carry moisture , they blow outward from interiors which are responsible for low
winter temperature.
- Winds in North America are warmed by Great lakes which results in heavy snow falls in
Eastern Canada (Great lakes influence the climate).
- Precipitation is in the form of snow falls and rain in Southern America and Northern Japan.
- Total rain is 550mm to 1000mm annually.
- Rain is convectional and cyclonic.

Vegetation
- Coniferous forest found in areas with high rainfall.
- Northern hemisphere there are deciduous trees.

Human activities
- Farming (USA - mixed farming , Canada – fruit trees).
- Manufacturing industries.
- Mining activity in America and Asia ( minerals extraction).
NB. In Asia crops as wheat, maize and soya beans grown intensively.

Environmental Problem
- Snow fall destroys crops.
- Butter cold winter cause frost formation.
- Environmental pollution.
- Glacial erosion.
- Stormy condition.

25
- Dense fogs which hinder effective visibility.
- Volcanic eruptions and earth quakes e.g. In Japan Tsunamis.
- Decline in fertility,deforestation.
- Soil acidification.
- Loss of biodiversity.
- Frost.

9. WARM TEMPERATE EASTERN COAST MARGIN (CHINA TYPE)

Location
It is located in the Eastern side of the continents between 23° - 35° north and south of the
equator.

Area found
South Eastern USA, East central China and Eastern part of Argentina, S.E Australia and S.E
Africa.

CHARACTERISTICS OFCHINA TYPE

- 2 season, summer and winter.
- Hot summers with temperature about 26°c and 13°c during winter.
- Trade winds are dominant seasonal winds they blow on short and bring convectional type of
rainfall.
- Most rain takes place in summer. in winter rain is light.
- Annual total rain is 1000m.

Soil
- There are variety of soil type depending on location and topography.
- A long coast the soil is sandy, loam, silt and clay.
- Beneath deciduous forest soil are called alfisols, rich in plant nutrients due to humus created
by fallen leaves of deciduous tree.
- Also there is peddlers and volcanic soil.

Geological system
Volcanic eruption and earth quakes which bring valuable minerals near the surface.

Human activities
· Mining - Recreational centers ( camp, climb, ski).
· Pastoralism - Manufacturing of HEP.
· Tourism - Employment to people in HEP power plants.
· Transhumance - seasonal movement of animals to the valleys and to the uplands. People take
animals to the upland pastures which are free from snow in summer and brought back to the
valleys during winter.

Environmental Problems
- Drought condition in the leeward side due to rain shadow effect.
- Soil erosion.
- Land slides.

26
- Avalanches in snow cover.
- Deforestation ( because of lumbering and settlement).
- Water population.
- Flooding in lowlands.
- Earthquakes and volcanic eruption.
- Global warming that leads to melting of attractive snow.

10. THE MONSOON REGION

Is the area in which its climate is influenced by wind that blow from one direction in one season
and another direction in another season.
It prevails mainly in Indian Ocean.

Areas found
India,Burma,china,Indonesia,N. Australia,southern Horn of Africa.

Characteristics of monsoon region

Climate
- Receives rainfall in different amounts from place to place.
- Wind blows from south –West in April – October.

Vegetation
- Deciduous trees/forest in low lands and coniferous forests in highlands.
- Flowering shrubs and bamboos are common
- Good temperature and rain makes it possible for growing crops throughout the year.

Human activities

- Fishing.
- Trade.
- Lumbering.
- Tourism.
- Industries.
- Dairy farming.
- Agriculture ( maize , tobacco, and cotton, in S.E USA and paddy in china).

11. THE MOUNTAIN REGION

Location: found mostly in areas where young fold mountain is obtained such as Himalaya, Alps
Rockies and Andes.
Areas found
S. Europe central Asia, N. E Africa, E Australia and N & S of America.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MOUNTAIN REGION

Climate
- Temperature of air drop as altitude increase.

27
- When the warm moist air moves up the windward slope of mountain it cools and water vapour
condenses into water droplet, which then fall as rain or snow on the windward side . The dry
area (leeward side) which is away from wind is called rain shadow.
- Precipitation increase when altitude increase, it is called relief or orographic precipitation.
-Types of rainfall is orographic or relief rainfall.

Animals found
Only few living things survive in the bitter cold of snow. Just below snowfield a variety of small
animals are found.

Human life
It has unfavorable for human settlement. The in habitats are ESKIMOS of N. America,
Yakutsk , Lapps of Scandinavia and Samoyed of Siberia.

Economic activities
- Hunting.
- Fishing.
- Rearing of vender.

Environmental Problem
- Severally cold condition.
- Snow fall and snow cover.
- Frozen soil that hinder cultivation.
- Environmental pollution.
- Avalanches in mount onerous region.
- Shallow soil.
- Sub glacial desert.
- Glacial erosion.
- Frost.

NB. Eskimos use clothes made of fur and polar deerskin.

- In winter they live in house made up of ice blocks known as IGLOOS.
- In summer they live in tents made up of wood and deerskin.
- They use canoes called KAYAKS for transport.

12. TUNDRA AND POLAR REGIONS

(a) TUNDRA REGION

Location; Lies beyond latitude 600 N & S.
Areas found: N. Siberia, Russia and N. Canada.

Characteristics of tundra region

Climate:
- Short cool summer and long cold winter.
- The annual range temperature varies from 290c to 500c.
- Nights are long and day are short.

28
- Snow covers the land for 9 months during the year.

Vegetation
- Mosses , lichens sedges and grasses.
- Arctic scrub vegetation on southern parts.
- Tundra stands for region with low vegetation cover.

(B). POLAR REGION

Location: Large parts of Greenland, Antarctica and interior of Iceland. It lies for away from
Equator.

CHARACTERISTICS OF POLAR REGION

- Temperature below 0°c due to effect of cold polar. Continental mass.
- Also known as ice cap climate.
- Receives sun rays at low angle.
- Low temperatures.
- Winters are extremely very long and cold.
- The region experiences continuous darkness since it is inclined far from the sun.
- Summer are quite cool and highest temperature hardly exceed 100c opposite direction North-
East from October to April.
- South – West / summer monsoon is accompanied by heavy rain.
- Climate is characterized by heavy daily rainfall.

Vegetation
- It various with amount of rainfall.
- Areas with heavy rain more than 2000m, consist of dense forest with big trees (teak and
tropical cedar).
- Area with 1000mm- 2000mm, rain less dense forest, sandal wood and iron wood trees.

Human activities
- Farming ( rice, millet, wheat , maize).
- Tourism.

Environmental Problems
- Land degradation.
- Deforestation.
- Heavy annual flood.
- Destructive heavy rains.
- Earthquakes due to tectonic plate movement.
- Drought condition in some areas.
- Leaching of soil.

WORLD MAP SHOWING DIFFERENT NATURAL REGIONS

29
30
 HUMAN POPULATION

Population
Population is a number of people, animals and plants (living things) occupying a certain area.

Human Population
Is a group of people occupying a certain geographical unit.

Characteristics of human population

(i) POPULATION SIZE
Is the total number of people living in the country; It is obtained through census.

(ii) POPULATION STRUCTURE

Population Structure is the composition of a given population in terms of age and sex at a
particular time.

The information on age and sex of an individual person from the entire population is obtained
when a census, vital registration or sample survey is conducted.

