FUNGI

OBJECTIVES

The main objective of the present lecture is to cover the

topic and make it easy to understand and interesting for our
students/learners.

FUNGI – I
CONTENT
 Introduction of fungi
 General characteristics of fungi
 Occurance
 Thallus organisation
 Different forms of mycellium
 Cell structure
 Nutrition
 Heterothallism and Homothallism
 Reproduction
 Classification of fungi
 Classification based on taxonomy hierarchy
 Classification based on spore Production
 Classification of medically important fungi
 Classification based on route of acquisition
 Classification based on virulence
 Key points of the lecture
 Terminology
 Assessment Questions
 Bibliography
WHAT IS FUNGI ????
 Fungi is the plural of word fungus which is derived
from the latin word fungour.

 Fungi are achlorophyllas, heterotrophic

eukaryotic thallophytes.

 According to Alexopoulos (1962), the fungi include

nucleated spore bearing achlorophyllas organisms
that generally reproduce sexually and whose
filamentous branched somatic struture are
typically surrounded by cell wall containing
cellulose or chitin or both.

 According to Bessey (1968), fungi are chlorophyll

less non vascular plants whose reproductive or
vegetative structure do not permit them to be
assigned to position among recognized group of
higher plants.

 The branch of botany that deals with the fungi is

called mycology and the scientist who is concern
with the fungi is called a mycologist.

 P. A. Micheli known as father of mycology whereas

E. J. Butler refer to as father of Indian mycology.

 Fungi are non-green in color with the capacity to live in all

kinds of environments.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ALGAE AND FUNGI
Algae Fungi

The possess chlorophyll which in some of They grow in water or in a damp soil and
them is masked by other pigments such as sometime as an
brown, red etc. epiphytes rarely as endophytes.
With the help of chlorophyll, they are able to The sexual apparatus increases in complexity
synthesize from the
their own food and thus are called autotrophic simple to the higher forms.
in their mode of nutrition.

The algal thallus is composed of true

parenchyma cells.
The unit f structure an algal thallus thus is a
cell.

The cell wall is typically composed of

cellulose. The food reserve is chiefly in the

form of starch.

The algae grow in the habitat where sun light

is present.
The fungi lack chlorophyll

Lacking chlorophyll, the fungi are unable to

synthesized their own organic food. They get
it readymade sources either by living as
parasites or saprophytes. For this resions
fungi are refer to as heterotrophic in their
mode of nutrition.
The fungal thallus which is termed das
mycelium is not
formed by the division and differentiation of
the cells but composed of a false tissue called
pseudoparanchyma. Thus the unit of structure
of a fungus thallus is not a cell but hyphae.
The cell or hyphae wall is composed of fungus
cellulose
or often called chitin.
The reserve food invariably accumulated in
the form of glycogen and not starch.
They generally have grown in dark and dim
light.
They have grown in the wide variety of
habitat; as
parasites in the tissue of plants and animals.
There is a progressively and gradually
simplification and ultimate illumination of the
sexual apparatus from the lower to higher
fungi.
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN ALGAE AND
FUNGI
 Fungi and algae both prefer to live in moist environments. In fact, one of the
benefits algae derive from their symbiotic lichen relationship with fungi is their
ability to survive on land in a moist environment.
 Both algae and fungi are thallophytes (plant body not differentiated into root, stem
and leaves)
 Both algae and fungi are placed together in the division thallophyta of cryptogams
 With the exception of blue green algae, majority of algae and fungi are eukaryotic
 Both fungi and algae are, in general, examples of organisms possessing a haploid
nuclei. This means they have only a single copy of each chromosome. By
contrast, diploid organisms, such as humans and most mammals, have two copies
of each chromosome.
 Vascular tissue system is absent in both groups
 Both algae and fungi processes cell wall made of polysaccharides, chemical
nature of cell wall varies in algae and fungi
 Symbiotic members are present in both groups (algae with animals, fungi with
roots of higher plants, between algae and fungi as in lichens)
 Both groups can reproduce by vegetative reproduction by fragmentation and
fission.
 Both algae and fungi can reproduce asexually by the production of various motile
and non-motile spores
 Sex organs are naked in both groups, no protective covering for sex organs in both
groups
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI
 Some of the most important characters of fungi are as follows: 1. Occurrence 2.
Thallus organization 3. Different forms of mycelium 4. Cell structure 5. Nutrition
6. Heterothallism and Homothallism 7. Reproduction.

