Fundamental of Logic

Angel Ann Marie A.
Potestas
BEED 2A
GEC 104
2.4 Some Fundamentals of Logic
Logic
-Is the science of thinking correctly
-The use of logic illustrates the importance of precision and conciseness in communicating mathematics
Symbolic Logic
- allow us to break down ordinary language amd analyse its meaning in a systematic way
Why do most people argue over some issue and never get to the bottom of it? Sometimes people in
dispute say that "they do not see eye to eye." This expression means that the people involved in an
argument never get to agree on the issues at hand. In many cases, the disagreement lies on not being
able to present sound arguments based on facts, or the failure to convince the contending party using
logical arguments. To avoid such a scenario in mathematics and to uphold certainty in the validity of
mathematical statements, mathematics employs the powerful language of logic in asserting truths of
statements. The use of logic illustrates the importance of precision and conciseness in communicating
mathematics.
Propositions
Many times, propositions are made in people's statements. A proposition is a statement which is either
true (T) or false (F). The senior citizens may claim that the best movie they ever saw is Sound of Music, a
movie that was produced in 1965. This statement is a proposition that is either T or F and cannot be
both.
Example 1:
Each of the following statements is a proposition. Some are true and some are false. Can you tell which
are true, and which are false? If it is false, state why.
a. 9 is a prime number.
b. 5+3=8
C. x² + y² 20
d. 10<-3
Answers:
a. False. Prime numbers have no other factors than 1 and itself. 9 can be expressed as 3.3.
b. True.
c. True.
d. False. A negative number is always less than a positive number.
The Truth Table
A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound statement for all possible truth values
of its simple statements.
Negation
A statement is a negation of another if the word is not introduced in the negative statement. Let P be a
proposition. The negation of Pis "not P" or -P.
Example 2:
What is the negation of the following statements?
a. P: √2 is a rational number.
b. R: 6 is an odd number.
Solution:
a. √2 is not a rational number or √2 is irrational. In symbols, P.
b. 6 is not an odd number or 6 is an even number. In symbols, R.
Logical Connectives
Let P and Q be propositions. A logical connective is the mathematical equivalent of a conjunction in

English. The most common conjunctions in mathematics are "and" and "or", which are denoted by ^ and
v, respectively.
If two statements are joined like P and Q, denoted by PAQ, then PAQ is a statement that is true if and
only if both P and Q are true. Another logical connective is the word "or". The statement PvQ is true if
and only if Pis true or Q is true, which is taken to include the case when they are both true.
Implications
Suppose P and Q are propositions. The proposition PQ (read as "if P, then Q") is called an implication. P
is called the premise and Q is called the/conclusion. In ordinary language statements like "If it rains, then
I bring my umbrella" is an implication. "If it rains" is Por the premise while "I bring my umbrella" is the
conclusion.
Other ways of reading P⇒ Q are:
P implies Q
Q if P
Q is implied by P
Q only if P
A more complicated form of implication is the bi implication or the biconditional denoted by the
symbol. The statement PQ is true if and only if both P and Q are either both true or both false. The
sentence PQ is equivalent to the statement
PQ = (PQ)^(QP).
Construct the truth table for the logical operator and check that indeed it is equivalent to (PQ) ^ (QP).
Example: Write the following in symbolic form using P, Q, and R for statements and the symbols,,,,
where
P: Pres. Duterte is a good president.
Q: Government officials are corrupt.
R: People are happy.
a. If Pres. Duterte is a good president, then government officials are not corrupt.
b. If government officials are not corrupt, then the people are happy.
c. If Pres. Duterte is a good president and people are happy, then government officials are not corrupt.
d. Pres. Duterte is not a good president if and only if government officials are corrupt and the people are
not happy.
Converse, Inverse, Contrapositive
and its contrapositive is →Q ⇒ «P.

Suppose P and Q are propositions. Given the implication P⇒ Q. Its converse is Q → P, its inverse is-P-Q,
That is,
Given: If P then Q.
Inverse: If not P then not Q.
Converse: If Q then P.
Contrapositive: If not Q then not P.
To determine whether the conditional statement is true or false, we come up with the following truth
table. Referring to the truth table of the implication statement P⇒ Q below, we then create the truth
table for the inverse, converse, and contrapositive statements.
Example : Give the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the following implications:
a. If this movie is interesting, then I am watching it.
b. If p is a prime number, then it is odd.
Answers:
a. Inverse: If this movie is not interesting, then I am not watching it.
Converse: If I am watching this movie, then it is interesting.
Contrapositive: If I am not watching this movie, then it is not interesting.
b. Inverse: If p is not a prime number, then it is not odd.
Converse: If p is an odd number, then it is prime.
Contrapositive: If p is not odd, then it is not a prime number.

Quantifiers
Quantifiers are used to describe the variable(s) in a statement.
Types
1. The universal quantifier is usually written in the English language as "for all" or "for every." It is
denoted by the symbol∀.
2. The existential quantifier is expressed in words as "there exists" or "for some." This quantifier is
denoted by 3.
Example: Write as an English sentence and determine if it is true or false.
a. Vx∈ R, Zy∈ R, x + y = 10
b. Vxe Z', y ∈ R, y² = x
Answers:
a. For every real number x, there exists a real number y such that the sum of x and y is equal to 10. TRUE
b. For every positive integer x, there exists a real number y such that the square of y is equal to x. TRUE

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Angel Ann Marie A.

2.4 Some Fundamentals of Logic

-Is the science of thinking correctly

d. False. A negative number is always less than a positive number.

The Truth Table

What is the negation of the following statements?

a. √2 is not a rational number or √2 is irrational. In symbols, P.

b. 6 is not an odd number or 6 is an even number. In symbols, R.

Let P and Q be propositions. A logical connective is the mathematical equivalent of a conjunction in

Other ways of reading P⇒ Q are:

P: Pres. Duterte is a good president.

Q: Government officials are corrupt.

R: People are happy.

and its contrapositive is →Q ⇒ «P.

Inverse: If not P then not Q.

Contrapositive: If not Q then not P.

a. If this movie is interesting, then I am watching it.

b. If p is a prime number, then it is odd.

a. Inverse: If this movie is not interesting, then I am not watching it.

Converse: If I am watching this movie, then it is interesting.

Contrapositive: If I am not watching this movie, then it is not interesting.

b. Inverse: If p is not a prime number, then it is not odd.

Converse: If p is an odd number, then it is prime.

Contrapositive: If p is not odd, then it is not a prime number.

Quantifiers are used to describe the variable(s) in a statement.

Example: Write as an English sentence and determine if it is true or false.

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