(iii) COMPOSITION

Population composition refers to the geographical make up of persons in a given locality which
includes, sex, age, marital status, education, occupation, income level, religion, ethnic group and
race.

(iv) SEX RATIO

This is the number of males per 1000 females in a given population.

(v) DEPENDENCY RATIO

Is the part of the population that is not involved in productive activities. The dependency ratio
can be categorized into two;

a) Youth dependency ratio: Includes those who are under 15 years.

b) Old age dependency ratio: Includes those who are above 65 years.

The dependency ratio can be expressed as;

IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING POPULATION

31
In studying population, population data are obtained through census, vital registration and
sample survey. The data obtained are useful in different ways;

i. The information obtained during the National Census is used by the Government for
Planning Public Services e.g Schools,
Hospitals, Markets, etc.

ii. Enable to know the age and sex in a country e.g In Tanzania the number of female is higher
than of male.

iii. Enables the government to combat mortality rate which may lead to loss of man power if
not well managed.

iv. Enables to know the number of manpower skilled and unskilled.

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

Is the way in which people are spread out across the earth surface. Distribution is uneven and
changes over period of time.

FACTORS INFLUENCING POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND DENSITY

1. Relief (Topography)

Where the slope is steep there is low or no population due to poor soil and nature of the land, but
on gentle slope or flat surface there is high population since soil is good and mechanization can
take place easily. Also low land tends to flood usually since people avoid settling in those areas.

2. Climate

Areas with reliable (moderate) rain have attracted high population but where there is poor rain
like in the desert there is low population. Also areas with high or very low temperatures do not
attract population while areas with moderate temperature attract population (high).

3. Vegetation

In areas where dense vegetation is difficult to clear like in Tropical forest of Amazon and Congo
basin discourage people to live leading to sparse population or no population at all.Dense
vegetation hinders penetration and development. In less dense vegetation people are attracted
since they grow crops after clearing for cultivation.

4. Soil
Thin, infertile and badly leached soil discourages settlement since they can’t support agriculture.
Good soil attracts population.

32
5. Mineral and energy resources
Area with mineral and energy resources attract population e.g. rand of S. Africa, iron and
coalfield in Europe and southern part of W. Africa where there are rich mineral deposits like
diamond, oil, etc.

6. Natural Hazards
Areas with natural hazards like floods in low land, earthquakes, and tornadoes are avoided by
people.

7. Diseases and Pests

People like settling in areas which are free of diseases and pests. There is high population in
highlands of Tanzania which have healthy climate like Arusha. But areas with high incidence of
disease and pests infestation like mosquitoes that causes malaria, tsetse flies discourage
population settlement.

8. Social – cultural aspects

Some tribes have a tradition of going to live in areas which have been left by their ancestors.
Traditional beliefs like superstitions can make people avoid living in certain areas due to fear of
risking their life.

9.Political factors
Area with political stability and peace attract population but where there is political instability
does not attract population. People avoid settled in area that has political conflict like in Sudan
and Somalia.

10. Transport and communication

Areas which are served with transport and communication attract high population since they can
transport their goods to the markets areas. Also area where social services are ready available
like in towns, unlike the rural areas where social services are poorly available.

POPULATION CHANGE

It is the growth or decline in population i.e Increase or decrease population can change by
positive growth and negative growth.

The main factor for population change;

1.Fertility rate.
2. Mortality rate.
3. Migration.

FACTORS FOR POPULATION CHANGE

1. FERTILITY/BIRTHRATE

33
It is also known as fertility rate. Fertility refers to the ability to conceive and produce. It is
measured by counting the number of people (live births in a population).

Fertility rate is influenced by factors like;

 Level of education.
 Urbanization.
 Birth control measures.
 Cultural belief.
 Prestige.
 Early marriage.
 Source of labour.
 Preference of sex.

2. MORTALITY/DEATH RATE

Is also called mortality. It refers to the number of deaths within a given population.

Death rate can be categorized into;

(a) Infant mortality rate

The number of death from 0-2 years.

(b) Child mortality rate

Number of death of children aged between 1-5 years per 1000 live birth.

(c) Adult mortality rate

Number of adults dying per 1000 of the total population.

Hence;

- Large scale mortality may be caused by;

 Severe hunger/famine.
 Diseases.
 Natural disasters.
 Wars.
 Accidents.

3. MIGRATION

Is the movement of people from one place or region to another which results in changes of
residence which may be temporary or permanent.

34
Immigration

People come into a new area and are called immigrants.

Emigration

People leave their native land for other lands and these people are called emigrants

TYPES OF MIGRATION

Types of migration, there are two types namely;

i. Internal migration.

ii. External (International) migration.

And these types of migration can be permanent, temporary, voluntary and involuntary.

(i) INTERNAL MIGRATION

People move within a country, it can be permanent, temporary, voluntary or forced (involuntary).

WHY INTERNAL MIGRATION

 Search for jobs.

 Settlement.
 Search for fertile soils.
 Trade.
 Education.

FORMS OF INTERNAL MIGRATION

(a) Rural to Urban Migration

People move from rural to urban or towns search for jobs, better social services, education.

(b) Rural to Rural Migration

People move from rural to rural e.g Nomadic pastoralists.

(c) Urban to Rural Migration

From towns to villages for investing, job purpose, setting up industries and other projects.

(d) Urban to Urban Migration

35
From one town to another for business, better employment, education etc.

(ii) EXTERNAL MIGRATION

Is also called international, interstate or inter regional migration. Is the movement of people from
their own countries to other countries.

CAUSES OF MIGRATION

There are many reasons why people choose to migrate. The following are some of them;

i. Pressure on land.

People move to areas with available land for cultivation, settlement etc.

ii. Availability of employment opportunities.

Move to areas where employment is possible e.g rural to rural, to work in plantations, mines,etc.

iii. Creation of wealth.

People migrate to other countries with aim of making wealth quickly e.g Tanzanians move to
South Africa

iv. Religious conflicts.

Which may result to chaos in a country.

v. Political instability.

Like civil wars cause people to migrate e.g Like that of Rwanda and Burundi has resulted to
influx of refugees in East African countries.

vi. Natural disasters

Epidemic diseases , floods, earthquakes, drought may cause people to migrate to better areas
where it is safe.

1. Forced migration

People forced to move from the area e.g Asians were expelled in Uganda during the leadership
or military regime of Iddi Amin, the slave trade of 17th and 18th century is an example of forced
migration (Involuntary).

36
Other causes are ;

 Government policies.
 Cultural beliefs.
 Health services.

EFFECTS OF POPULATION CHANGE

Can affect both the individual and the nation at large.

a) Effects on the individual

 The family is overwhelmed hence large family which as the results parents can fail to
provide family basic needs.
 Loss of cultural values to some individuals migrate to urban hence immorality.
 Government may fail to provide services due to over-increasing population.

b) Effects on the nation

 When population grows in a country lead to increased poverty.

 Overpopulation leads to unemployment, poor housing, poor health facilities, high
demand for food.
 It is also a source of labour power when population is high.
 Under population.
 Cause uneven distribution of population.
 Shortage of labour.
 Under utilization of resources.

MIGRATION

 Has an effect in the place of origin like shortage of labour, hence low production which
result to shortage of food and cash crops.
 Destination areas.

-Immigrants increase population hence pressure on the available resources and amenities.