OCCURRENCE:
 Fungi are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water soil and on
plants and animals.

 They prefer to grow in warm and humid places.

Hence, we keep food in the refrigerator to
prevent bacterial and fungal infestation.

THALLUS ORGANIZATION:
 Except some unicellular forms (e.g. yeasts,
Synchytrium), the fungal body is a thallus called
mycelium.

 The mycelium is an interwoven mass of thread-

like hyphae (Sing, hypha). Hyphae may be
septate (with cross wall) and aseptate (without
cross wall). Some fungi are dimorphic that found
as both unicellular and mycelial forms e.g.
Candida albicans.

 The thallus may be two types: Unicellular and

filamentous.
 Unicellular thallus: In some of the lower fungi, thallus is more or less a
spherical, single celled structure. At the time of reproduction it becomes a
reproductive unit. Such fungi are called holocarpic. In the unicellular holocarpic
forms, the mycelium is absent e.g. Synchytrium. Some holocarpic fungi (e.g.,
yeast) producing bud cells in succession and these remain attached to one
another in a chain. Such a chain of bud cells is referred to as pseudomycelium.

 Filamentous thallus: In most true fungi, the thallus is filamentous composed of

Hyphae. Loosely aggregated hyphae are collectively forms a network known as
mycelium. Each hypha may vary in shapes and sizes. Branching of hyphae is
dichotomous. On the basis of presence or absence of septa the hyphae of
mycelical fungi are of two types:

Nonseptate or aseptate hyphae: Mycelium contains numerous nuclei,lying in a

common mass of cytoplasm, without cross wall in the hyphae, E.g., oomycetes
and zygomycetes. Such a condition is known as coenocytic. However, septa may
be laid down at the time of formation of reproductive organs to delimit them from
the rest of the vegetative hyphae, therefore called Pseudosepta. E.g., Allomyces.

Septate Hyphae: Hyphae are septate and hyphal segments may contain one, two
or more nuclei. E.g., Ascomycotina, Basidiomycotina, and Deuteromycotina.
There are two types of septa:

• Primary septa: Primary septa are formed in association with mitotic or meiotic
nuclear division, and they separate the daughter nuclei. These types of septa are
found in Ascomycotina, Basidiomycotina and their asexual states.

• Adventitious septa: Adventitious septa are formed in the absence of mitosis or

meiosis and occur especially in association with change in the local concentration
of cytoplasm. These are found in lower groups of fungi as mastigomycotina and
zygomycotina.
DIFFERENT FORMS OF MYCELLIUM
 Different forms of mycelium refer to as the
various shapes and the functions of mycelium
which modified according to the circumstances.
These includes the following forms:

a. Plectenchyma (fungal tissue): In a fungal

mycelium, hyphae organized loosely or
compactly woven to form a tissue called
plectenchyma. It is two types:

 Prosenchyma or Prosoplectenchyma: In Prosenchyma and

these fungal tissue hyphae are loosely Pseudoparenchyma
interwoven lying more or less parallel to each
other.

 Pseudoparenchyma or paraplectenchyma: In
these fungal tissue hyphae are compactly
interwoven looking like a parenchyma in cross-
section.

b. Sclerotia (Gr. Skleros=haid): These are hard

dormant bodies consist of compact hyphae Sclerotia
protected by external thickened hyphae. Each
Sclerotium germinates into a mycelium, on
return of favourable condition, e.g., Penicillium.

c. Rhizomorphs: They are root-like compactly

interwoven hyphae with distinct growing tip.
They help in absorption and perennation (to tide
over the unfavourable periods), e.g., Armillaria
mellea.
 d. Rhizoids: A rhizoid is a short, root like
filamentous branch of the thallus, generally
formed in tufts at the base of the thallus. These
also function as anchoring and absorbing, e.g.,
Rhizophydium, Rhizopus.

e. Appressoria (Sing. appressorium): It is a Rhizoids

terminal simple or lobed swollen mucilaginous
structure of infecting hyphae which adheres to
the surface of the host or other substratum and
helps in the penetration of the infection hyphae.
These are formed by some parasitic fungi such
as powdery mildews and rust

f. Haustoria (Sing. haustorium): A haustorium is Appressoria

an organ that is developed from a hypha usually
performing the function of absorption. They are
characteristic of obligate parasites. They vary in
shape and may be knob like or button shaped,
elongated, finger-like or branched. They secrete
some specific enzymes which hydrolyse the protein
and carbohydrates of the host plant.
Hostorium
g. Hyphal traps (Snares): The predacious fungi
develop sticky hyphae or network of hyphal loops
known as hyphal traps or Snares. They help in
capturing nematodes.