-Demand of houses leads to growth and expansion of slums.

-Well developed social services e.g water supply, schools, health facilities.

-Refugees drain the resources of a host country.

-Spread of diseases.

37
-Promote supply of labour power.

POPULATION DATA

Population data means information on population which are presented in numerical form,
diagrams charts, graphs and maps.

SOURCES OF POPULATION DATA

(A) There are two sources of population data namely;-

PRIMARY SOURCES

Are the first hand data or data collected directly from the field. These data may be obtained
through;

(i) Census

Is the official counting of the country’s population. E.g In Tanzania, it is normally done in every
10 years.

TYPES OF CENSUS

According to approach;-

 De jure

Is the ones which are counted according to their usual place or residence where only permanent
members of household are counted.

 De facto

People are counted wherever they are found on the day of enumeration.

According to time interval

 Quinquennial census

Is carried out after every 5 years.

 Decennial census

Is carried out after 10 years.

(ii) Vital registration

38
Is a way of collecting statistical information about population where by the occurrence of events
is recorded as data for further use.

The events include birth, death, marriage, divorce, migration.

(iii)Sample survey

Involves selecting suitable representative size in the community to form population which
provide information on death, birth, etc.

SECONDARY SOURCE

Includes reports on population which is compiled and published. Data is obtain from text books,
atlases, magazines, newspapers, journals, periodicals and research papers, internet and electronic
media.

INTERPRETATION OF POPULATION DATA

After data has been collected and analyzed in term of mean, densities, birth, death, sex ratio, etc.
The population pyramid must be drawn to represent life expectancy, sex ratio, age group.

39
USES OF POPULATION DATA

(a) Population numbers and density enable the government to plan on how to locate resources e.g
roads, schools, hospital, police posts.

(b) Organizations use the data from census for private business e.g where to locate factories,
shopping centre or malls or banks.

(c) Data on birth and death rates are helpful in planning medical services and health education
especially where the death rates are very high so as to be controlled by providing health
education.

(d) Data on migration enable the government to plan on how to curb influx of people into urban
areas from the rural regions.

(e) By knowing the number of dependants enable the government to plan for schools, medical
and other social amenities for children below 15 years and for elders above 65 years.

(f) Likewise by knowing the number of working age group would enable planning for creation of
jobs.

POPULATION PROBLEMS

Are normally caused by population presence by regarding the resources in which they are
utilized and the population size overpopulated or under populated. When the number of people is
in balance with the available resources is called Optimum population.

Hence, many population problems are associated with population growth.

Population Problems are following;

(a) Pressure on the scarce resources due to over utilization and exhaustion of non renewable
resources.

(b) Increase of environmental pollution and complicated conservation and waste management.

(c) Increase in the number of beggars especially in urban centres.

(d) Increase in the rate of unemployment which in turn cause increasing number of crime,
prostitution, etc.

(e) Population increase leads to inadequacy of social amenities and services such as medical care
and education.

POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

40
  Efforts should be made to improve rural areas by providing basic socio-economic
services and amenities.
 Efforts should be made to improve the equipment of farming implements to enable
people to remain in their settlement within rural set up.
 There is a need to improve transport and other infrastructures in the rural areas to enable
farmers to transport their products to the market.
 Government should create job opportunities in rural and urban areas through
establishment of industries, providing loans to people and education about
entrepreneurship.
 Provision of education on family planning in order to curb birth rate and death rate.

POPULATION POLICY

Refers to the statement or set of statement in a form of laws or regulation rules enacted to attain
some demographical goals. It aimed at putting more action and effort on favouring people to
attain better life for the people.

POPULATION POLICY IN TANZANIA

 The population programme of 1970’s focused on villagization aimed at free social

services such as health, education and free supply of freshwater.
 Literacy programme for Universal Primary Education (UPE) which was given free.

Impacts of population policies to the country

-The national population policy (NPP) of 1992 in Tanzania was improved so as to resettle the
population in Tanzania. Villages become more or less nucleated or near nucleated this gave the
government a version of serving people with education e.g Primary education, health services
(Dispensaries and health centres).

-Provision of better services (education, safe water and health services) expanded and reached a
greater number of people introduced.

MCH-Maternal and Child Health with paid leave of 84 days.

However the policies brought negative impacts to other Tanzanians like;-

-Loss of properties like farms, permanent crops, etc.especial during villagization.

TANZANIA POPULATION POLICY ON FAMILY PLANNING AND POPULATION

POLICIES IN OTHER COUNTRIES

The adopted NPP of 1992 shows some achievements as summarized bellow;

(a) Interrelationship between population, resources and environmental development.

41
(b) The prevalence of methods and use of contraceptives.

(c) Introduction and expansion of population studies is various institutions.

NIGERIA POPULATION POLICY AND ITS STRATEGIES FOR FAMILY PLANNING

Launched its first population policy in 1998 aimed at improving life quality and standard of
living of the Nigerians.

Areas of policy

(a) Reduction of fertility rate.

(b) Marriage age of 18 years for women and 24 years for men.

(c) Restriction of pregnancies from 18 to 35 years.

(d) Extending coverage of family planning services.

SETTLEMENTS

Is the place where people live together and engage in various social, economic, and political
activities. Example: industrial activities, Agricultural activities, educational activities.

42
TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SETTLEMENT

The classification of settlement depends or bases on functions and number of people. According
to the economic base theory which was found on the idea that settlements (towns, cities or
regions) perform two broad categories of economic activities, basic and non basic. Basic is an
economic activity or function that either produces goods or market a service outside the
settlement where it is located or within the settlement hence lead into growth of settlement and
economic growth as a result Urban settlement is generated or found.
Non basic is an economic activity or function that produces goods or markets services within the
settlement in which it is located and therefore makes little contribution to settlement as a result
Rural settlement is generated.
There are two major types of settlements namely Rural and Urban Settlements.

1. RURAL SETTLEMENT

The basic unit of rural settlements is a number of people and functions. In rural areas the main
function or activity is agriculture. The cultivators most often live in scattered family settlement.
Nature of settlement are isolated, hamlet, village and small market town.

2. URBAN SETTLEMENT

The basic unit of urban settlement is the number of people and economic activities or
functions. This type of settlement is mostly found in large towns and cities and is characterized
with continuous buildings and different economic activities. (Trade, commerce, social and
industrial).

Generally urban settlement have high population density where rural settlement have low
population densities

Characteristics Of Settlement

a) It must have social services like

 Water supply.
 Transport and communication.
 Education.
 Electricity power supply.
 Health services.

b) It must have building

Categories Of Settlement/Settlement Patterns

Categories of settlements depends on the patterns of structures in relation to the

population density. Settlement pattern refers to the arrangement or layout of houses in a given

43
area. There are three categories of settlement patterns namely Scattered or dispersed
settlements, nucleated or clustered and linear settlements

The Scattered or dispersed type of settlements; It's the arrangement of houses are
randomly spread out over an area. Commonly are found to the countryside where land is
available. Most of the activities performed by them include cultivation, animal keeping, honey
extraction, etc.

Nucleated settlement pattern is also referred to as Clustered settlement. Its

arrangement of houses are concentrated in a group in a relatively small area. The population of
dwellers is high, normally found in urban centres such as large towns and cities.

Linear settlement is the one in which houses are developed or built along the specific
features such as rivers, railway or road. The lines or arrangement may be straight or curved
depending on the nature of the feature along which house are built.

FUNCTIONS OF SETTLEMENT

All settlement have certain activities/useful function to justify their existence, such
function are;

i. Agriculture collective center

Where farmers produce different agricultural crops and animals are marked as
agriculture collective centers.
ii. Communication center
Some of settlement functions as communication centers and they perform
various communication activities.
iii. Residential function
They are place where people live and share different values and culture
activities.
iv. Administrative center
These are center from which the surrounding areas are administered some of
these center can be district or regional center and local administration.
v. Commercial and market center
These are place where business takes place. These centers are composed of
shops, markets and means of transport and communication like roads and
telephones facilities.
vi. Mining center
They are settlements which have ground infertile mainly as a result of mining
activities. These settlements are characterized by having mineral resources
Example: Geita, Mwadui, Magadi and etc.
vii. Industrial settlement/Manufacturing centre
These kind of settlement are mainly formed in town areas which grow rapidly

44
 with the establishment of industries and they normally have a certain advantage to
the people living around as they provide employment and goods.
viii. Fishing centers
The river sites like ports and ocean ports are important for fishing activities.
ix. Social function settlement
They provide the health and educational facilities such as hospital, and clinic
likewise the area can be places of entertainment and recreational center.
x. Royal center
These are traditional residence of monarchies, kings, queens, sultans, and their
consorts.
xi. Tourist centers
These centers are mainly characterized by resort and around them many hotels
which enter mainly of holiday.

FACTORS FOR SETTLEMENT GROWTH

Factors that influence growth of settlements can be categorized into two, namely
Physical factors and Human factors.

PHYSICAL FACTORS

Physical factors include climate, soil, topography, drainage, natural resources,

vegetation, availability of land, and pests and diseases.

SPARSELY POPULATED DENSELY POPULATED

FACTORS
AREAS AREAS
-Areas receive very low annual -Areas where the rainfall is
rainfall and long seasonal reliable and evenly distributed
drought or unreliable rainfall. throughout the year with no
temperature extremes, have
(a) CLIMATE
-Areas suffering high high population density due to
humidity, very cold have low the good climatic conditions
population density due to the e.g Mbeya, Kilimanjaro,
harsh climatic conditions. Mwanza,etc
-Areas with frozen soil, thin
-Deep humus and deposited silt
soil of mountaineous, leached
influence settlement because
soil and areas experiencing
soil support agriculture. Good
(b) SOIL severe soil erosion, discourage
example is Morogoro, on the
people to live there because
foot of Mount Kilimanjaro and
soil doesn’t support agriculture
around Lake Victoria.
in general.
(c) WATER SUPPLIES -Areas with lack of permanent -Population is more likely to
clean and fresh water, lack of increase with a reliable water
money and technology to build supply. Mostly around the
reservoir, discourage people to coast, lakes and rivers.
live there hence the area

45
 experiences low population
densities.
-Areas with density forest like
-Areas with scattered trees and
in Amazon, Coniferous Forest
grassland tend to have higher
(d) VEGETATION of Northern Eurasia and
population densities than areas
Northern Canada experience
with dense forest or desert.
low population density.
-Areas infected with pests and
diseases such as mosquitoes ,
tsetse fly, Salmonella typhil, -Areas free from pests and
(e) PESTS AND DISEASES experience low population diseases are more populated
densities because pests and because it attracts settlement.
diseases discourage people to
settle there.
-High land areas like
mountaineous have a tendency
of experiencing high
temperature and pressure
-Areas with gentle slope and
which is not favourable for the
flat areas that experience
(f) TOPOGRAPHY human survival.
moderate temperature and
rainfall attract settlement.
-More over high land areas
experiencing volcanic
activities tend to discourage
settlement.
-Areas with no natural
-Areas with natural resources
resources such as minerals,
such as minerals, energy
energy supply, fishing centres,
supply, fishing centres, etc tend
etc tend to discourage
(g) RESOURCES to encourage settlement
settlement because the scarce
because the available resource
resource around the given area
around the given area favour
does not favour human
human survival.
survival.

HUMAN FACTORS; This includes political and economic factors

-Areas experiencing frequently
-Areas experiencing free from
civil wars, political disorders
civil wars, political disorder
have a negative impact on
(h) POLITICAL FACTORS and high level of civil rights
settlement growth because
attracts many people to live in
people does not want to live in
that area.
areas with insecurity.
(i) ECONOMIC FACTORS -Lack of centres of economic -The vice versa is true.
development like trading Availability of centres of
centre, industrial centre, mining economic development like
centre, etc trading centres, industrial

46
 centres, mining centre, fertile
soil, etc.

All these attract people to live

there.

Problems Facing Human Settlement

i. Shortage of land/lack of space.

ii. Inadequate social services e.g. water, electricity etc.
iii. Risk and disaster occurrence e.g. floods, earth equate.
iv. Employment crisis due to the increase of number of people.
v. Poor housing especially in rural areas.
vi. Presence of social disorder e.g. crimes, robbery etc.
vii. Environment problem e.g. Pollution, erosion.
viii. Poor transport and communication.
ix. Rural urban migration due to shortage of employment.
x. Spreads of disease e.g. Cholera, Aid etc. This is due to shortage of water.

URBANIZATION

Is the process whereby increasing portion of the total population in a country settlers in town.

Causes Of Urbanization
i) Availability of employment e.g. Trade and in distort.
ii) Availability of social service.
iii) Shortage of employment opportunities in rural areas.
iv) Over population in rural areas.
v) Low level of modern contraceptive user limited education.
vi) Natural increase in birth and death rate in Urban centres.

Problems Associated With Urban Growth (Urbanization)

i. Rise of transport problem e.g. Traffic congestion.

ii. Presence of unplanned houses.
iii. Lack of enough water supply leading to serious disease.
iv. Shortage of social services e.g. School, health centers etc.
v. Overcrowding/over population leading to the crimes such as prostitution, robber and
theft.
vi. Unemployment.
vii. Rural urban migration leading to scarcity of labour in rural area.
viii. Environmental deterioration.

47
 WAYS OF OVERCOMING PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH URBAN
GROWTH

i. Emphasizing seriously in family planning program.

ii. Improvement of rural areas e.g. Employment opportunities, improve
social services.
iii. To educated people the danger caused by rapid population growth.
iv. Provision of adequate social service on rural and urban area.
v. Improvement of the living standard of the people.
vi. Maintenance of the cleanness of the environment.
vii. Population retribution.
viii. Enforce laws to restore unpleasant settlement.

MERITS/ADVANTAGES OF URBANIZATION

i. They are center for changes e.g. Modernization and fashion.

ii. They are centers for commerce.
iii. They attract greatly tourist from different parts of the world.
iv. They are importing and exporting centers.
v. They are center of manufacturing industries.
vi. Most of urban center are administrative areas.
vii. There is good provision of social services.
viii. They are center for cultural change.

48
 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND MANAGEMENT
THE MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT

Environment refers to all external conditions surrounding an organism and which have influence
over its behavior and activities.

IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT

I. To support the life of living organisms. Environment contains all resources which sustain
life of living organisms for example water, soil, gases and minerals.
II. Some of landscapes, water bodies and Flora and Fauna are pleasing to the eyes hence
accelerate to the development of tourism activities.
III. Sustain economic development, the environment contain variety of natural resources
includes forest, minerals, water, fish and air which can be exploited by people for
various human need.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Are hazard, disasters or calamities that result into destruction of environment.