h. Stromata: These are compact somatic

Hyphal
structures much like mattresses. Fructifications
are generally formed on or in them.
CELL STRUCTURE Cell Wall Taxonomic Representative
Category Group Genera
 Fungi are the eukaryotic organisms. Cellulose- Acrasiomycetes Polysphondylium,
Glycogen Dictyostelium
 The cell wall determines the Cellulose- Oomycetes Phytophthora,
characteristic shape of a cell. It β-Glucan Pythium
protects the cell from osmotic lysis and Cellulose– Hyphochytridio Rhizidiomyces
also acts as a binding site for some Chitin m
enzymes. ycetes
Chitin– Zygomycets Mucor,
 The chemical composition of the cell Chitosan Phycomyces
wall is not the same in all fungi. Chitin Chitin-β- Chytridiomycet Allomyces
is characteristically present in the cell Glucan es
walls of most fungi. The chitin in Ascomycetes Neurospora
fungal cell wall is not strictly identical Deuteromycete Aspergilllus
s
with animal chitin, and the formula Basidiomycetes Fomes, Polyporus
(C22H54N4O21)n has been suggested for
the fungal chitin: It is a polymer
of N-
acetylglucosamine.

 The cytoplasm at hyphal tip contains

Golgi vesicles called chitosomes which
filled with cell wall materials.

 Nucleus and mitochondria are found to

connect with ER. Nucleus divides by
intracellular mitosis called
karyochoresis where nuclear envelop
remain intact during nuclear division
and internal spindle develop. Reserve
food is glycogen and oil.
NUTRITION
 The fungi lack chlorophyll. Therefore, they
cannot synthesiz their own food. Depending
on from where and how they get nutrition,
fungi are of following types:

a. Saprotrophs: They obtain food from dead

and decaying organic matter. They secrete
digesting enzymes to outside which digest Saprotroph
s
the substratum and then absorb nutrients,
e.g., Mucor, Agarious, Rhizopus etc.

b. Parasitic: They obtain food from living

organisms. They may be facultative or
obligate. Facultative parasites grow on a
variety of tissues e.g., Ustilago. The
obiigate- parasites growonly upon suitable
host, e.g., downy mildews. The parasitic Parasitic fungi on
fungi that grow on surface of host cells and ladybug
absorb food through haustoria are called
ectoparasites or ectophytic parasites (e.g.,
Mucor, Erisphae). When parasitic fungi
grow inside the host tissue are called
endoparasites or endophytic parasites (e.g.,
Pythium, Puccinia).

c. Predacious: Some soil fungi develop ring-

like noses to trap annelids, nematodes etc. Predacious fungi trap
nematode
e.g., Arthrobotrys, Zoophagus, Dactylella
etc.
d. Symbiotic: They live in mutualistic relationship with another organism by
which both are
benefited. The two common examples are lichens and mycorrhiza.

 Lichens are symbiotic associations between fungi and algae. The fungal partner
is a member of ascomycetes or basidiomycetes that provides water and
nutrients, while the algal partner is a green alga or cyanobacteria that prepares
food by photosynthesis.

e. Mycorrhizas: or mycorrhizae are the mutualistic symbiotic associations

between soil fungi and the roots of most plant species. According to the
carbohydrate theory (Bjorkman, 1949), the plants that grow in soils deficient in
P and N, and high intensity light develop mycorrhizas.

 The two most common types of mycorrhizas are the ectomycorrhizas (ECM) and
the endomycorrhizas (also known as arbuscular mycorrhiza). The two groups
are differentiated by the fact that the hyphae of ectomycorrhizal fungi do not
penetrate the cell wall of the plant’s root cells, while the hyphae of arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi penetrate the cell wall.
 HETEROTHALLISM AND HOMOTHALLISM
 A. F. Blakeslee (1904) discovered mating
types or genetically distinct strains in Mucor.

 He called fungi with different mating types

are called heterothallic and fungi without
mating types are called homothallic.

 Nowadays we call some fungi and algae

homothallic if both male and female gametes
produce in the same individual can fertilize
each other and heterothallic if the gametes
can only be fertilized by gametes from
another individual of the same species.
Heterothallism introduces variations in the
species.

 REPRODUCTION
 In fungi reproduction may take place by
three methods; vegetative, asexual and
sexual.