Examples of environmental problems

i. Environmental pollution.
ii. Loss of biodiversity.
iii. Soil erosion and land degradation.
iv. Desertification.
v. Flooding.
vi. Acid rain.
vii. Harmful radiation.
viii. Drought.

1. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Is the introduction or addition of any substance or situation that is harmful or not required to the
environment i.e. Addition of unwanted material into environment.

POLLUTANTS
These are substance or materials that caused pollution i.e. Pollutant are material that pollute
environment

FACTORS WHICH LEAD TO THE INCREASE OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

a) Rapid pollution growth in the world especially in the thirds world countries this led to the
increase rate of production of waste and problem in the managing of the waste.

49
 b) The increase level of poverty in the developing country. This made people uses cheap
energy resources that cause air pollution like charcoal and fuel wood. Rapid advance in
technology that has led to the development of supplicated industries which emits a lot of
gases and waste.
c) Development of transport let work that has net to the development and increase number
of cars that emits a lot of fumes smokes.
d) Increase in political conflict that forces people to keep on migrating from place to place
end up polluting the environment as well as the use of bombs and nuclear weapons.
e) Advancement of Science and Technology.

CLASSIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

Environment pollution can be classified as follows

a) Air pollution.
b) Soil/land pollution.
c) Water pollution.
d) Noise pollution.

I. AIR POLLUTION

Is an addition of waste material into air, Air is an important resource in sustaining life, without it
there would be no life on earth. It is a mixture of gases surrounding the earth. These gases are
such as nitrogen, oxygen carbon dioxide and others gases.

CAUSE OF AIR POLLUTION

A. Natural causes

i. Volcanic eruption. That gives out dust ashes and gaseous like sulphur and carbon
dioxide.
ii. Wind. That, raise the dust and pollen to a certain levels. Dust has chemical that
are toxic and hence harmful to the living organism both flora and fauna.

B. Human causes

i. Industrial activities and automobile. This process led to the emission of fumes
and gases that pollute the air.
ii. The uses of charcoal, coal, firewood and fuel oil for difference purpose like
cooking, lighting, smelting etc. pollute environment.
iii. Construction activities. The construction of project like road construction, salting
up buildings and etc. lead to introduction of dust into the air.
iv. Agricultural activities pollute the air through;-

 Digging in the soil that raises dust into air.

 Spraying some chemicals like insecticides.

50
 v. Mining activities: this in also led to the introduction of dust and some gases into
the atmosphere.

EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

o Reduction in amount of solar energy because of being blocked by the layer of dusts or fumes
hanging in the atmosphere leading to problems in photosynthesis.
o Transportation in plants in upset since the smoke and dust setting on the leaves block the
stomata.
o Occurrence of global warming as the result of trapping of heat energy from the sun by the
green houses gases.
o Death of plants and animals due to poisonous gases.
o Destruction of Ozone layer.
o Reduction of air dirty.
o Occurrence of acidic rainfall when gases like carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide mix with
rainfall.
o It can causes bad and irritating smell keeping people in residence area uncomfortable.
o It can causes dangerous disease like skin cancer.

MEASURES TOWARDS REDUCING AIR POLLUTION

i. Planting trees which absorb gases like carbon dioxide and prevent fast movement of air that
lead to the introduction of dust into the atmosphere and destruction of Ozone layer.
ii. Improving the combination system in the engines so that fuel can burn easily.
iii. Reducing number of small cars or industries.
iv. Finding out alternative sources of energy instead of depending on the charcoal, fire wood,
and fuel wood.
v. Government policies should be active and strict laws should be passed to ensure proper
management of resources.
vi. Land filling when dumping the wastes so that when they decompose they cannot lead to the
emission of gases like methane into the Atmosphere.

II. SOIL POLLUTION

Soil pollution is the process of introducing or adding any unwanted material in the soil.
or
Is the process of adding harmful material into the soil or earth surface which then led to the loss
of soil fertility.

SOURCES OF SOIL POLLUTION

The main causes of soil pollution can be categorized as follows;-

a) From the atmosphere: the pollutants are introduced into the soil through the acidic rain.
Acid rain leads to the increase of acidity into the soil which later on destroy the soil

51
 structure. Acidic rain is predominant in the industrialized countries like Germany Eastern
Canada and USA.
b) From the industries: Some chemical such as radioactive material and metals can be
introduced into the soil and render the soil units for Agriculture.
c) From the home steeds: Some waste from homes like bottles, metallic material plastics
baby’s cans etc. which are dumped into the soil they lead to soil pollution.
d) From the farms: There are chemicals which include pesticides like DDT crop remains
and fertilizers when all these chemicals get into the soil they lead to the soil pollution.
Likewise irrigation activities can lead to soil pollution especially when applied in steep
slope areas for a long period of time.
e) Mining activities: On the other hands mining activities can lead to the introduction of
some rocks. Fragments into the upper layer of the soil which then leads to the soil
pollution.

EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION

i. Death of animals (Biota) since some chemicals affect plant and animal cell for instance
organism like bacteria which are mainly used for decomposition of some materials to form
Humus.
ii. Decline in Agriculture as a results of poor production caused by poor plant growth. Poor
plant growth takes place due to the decline in soil fertility in turn to the occurrence of famine
which leads to the poor health and death of people.
iii. It can lead to water logging and flooding because of poor drainage caused by the soil
pollution which tends to create an impermeable layer of substance in the soil.
iv. Change in soil structure as some of the mineral and nutrients are dissolved by acidic
materials.
v. Migration of people to other areas which have not been affected by soil erosion.
vi. Change in soil color which causes problems in the soil classification and determination of
land uses.

MEASURES TO BE TAKEN IN ORDER TO REDUCE THE RATE OF SOIL

POLLUTION

o Reducing or stopping the uses of chemicals in agriculture like DDT and used killers.
o Increase of manure instead of industrial fertilizers.
o Recycling of wastes rather than dumping them in the soil.
o Launching afforestation and reforestation programmers which can reduce soil erosion.
o Control of population so as to reduce the rate of production of wastes that lead to the
pollution of soil. Population control can be done through family planning.
o Educating people on how to undertake their activities properly.
o Radioactive materials should be dumped so deep in the ground. Method like crops
rotation use of organic manure and switch the traditional system like shifting cultivation.
o Formulating strict policies that govern on how to dump the wastes. Fines and punishment
should be impressed those who dump the waste randomly.

III. WATER POLLUTION

52
 Water is a very important resource that supports human life. No water hardly life.

Water pollution; Refers to the addition or introduction of unwanted materials or substances in the
water which has negative effect of animal and plant.

Polluted water is not fit for human consumption like drinking unit treated first.