 During asexual and sexual reproduction

processes spores are the essential
structures. The spores formed after meiosis
are called meiospores (e.g., ascospores,
basidiospores and sporangiospores) and
those resulting from mitosis, called
mitospores (e.g., mitospores, zoospores,
aplanospores, conidia, uredospores).
 The diploid body produced as a result of
sexual fusion is known as zygote which in
lower fungi is termed as resting spore,
oospore or zygospore.

 In higher fungi, the zygote is represented by

a diploid nucleus produced in a cell (ascus or
basidium). This diploid nucleus after
undergoing meiosis results in the formation
of haploid nuclei serving as centres for
haploid sexual spores called ascospores and
basidiospores. Fragmentation

 Vegetative reproduction: In this type of

reproduction, a part of mycelium separate
and forms a new individual. The various
methods of vegetative reproduction are:

a. Fragmentation: The hyphae break into

small fragments. Each piece upon getting
suitable conditions, germinates to form a
new mycelium.

b. Fission: This method involves the splitting

of cells into two daughter cells by the
formation of a constriction followed by a
cell wall formation.

c. Budding: A small bud formed from the

parent cell which gradually increases in
size and receives a part of nucleus. A cell
wall is formed which separates the
daughter cell from the parent cell.
 d. Sclerotia: These are perennating bodies
formed by the compact masses of
interwoven hyphae. Sclerotia under suitable
conditions germinate to form new
individuals e.g. Claviceps, Sclerotinia.
Sclerotia

e. Rhizomorphs: These are root-like

elongated mycelial strands. They remain
dormant under unfavourable conditions and
under favourable conditions develop into a
new mycelium.

 Asexual reproduction: It commonly take Rhizomorph

place through spores, either motile or non-
motile and form in a specialized part of
mycelium. The various types of spores are:

a. Zoospores: These are commonly found in

lower fungi e.g., Saprolegnia, Pythium etc.
They are naked spores, which after swarming,
encyst, secrete a cell wall and germinate by Zoospores
germ tube into a thallus. They are equipped
with one or two flagella

b. Sporangiospore: The sporangiospores or

aplanospores are nonmotile and lack
flagella and are formed inside the
sporangium e.g. Mucor, Rhizopus. These
Sporangiospore
spores may by uninucleate or multinucleate
and possess two-layered cell wall.
c. Conidia: They are produced externally on
branched or unbranched hyphal tips termed
as conidiophores. The conidia may be
formed singly or in chains. The conidial
chains may be basipetal or acropetal in
succession. Conidia may be uninucleate or
multinucleate. The latter type is more
common in the members of the form class
Deuteromycetes.

d. Oidia: They are produced by fragmentation spore of a rust fungus,

of hyphae from apex to base. Each cell thus produced usually on the leaves
formed rounds off and separates as a spore or stems of grasses.
which under favourable circumstances
germinates and forms the mycelium. Oidia

e. Chlamydospores: They are formed by

rounding off and enlargement of terminal or
intercalary cells of a hypha. These can be Chlamydospores
single or formed in chains. They do not
separate from the hyphae but remain viable
and germinate under favourable conditions.

f. Ascospores: An ascospore are produced

inside an ascus during the optimal
condition. This kind of spore is specific to
fungi classified as ascomycetes.

g. Uredospores: A thin-walled, red, summer Ascospores

Conidia
h. Basidiospores: These spore produced by
Basidiomycete fungi. They typically each
contain one haploid nucleus that is the
product of meiosis, and they are produced
by specialized fungal cells called basidia.

 Sexual reproduction: It involves the

formation and fusion of gametes. Sexual
reproduction found in all groups of fungi
except deuteromycetes or fungi imperfecti.
Sexual reproduction has three distinct
phases i.e. plasmogamy (protoplasmic
fusion), karyogamy (fusion of nuclei) and
meiosis (reduction division of zygote). The
various methods of sexual reproduction in
fungi are as follows:

a. Planogametic copulation: This is simplest

type of sexual reproduction. In this process
fusion of two gametes of opposite sex or
strains takes place where one or both of the
fusing gametes are motile (flagellated). It
results in the formation of a diploid zygote.
This process is usually of these types:

 Isogamy: In this process fusing gametes

are morphologically similar and motile but
physiologically dissimilar. These gametes
are produced by different parents, e.g.
Synchytrium.
 Heterogamy: When the fusing
gametes are morphologically as well
as physiologically different, the
process is known as heterogamy.
Heterogamous reproduction is of two
types: anisogamy and oogamy.
Anisogamy consists of the fusion of
two motile gametes where the male
gamete is small and more active than
the female gamete, e.g., Allomyces. In
oogamy the motile male gamete
(antherozooid) fuses with the large,
non-motile female gamete (egg or
ovum) e.g., Synchytrium etc.

b. Gametangial contact: In this

process two gametangia of opposite
sex come in contact with one another.
The male gametangium (antheridium)
transfer male nucleus or gamete into
the female gametangium (oogonium)
either through a pore at the point of
contact or through a fertilization tube,
e.g., Phytophthora, Albugo, Pythium
etc.

c. Gametangial copulation: In
involves the fusion of entire contents
of two gametangia to form a common
cell called zygote or zygospore, e.g.,
Mucor, Rhizopus.
d. Spermatization: Some fungi produce many minute, spore-like, single-celled
structures called spermatia (nonmotile gametes). These structures are
transferred through agencies like water, wind and insects to either special
receptive hyphae or trichogyne of ascogonium. The contents migrate into
receptive structure. Thus dikaryotic condition is established, e.g. Puccinia.

e. Somatogamy: This takes place in fungi where formation of gametes is absent.

In such fungi, anastomoses takes place between hyphae and their somatic cells
fuse to produce dikaryotic cells, e.g, Agaricus, Peniophora etc.

Sexual reproduction in fungi: (A) Gametangia contact, (B-C-D)

Planogametic copulation, (E-F-G) Spermatization, (H)
Gmaetangia copulation, (I) Somatogamy
CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI
 The classification of fungi is designed mainly for practical application but it also
bears some relation to phylogenetic considerations.

 The division of mycota, or fungi and moulds, includes the true slime moulds
(Myxomycetes), the
lower fungi (Phycomycetes), and the higher fungi (Eumycetes).

 The fungi can be classified according to the various parameters including;

o Classification based on taxonomy hierarchy

o Classification based on spore Production
o Classification of medically important fungi
o Classification based on route of acquisition
o Classification based on virulence

o Classification based on taxonomy hierarchy:

 Alexopolous and Mims proposed fungal classification in 1979. They place the
fungi including the slime molds in the kingdom mycetae of the super kingdom
Eukaryota which, in addition, includes four other kingdoms. They divide the
kingdom mycetae into three divisions namely:
 Gymnomycota
 Mastigomycota
 Amastigomycota
 The division is subdivided into subdivision, classes, sub-classes, and orders.
 Division I: Gymnomycota: It includes phagotrophic organism devoid of
cell walls. This division comprises two subdivisions; Acrasiogymnomycotina and
Plasmodiogynomycotina.
1. Subdivision : Acrasiogymnomycotina: It includes a single class
Acrasiomycetes.
Class 1. Acrasiomycetes : Lacks flagellated cells except for one species. The
class comprises:
Sub class 1. Acrasiomycetidae
Sub class 2. Dictyosteliomycetidae
2. Subdivision: Plasmodiogymnomycotina: It is divided into two classes:
Class 1. Protosteliomycetes
Class 2. Mycomycetes: It includes the true slime mold and comprises three sub
class namely:
Sub class 1. Ceratiomyxomycomycetidae, 1 Order : Ceratiomyxales
Sub class 2. Mycogasteomycetidae, 4 Orders: Liceales, Echinosteleales,
Trichlales, Physarales
Sub class 3. Stemonitomycetidae, 1 Order: Stemonitales
 Division II: Mastigomycota: Includes fungi with absorptive nutrition,
unicellular or
filamentous, mycelium coenocytic. It comprises two sub divisions:
1. Sub division: Haplomastigomycotina: Includes fungi with uni-or, bi-flagellate
zoospores. Class 1. Chytridiomycetes– Fungi producing zoospores furnished
with a single whiplash flagellum inserted at the posterior end.
Class 2. Hyphochytridiomycetes- Motile cells with a single tinsel flagellum
 inserted at the anterior end.
Class 3. Plasmodiophoromycetes- Parasitic fungi producing biflagellate
motile cells with
both the flagella of whiplash type inserted at the anterior end.
2. Sub division: Diplomastigomycotima: Sexual reproduction
ooagamous, zoospores biflagellate.
Class 1. Oomycetes, 4 Orders: Lagenidiales, Saprolegnailes, Leptomitales,
Peronosporales
 Division III: Amastigomycota: Fungi with absorptive nutrition, motile
cells lacking, mycelium aseptate or septate. This includes four sub divisions:
1. Sub division: Zygomycotina
Class 1. Zygomycetes – it includes six orders.,
Class 2. Trichomycetes – it comprises five orders.
2. Sub division: Ascomycotina: Fungi usually with a septate mycelium
producing haploid ascospores in sac like cells called asci.
Class 1. Ascomycetes: Divided into five sub classes:
Sub class 1. Hemiascomycetidae- comprising three orders.
Sub class 2. Plectomycetidae- Five orders
Sub class 3. Hymenoascomycetidae –
Ten orders Sub class 4.
Laboulbeniomycetidae – Two orders Sub
class 5. Lowloascomycetidae – five
orders
3. Sub division 3: Basidiomycotina: Septate mycelium, produces basidiospores,
exogenously on various types of basidia.
Class 1. Basidiomycetes: it is split into 3 sub clases:
Sub class 1.
Holobasidiomycetidae Sub class
2. Phragmobasidiomycetidae
Sub class 3. Teliomycetidae
4. Sub division: Deuteromycotina: It includes
imperfect fungi in which sexual stage is unknown. It
comprises a single class.
Class 1.
Deuteromycetes Sub
class 1.
Blastomycetidae Sub
class 2.
Coelomycetidae Sub
class
3.Hyphomycetidae
 Martin (1965) proposed a classification according to the spore formation in
fungi. The outline of classification is given;