WAYS THROUGH WHICH WATER CAN BE POLLUTED

o Disposal of untreated sewage into the water bodies. The sewage can be form homestead.
Institution like schools, hotels and hospitals.
o Dumping of wastes from industries into the water bodies these can be either liquid or solid
form.
o Some chemicals and other wastes from the farms ear get into the water bodies through the
surface turn off or by deliberate dumping by human being leading to water contamination.
o Oil spills from the leaking oil containers or pipes. This happened in the Indian Ocean where
there are some oil spills from TIPPER in Dar es Salaam in 1990s oil forms a uniform over on
the surface of water.
o Fishing activities, some fishermen tend to use harmful chemicals in fishing which lead to
water pollution.
o Breaking of rocks along the coastal areas or near other sources of water using explosives like
dynamite which in turns leads to the dying of marine organisms including fish.
o Introduction of dust into the water sources mainly due to wind action. This is also another
way into which water can be polluted.

EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION

i. Water pollution can lead to the death of plants and animals if the pollutants and poisonous or
causes the rise of temperature to extreme levels.
ii. Spread of disease like cholera, diarrhea, dysentery and typhoid.
iii. Oil spills kills aquatic organisms because it prevents oxygen from penetrating into water,
organisms die because of lacking oxygen.
iv. Water pollution leads to the emission of soil smells that causes discomfort to the people
round the water body. The soil smell is caused by decomposition of the organic matter
introduced into the water body.
v. Decline of tourist activities due to the fact that tourist who depends on water bodies for
swimming will find difficult due to the fact that water bodies has been polluted (i.e. presence
of toxic chemicals)
vi. The color of water changes. The water becomes under due to the presence of impurities.
vii. Multiplication of sea weeds as a result of the increase in nutritious from the wastes in water.
viii. The death of fish leads to the loss of valuable sources of protein to human being.

MEASURES TOWARDS WATER POLLUTION CONTROL

i. Encourage the proper use of fishing methods rather than using chemicals, since chemicals
end up killing different fish, animal and plant species.

53
 ii. The oil container and pipes should be kept properly and frequently inspected so as to avoid
the problem of soil spiller
iii. Population controlling the population number of people will reduce the amount of water
produced.
iv. Reduction in the uses of fertilizers and chemicals in agriculture organic agriculture should be
encouraged in which manure is used.
v. The government and the NGO’S should cooperate in educating people on how to use water,
conserve it and where possible they should assist financial in trying to prevent the problem of
water pollution.
vi. Water should be kept in a clean containers or reservoirs and be covered flighty to avoid
contamination.
vii. Breaking of rocks using dynamite should be discouraged and hence alternative ways should
be applied.
viii. Dumping of wastes on the land should be hand in hand with land filling method since
random throwing of it leads to water pollution.
ix. There should be recycling of wastes rather than throwing them into the water bodies.

IV. NOISE POLLUTION

This refers to the disorganized sound produced from different activities.

CAUSES OF NOISE POLLUTION

o Motor vehicles
o Construction activities
o Bombing activities
o Machines in factories

EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

o Mental and physical illness

o High blood Pressure problem
o Death on organism

2. LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

Loss of biodiversity refers to all processes that lead to loss of variety of species of organisms and
plants of the Earth.

CAUSES OF LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

 Floods which kill most of the organisms at the place where they occur.
 Pests and diseases tend to kill large number of organisms.
 Landslides and other types of mass wasting.
 Earthquakes kill organisms in large number.
 Wars; When wars breakout the weapons kill not only people but also other organisms.

54
  Pollution, poison of air, water and soil lead to the death of living organisms.
 Illegal fishing when people use dynamites, bombs and poisoning lead to death of fish and
other organisms.
 Poaching.

EXTENT OF LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

The rate of loss of biodiversity is very great in the world today because of rapid expansion of
human activities.

EFFECTS OF LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

 Change of climate of the world due to death of plants and organisms which can regulate
the temperature and rainfall of the area.
 Loss of wild life and hence affect tourism activities.
 Desertification due to death of plants.
 Lack of food, the death of plants and organisms lead to the shortage of food.

3. DESERTIFICATION

This is the process by which the desert fringes are encroaching on agricultural potential land.

OR: I t is the process in which the fertile land is demanded and degraded to produce or initiate
desert.

CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION

1. Poor use or mismanagement of land leads to desertification. In most cases many people
are still ignorant and hence unaware of how to use the land properly due to low level of
technology e.g. Over cultivation and overgrazing, as well as poor methods of cultivation
especially cultivation facing down the slope.

2. Deforestation: This is the process which is mainly associates with massive destruction of
trees and vegetation cover.

In most cases in African countries, natural forest have been destroyed, using trees for
different activities such as building, making furniture, building ships and boats, making
paper and fuel, charcoal making, etc.

3. Increase of population in some countries has led to clearing of forested areas for
cultivation in order to increase food production, settlement purposes, construction of
infrastructures.
4. Natural drought cycles have been responsible for the advance of the desert. Drought
leads to loss of soil moisture and hence death of different plant species.

EFFECTS OF DESERTIFICATION

55
 1. It leads to decline in agriculture. This is because of drought condition that causes water
problems when there is poor precipitation plant growth is inhabited leading to poor food
production.
2. Migration of people from affected area to productive land area. People and other animals
are compelled to move from areas with scarcity of water to areas that experience enough
rainfall.

3. The desert advance acceleration of soil erosion which leads to deforestation and loss of
arable land. Erosion also affect different structure like building bridge, roads and railway
line.
4. Leads to the loss of important species of trees and animals as well as organism like
bacteria.
5. Scarcity of water makes travel long distance in search for water for domestic uses like
cooking, drinking, washing.
6. The desert also contribute at high rate the destruction of wild life animals and species
which in turn leads to decline of tourist industries in the country .This happens when
animal die or migrate away or when lakes and rivers dry up.

MEASURES TO BE TAKEN IN ORDER TO MINIMIZE THE RATE OF

DESERTIFICATION

i. Alternative source of energy should be used in the developing countries especially in

natural areas where the majority live. Alternative energy includes solar energy, wind
power, bio gas and hydroelectric power.
ii. The local people should be educated on how to conserve vegetation. Some programs like
afforestation and reforestation should be encouraged in order to mitigate them.
iii. The government should advice some substantive policies whose objectives are to lay
down principles to guide development and control of forests.
iv. The government should encourage forest conservation by avoiding deforestation.

3. LAND DEGRADATION (SOIL)

Land degradation refers to the deterioration of the quality of land (soil) through the loss of
fertility, soil pollution erosion and mass wasting.

Loss of soil fertility

This refers to the decline in the soil ability to support plant growth due to the lack of plant
nutrients necessary for growth.

CAUSES OF SOIL INFERTILITY

1. Leaching process: This process contributes to the soil infertility due to the fact that
nutrients which are necessary for plants growth and washed away.

2. Over cultivation: In a certain area caused by the rapid population growth. The crops
grown on the some pieces of land for a long time lead to depletion of nutrients.

56
 3. Monoculture: That involves cultivation of one type of crop without crop of inter
cropping. Nutrients are used up without replacement and the soil structure can be
destroyed rendering the soil unstable.

4. Soil erosion: Which accelerated by poor land management like deforestation feat
cultivation on the slopes etc.

5. Mass wasting: That lead to the loss of the upper layer of soil and its nutrients

6. Severe loss of soil water through excessive evaporation especially in arid and semi arid.

SOIL MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION

Soil management
Refer to the skilful uses or wise utilization and control of quality of soil (land resources)

Soil conservation
Refers to the process of preserving soil for proper and sustainable use.

MEASURES OF SOIL MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION

 Educating people so as to promote and encouraged land management skills among them
this has to be undertaken by the government collaboration with NGO’S and some
individual.
 Training and encouraging farmers to uses proper farming methods like crop rotation
counters roughing and inter cropping
 Planting of cover crops forestation and reforestation in order to check soil erosion.
 Reducing or stopping the uses of industrial chemical which tend to accumulate in the soil
and causes soil pollution.
 Waste products should be recycled rather than dumping them in the soil.
 Destocking animal members should be reduced or controlled so as to avoid overgrazing
that leads to destruction grass.
 Encouraging dry farming that involves mulching in order to reduce loss of water through
evaporation
 Land filling with bush wood should be used where the soil has been severely eroded
producing gullies.
 Population should be controlled so as to discourage excessive exploitation of resources
which in nature leads to land degradation
 Alternative energy resources should be exposed and used effectively to avoid the
excessive exploitation of forest and oil which causes hazard to the environment.
 Radioactive materials should be dumped very deeply in the soil to prevent the upper soil
layer from being high affected.
 Terracing and contraction of some stone lines should be undertaken so as to control the
movement of water and forces it to get into the soil rather than flowing over the land.

57
5. ACIDIC RAIN
It is the rain that contain more acid than normal formed in the air when sulphur dioxide or
carbon dioxide combine with hydrogen gas.

Sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide mainly originated from industries and strip mining of coal as
well as burning of charcoal.

EFFECTS OF ACIDIC RAIN

1. It led to the increase of acidity in water bodies hence killing of aquatic animals and plants
2. Reduction of the rate of soil fertility due to the increase amount of acidity into the soil.
3. Increase the rate of leaching process.
4. Destruction of different structure like buildings, bridges, railways as result of the
corrosive action of acid on paint and rocks containing calcium.
5. Sulphuric acid lead itching and irritation of eyes in human beings and animal
6. Erosion of limestone rock lead to the formation of features like sink holes dollies and
garpikes

MEASUREMENTS TO COMBAT THE PROBLEM OF ACIDIC RAINFALL

i. Spraying the trees to wash off the acids and adding of time to the soil lakes and rivers to
reduce acidity . The good example is Germany, UK and Scandinavia, countries where
this process has been used advice.
ii. Reduction of emission of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide by using non fossil fuel,
coal which contains less sulphur, removing sulphur from coal.
iii. Introducing new boilers in power station which can burn sulphur dioxide into ash.
iv. Trapping sulphur dioxide from the waster gases and spraying it with water so that it can
form sulphuric acid which can later be neutralized by adding line.
v. Using alternative sources of energy which do not pollute the air the country can turn the
coal – fired power station into gas fired power.
vi. Recycle the waste to avoid unnecessary champion action that lead to the production of
sulphur gas.
vii. Strict policies should be formulated to restrict the case of energy that leads to emission of
sulphur dioxide.

NB:
Environmental problems have affected adversely different species of plant and animal i.e. Loss
of biodiversity and Eco system.

BIODIVERSITY
This mean that a variety of species of living organisms both plants and animals (flora and
Fauna).

ECOSYSTEM

58
Means is the natural system in which plant (Flora) and animal (fauna) interact with each other
and the non living environment.

WILD LIFE (FAUNA)

These are animals found in the forests. These animals have a great roles or are of great
importance.

IMPORTANCE OF WILD LIFE

o Wildlife animals are the sources of food such as meat which in turn provides protein in
our bodies.
o Wild animals attract tourism and are sources of foreign
o They are sources of material valuable to man such as skin and medicine takes
o Wildlife conservation areas have contributed to increase of employment opportunities.
o Development of manufacturing industries due to availability of raw materials such as skin
etc.

6. FLOODS
Refers the period of high river discharge or over flow of water along the coast due to
extremely high tides and storm waves.

Causes Of Floods

i. Flood occur due to the collapse of reservoirs like dam, emergence of spring, melting of
ice and breaking of the water pipes.
ii. Also flood can occur due to the heavy rainfall that take place in a particular place and
they affect so much the law land area especially where vegetation how been cleared .
They occur most frequently in the humidly region like equatorial areas due to heavy rank.

Factors That Can Accelerate Flooding In Law Land Areas

1. Shallowness of the soil due to the presence of the impermeable rock layer just near the
surface.
2. Earth quakes that place below the sea tends to lead to the formation of large waves –
flooding
3. Damming of the river by human being by lava spread out during volcanic eruption.
4. Blocked up drainage system in town and cites can lead to the flooding
5. Shallowness and name lines of the river system can also lead to flooding
6. Cleaning of vegetation accelerate flooding because on a base surface water runs freely to
the stream
7. It can also take place where the rives has many bends

Impacts Of Flood

1. Death of people and animals for example the frequent flood in Bangladesh has claimed
the death of many people leading to depopulation.

59
 2. Destruction of farm land they can be destroyed by running water leaching to devastation
of crops.
3. Outbreak and spread of disease especially water born disease which then affected the
health of people and sometimes death.
4. Floods also lead to the demolition of houses rending people homeless.
5. Silting of dams and other water resources resulting in the problem of water conservation
and inadequate water supply.
6. Flood can lead to soil and air pollution.
7. Occurrence of the soil erosion and the occurrence of lands.
8. Destruction of infrastructure like railways, roads and bridges.
9. Floods bring problem of industrial location in a particular place.
10. It leads to migration of people who move as refugees.
11. Destruction of various economic sectors like farms and industrial structures this lead to
occurrence of poverty in the country.
12. Destruction of transport system hinders the movement of goods and services from one
place to another.

Response To The Occurrence Of Flood

1. There should be proper management of the watershed catchment areas through planting
trees people should be allowed to settle in the catchment areas
2. Construction of dams across the river channels helps in combating the problem of flood
which affects the low land areas.
3. The stream of the rivers should be deeper widened and straightened so as to increase the
speed of the river down the slope to the sea.
4. People should be frequent inspection and cleaning of the drainage by flooding.
5. There should be frequent inspection and cleaning of the drainage system.
6. Availability of rescue team which is skilled and actives in rescuing people affected by
floods
7. International cooperation should be intensified so as to improve the techniques of
combating this environmental problem.

7. DROUGHT

Is a state on an area facing prolonged condition of dry without precipitation or a long period of
dry weather.
Drought and desertification have something in common in terms of occurrence and affects.

Causes Of Drought

i. Wind system dynamics.

Wind system that are dry since have blow across very narrow water mass stretch cause
drought as they have not picked enough moisture for rain formation;
Example Harmaton wind of West Africa has contributed to the occurrence of drought
condition particularly in the Sahara region.

60
 ii. Shifting position of the overhead sun.
As a shifting of over head sun takes place then rainfall regime shift. It shift in the
northern hemisphere there occur dryness in the southern hemisphere
iii. Location of some place:
Some place is located in the wind side of the mountains and therefore experience dryness.
Good example is Namib desert
iv. Natural fires:
There is the fire caused by natural hazard like lighting of and volcanic eruption.
v. Rain shadow effect produced by high mountain ranges

MAN INDUCED CAUSES

These Are Activities Carried All By Man

i. Lumbering that leads to deforestation due to excessive cutting of trees.

ii. Bad agriculture practices like overgrazing, over cultivation and shifting cultivation.
iii. Establishment of new settlement areas due to the increase in population lead to cutting of
trees.
iv. Mining activities and construction of dams can also cause deforestation.
v. Industrial activities and crops have an impact on the occurrence of drought.
vi. Low level of technology and poverty there has led to occurrence of drought.
vii. Fire lit

Impact Of Drought

i. Drought has led to poor supply of water for domestic uses, agricultural uses and
industrial activities.
ii. Disappearance of vegetation and animal species.
iii. Poor supply of energy and power to some people who depends on fire wood as the man
source of energy.
iv. Drying of water bodies due to excessive evaporation.
v. It has facilitated desertification process Migration of people from one area to another.
vi. Decline of industries especially food processing industries that depend on agricultural
production.
vii. Women harassment due to the fact that women are forced to move long distance in search
for fire wood.