Division mycota: These include non green, nucleated thallophytes which are saprophytes or parasite in nutrition.
Subdivision Myxomycotine: Thallus is achlorophyllus, multinucleated mass of protoplasm called plasmodium,
e.g., slime molds.
Subdivision Eumycotina: All the fungi except the slime molds are included in this subdivision.
Lower fungi: They have simple thallus which are unicellular and others filamentous (mycelium), usually septa is
not present.
Class Chytridiomycetes: Motile cells have a single flagellum of whiplash type inserted at the posterior end.
Class Hyphochytridiomycetes: Motile cell spossesses a single flagellum of tinsel type inserted at the anterior
end.
Class Plasmodiophoromycetes: Motile cells are biflagellated (whiplash type), but one is longer than the other
one.
Class Oomyceters: Motile cells are biflagellated, nearly equal length, one of these points forwards and the other
trails behind.
Class Zygomycetes: Motile cells are absent. Asexual reproduction take place by sporangiospores.
Class Trichomycetes: Motile cells are lacking. Asexual reproduction take place by conidia.
Higher fungi: The somatic phase consists mostly of a mycelium which is usually septate.
Class Ascomycetes: The characteristic spores called ascospores are produced endogenous within sac like
structure called asci. Class Basidiomycetes: Characteristic spores called basidospores are produced
exogenous on club shaped structure called basidia. Class Deuteromycetes: Sexual stage is unknown. The
somatic phase consist a septate mycelium which multiply by conidia.
 A more natural system of classification of fungi was proposed by Ainsworth
(1973) which has been accepted by many mycologist today like Webster (1980),
Bilgrami (1985 and Dube (1987).
o Classification based on spore production:

 On the basis of the organisation of the vegetative thallus, the morphology of

reproductive structures, the way of spores production and particular life cycle
involved the kingdom mycota is classified into following divisions.

 Phycomycetes

• It includes the simplest type of fungi. It is also called as Algae-Fungi

because most of the characteristics of them are similar to algae like Vaucheria.
• They have simple thallus which is unicellular or coenocytic or aseptate filaments.
• They reproduce asexually by the formation of zoospores or non-motile spores.
• Sexual reproduction is isogamous or heterogamous which takes place by
gametangial contact.
• The diploid phase is represented by zygote.
• Phycomycetes has been classified into subclasses: oomycetes and zygomycetes.

Oomycetes

• It range from a primitive unicellular thallus to a profusely branched filamentous

mycelium.
• Many members of them are terrestrial and obligate parasites.
• Asexually they reproduce by biflagellate zoospores.
• Oogamous reproduction that involves the fusion of male and female gametes to
form oospore.
• Oospore undergoes meioses to produce haploid biflagellate zoospores.
• Example; Phytophthora infestans (causes potato blight).
 Zygomycetes

• The group is named zygomycetes because a diploid resting spore called the
zygospore is formed during the life cycle.
• They are mostly saprophytic, some others are parasites on plants and animals.
• The vegetative body is mycelium which is well developed, profusely branched and
coenocytic.
• The absence of motile sexual or asexual cells.
• The asexual reproduction takes place by sporangiospores, aplanospores or by
conidia.
• Sexualreproduction occurs by conjugation of gametangia
resulting in theformation of zygospore.
• Examples; Rhizopus, Mucor etc.