MEASURING TO COMBAT THE PROBLEMS OF DROUGHT

 Embarking an forestation programmers the trees moisture to the atmosphere and hence
led to rain formation
 The uses of proper farming method which do not deplete vegetation
 Control of population should be encouraged so as to avoid the excessive exploitation of
vegetation
 The water conservation centers should be established like dams so as to promote
irrigation streams

61
 Farmers should be given proper education on how to conserve water resources
sustainability to avoid environmental degradation
 Strict policies should be instituted so as to restrict excessive use of trees
 These should be the woof alternative energy sources like solar energy, wind energy, and
Geothermal.

GLOBAL WARMING/GLOBAL CLIMATIC CHANGE

The world climate changes “Refers to all form of climatic inconsistently but because the
climate is never static the terms is more properly described as a significant long term
abnormal fluctuations in terms of precipitation wind system and all other aspects of the
earth’s climate.
For quite long period of time the world has been experiencing global climatic changes
including extreme cooling or extreme warming of the atmosphere.

CAUSES OF CLIMATIC CHANGE

i. Variation of solar energy

It is estimated that the solar output increase at the rate of 1â—¦c per century. This
led to the decrease or drop in temperature.

ii. Variation in atmospheric Carbon dioxide

The higher the level of atmospheric Carbon dioxide the warmer the global
temperature

iii. Volcanic eruption

It has been accepted for some time that volcanic activities have influenced climate
in the past and continues to do so. World temperatures are lowered after any large
single eruption, this is due to the increase in dust particles in the lower
atmosphere which will absorb and scatter more of the incoming radiation.

iv. Changes in oceanic circulation, this affect the exchange of heat between the
oceans and the atmosphere. This can have both long term effects on the world
climate and short term effects.
v. Composition of the atmosphere

Gases in the atmosphere can be increased. At present there is increasing concern

at the buildup of Carbon dioxide and other green house gases like CFC’s in the
atmosphere, which are blamed for the depletion of Ozone in the upper atmosphere
hence global warming.

62
 Global Warming And Green Houses Phenomena

Global warming:
This is the unusual increase in temperature of the earth’s atmosphere which is caused by
the green houses effect.

Green house effect:

Refers to the situation in which the atmosphere traps and retains heat energy from the sun
in the lower level leading to the rise in temperature.

Effects Of Global Warming And Green House

1. The rise in temperature has led to the melting of ice in various parts of the world
e.g. The cap at the peak of Mt Kilimanjaro has decreased in size due to the effect
of global warming
2. The melting of ices has led to the increase of water in the sea and hence the sea
level rises. As results of those phenomena some of coastal areas are flooded.
3. Global warming has led to the occurrence of strong storms in different parts of the
world that kill people and destroy properties.
4. Some cold areas have become warm such that tropical crops are grown.
5. Disappearance of some animals and plant species due to the failures to adopt the
abrupt in temperature.
6. Global warming has caused the occurrence of precipitation in other areas which is
used to be dry due to the changes in hydrological cycles.
7. Decline of production due to drought and desertification process which then leads
to poverty and death of people
8. Spread of disease like skin cancer, malaria and other.

Mitigating Measures Against Global Warming And The Green Houses Effect

1. Discouraging the uses of burning of material that release harmful green house
gases such as CO2, CFC's
2. Alternative sources of energy, which are environmentally friendly, should be
encouraged e.g. geothermal, power, solar energy, and wind energy.
3. Formation of an international policies and cooperation among different nations in
the fight against air pollution.
4. Control of pollution in order to control and discourages excessive uses of fossils
and biomass energy.
5. Recycling of wastes should be encouraged rather than burning or dumping on the
surface.
6. Modification of the combustion system in the machines in order to attain efficient
fuel burning in and out of massive release of green house gases especially carbon
dioxide.

Waste Mismanagement

63
Is the poor disposal of wastes on undersigned areas. Examples of wastes are solid (bottles, plastic
materials, iron). Liquid (Sewage from latrines, oil). Gaseous emission from motor vehicles and
industries.

Causes Of Waste Mismanagement

a) Human negligence, that people do not mind about waste management.

b) Lack of dumping areas especially in towns.
c) Lack of education to people on environmental conservation.
d) Poor environmental policy e.g Dar es Salaam city is dirtier than Moshi.

Effects Of Waste Mismanagement

a) Eruption of diseases e.g dysentery, cholera

b) Loss of aquatic organisms when liquid wastes are dumped in the sources of water may
lead to death of organisms living in water.
c) Air pollutions – If wastes will not be treated properly e.g dumped materials from
domestic and industrial areas.
d) Shortage of clean water because the sources of water may be contaminated by the wastes.
e) Low productivity especially on land. If there will be acceleration of land erosion, oil
spillage on land.

Urban Growth On Environment

Causes of urban growth

a) Trade; both small scale and large scale commercial activities e.g Town venders, Bakhresa
company etc
b) Employment – many administrative centres and industries encourage urban growth
because people move from rural to urban seeking for job.
c) Improved social services e.g health centres, education, roads.

Effects Of Urban Growth To The Environment

i. Pollution e.g noise, land, water and air pollution resulting by overcrowding.
ii. Deforestation- Caused by clearing of forests for settlement, etc.
iii. Global warming caused by smoke from industries, motor vehicles, etc.
iv. Loss of Biodiversity due to clearance of the forest.

The Impact Of Poverty On The Environment

Poverty is the state of being poor. Poverty is characterized by the following features.

 Low income.
 Poor standard of living.
 Short life expectancy

64
  Poor infrastructure.
 Unemployment.
 Environmental degradation.
 Diseases

The impacts of poverty in the environment are

 Soil erosion due to poor farming methods and overgrazing.

 Desertification due to cutting down of trees to obtain firewood and charcoal for domestic
use because people cannot afford the use of fuel and electricity.
 Loss of biodiversity due to clearance of forest and bush firing.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION

Environmental conservation refers to the careful use and protection of the environment from
over exploitation and destruction.

Ways of Environmental Conservation

A. Setting up of institutions and organizations for coordinating matters related to

environment and conservations.

e.g UNEP-United Nations Environment Programmes

NEMC –National Environment Management and Conservation.

B. Education

Both formal and informal education must be subjected to people, through mass media, schools
and Universities aiming at demolishing the forces of environmental degradation.

C. Research

Should be carried out locally and globally for management and conservation of the environment.

D. Recycling factories

Garbage make pollution on land and water hence once materials are recycled reduce
environmental degradation e.g In Dar es Salaam plastic water bottles are collected and sold for
recycling.

E. Land Rehabilitation

Especially after quarrying and mining activities have taken place, land should be rehabilitated.

65