 Ascomycetes

• The species of ascomycetes are called the sac fungi because they produce sexual
pores within the
sac-like vascus.
• Ascomycetes are mostly terrestrial occurring as saprophytes or parasites.
• They have well-developed, branched, septate mycelium except yeast. Yeast is a
unicellular fungus.
• Asexually they reproduce by non-motile spores, conidia, oidia or chlamydospores.
• Sexual reproduction takes place by the fusion of gametangia of opposite mating
 types.
• There is absence of motile cells.
• Examples, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Penicillium, Aspergillus etc.
 Basidiomycetes

• The members of basidiomycetes are saprophytic or parasitic. The group is named

basidiomycetes as they produce the basidiospores at the club-shaped basidium
during sexual reproduction.
• Mycelium is highly developed, profusely branched and septate.
• The mycelia are differentiated into two mating types; (+ve) and (-ve).
• There are two kinds of mycelium; primary mycelium and secondary mycelium.
• Asexual reproduction takes place by fragmentation, budding, oidia, conidia or
chlamydospore.
• The dikaryotic cell is formed during sexual reproduction.
• The absence of motile cell throughout the life cycle.
• These are the most advanced fungi as their fructifications are often large and
prominent.
• Examples; Mushrooms, Puccinia, Ustilago etc.

 Deuteromycetes (The Imperfect Fungi)

• Deuteromycetes compromises more than 17000 species of the diverse habits and
habitats. It is considered as an artificial class of fungi.
• The fungi are saprophytes as well as parasites.Parasitic fungi cause serious
diseases to plants, animals including human beings.
• Some of them are unicellular while others are multicellular.
• They reproduce asexually by conidia along with some other types of spores.
• The sexual reproduction is entirely absent.
• The asexual stage or imperfect stage in Deuteromycetes is well defined. But the
 sexual or perfect stage is absent in life cycle, therefore, they are called ‘Fungi
Imperfecti’.
• Example; Alternaria, Fusarium, Helminthosporium etc.
o Classification based on medically important fungi
 Mycoses are classified as superficial, cutaneous, subcutaneous, or systemic
(deep) infections depending on the type and degree of tissue involvement and
the host response to the pathogen.
a. Superficial mycoses (or tineas): Occur in the tropics and are restricted to the
outer surface of the hair and skin, e.g., Piedraia hortae.
b. Cutaneous mycoses: There are three genera of fungi (Microsporum,
Trichophyton and Epidermophyton) that commonly cause disease in the non-
living tissues of skin, hair, or nails/claws of people and animals, by growing in a
zone just above where the protein keratin is deposited.
c. Subcutaneous mycoses: They are normally saprotrophic inhabitants of soil,
particularly in tropical and subtropical areas of Africa, India and South America.
d. Systemic mycoses are infections that affect the whole body. We divide these into
mycoses due
to primary (usually dimorphic) virulent pathogens, and those due to opportunistic
pathogens.

o Classification based on route of acquisition

a. Infecting fungi may be either exogenous or endogenous.
b. When classified according to the route of acquisition, a fungal infection may be
designated as
exogenous or endogenous in origin.
c. If classified as exogenous, an infecting organism may be transmitted by
 airborne, cutaneous, or percutaneous routes.
d. An endogenously-acquired fungal infection may be acquired from colonization
or reactivation of a fungus from latent infection.
o Classification based on virulence

 Primary pathogens can establish infections in normal hosts.

 Opportunistic pathogens cause disease in individuals with compromised host

defense mechanisms.

• Deep mycoses are caused by primary pathogenic and opportunistic fungal

pathogens.

• The primary pathogenic fungi are able to establish infection in a normal host;
whereas, opportunistic pathogens require a compromised host in order to
establish infection (e.g., cancer, organ transplantation, surgery, and AIDS).

• The primary deep pathogens usually gain access to the host via the respiratory
tract. Opportunistic fungi causing deep mycosis invade via the respiratory tract,
alimentary tract, or intravascular devices.

• The primary systemic fungal pathogens include Coccidioides immitis,

Histoplasma capsulatum, Blastomyces dermatitidis, and Paracoccidioides
brasiliensis.

• The opportunistic fungal pathogens include Cryptococcus

neoformans, Candida, Aspergillusspp., Penicillium marneffei, the
Zygomycetes, Trichosporon beigelii, and Fusarium spp.
KEY POINTS OF THE LECTURE
 Fungi is the plural of word fungus which is derived from the latin word fungour.
 Fungi are achlorophyllas, heterotrophic eukaryotic thallophytes.

 The branch of botany that deals with the fungi is called mycology and the
scientist who is
concern with the fungi is called a mycologist.
 P. A. Micheli known as father of mycology whereas E. J. Butler refer to as father
of Indian mycology.
 Fungi are eukaryotic organisms means they have true nucleus which are enclosed
in membranes.
 They are non-vascular organisms. Xylem and Phloem are absent.
 Fungi have cell walls (plants also have cell walls, but animals have no cell walls).
 There is no embryonic stage for fungi.
 They reproduce by means of spores. There are sexual and asexual spores. Sexual
spores are Oospores, Zygospores, Ascospores, Basidiospores, etc. and Asexual
spores are Sporangiospores, Aplanospores, Zoospores, Conidia, etc.
 Depending on the species and conditions both sexual and asexual spores may be
produced.
 They are typically non-motile.
 Fungi exhibit the phenomenon of alteration of generation. They have both haploid
and diploid
stage.
KEY POINTS OF THE LECTURE
 Fungi are achlorophyllous, which means they lack the chlorophyll pigments
present in the chloroplasts in plant cells and which are necessary for
photosynthesis.

 As they are achlorophyllous, therfore, they do not have the ability to make their own
food.

 The vegetative body of the fungi may be unicellular or composed of microscopic

threads called hyphae. Hyphae can grow and form a network called a mycelium.

 Yeasts are unicellular fungi that do not produce hyphae.

 The structure of cell wall is similar to plants but chemically the fungi cell wall are
composed of
chitin (C8H13O5N)n.
 Fungi are heterotrophic organisms. They obtains its food and energy from
organic substances, plant and animal matters.

 Fungi digest the food first and then ingest it to accomplish this the fungi produce
exoenzymes
like Hydrolases, Lyases, Oxidoreductase, Transferase, etc. Fungi store their food as
starch.

 Fungi are saprophytes (gets energy from dead and decaying matters), or
parasites (lives in a host, attack and kill) or symbionts (mutually beneficial).
 Optimum temperature of growth for most saprophytic fungi is 20-30°C while
(30-37)°C for parasitic fungi. Growth rate of fungi is slower than that of bacteria.

 Reproduction in fungi is both by sexual and asexual means. Sexual state is

referred to as teleomorph (fruiting body), asexual state is referred to as
anamorph (mold like).
KEY POINTS OF THE LECTURE
 Asexual reproduction methods are: fragmentation, somatic budding, fission,
asexual spore formation. Sexual methods are: gametic copulation, gamate-
gametangium copulation, gametangium copulation, somatic copulation and
Spermatization.

 Some fungi are macroscopic and can be seen by naked eyes. Mold or mushrooms
are examples of macroscopic form of fungi.

 In 1991, a landmark paper estimated that there are 1.5 million fungi on the
Earth. Only about 300 species of fungi are infectious to human.

 The classification of fungi is designed mainly for practical application but it also
bears some relation to phylogenetic considerations.

 The fungi can be classified according to the various parameters including;

Classification based on taxonomy hierarchy, Classification based on spore
Production, Classification of medically important fungi, Classification based on
route of acquisition, Classification based on virulence

 Alexopolous and Mims proposed fungal classification in 1979. They place the
fungi including the slime molds in the kingdom mycetae. They divide the
kingdom mycetae into three divisions namely: Gymnomycota, Mastigomycota and
Amastigomycota

 Martin (1965) proposed a classification according to the spore formation in fungi

and divide the division mycota into two sundivision; Myxomycotina and
Eumycotina.
 Classification based on medically important fungi divided the fungi into
superficial mycoses, cutaneous mycoses, subcutaneous mycoses and systemic
mycoses.
TERMINOLOGY
 Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (AM): (A mycorrhiza) where fungi from the
Glomeromycota penetrate the roots of a (usually herbaceous) plant and provide
the plant with water and nutrients while the plant supplies sugars to the fungus
 Ascocarp: Fruitbody of an ascomycete fungus
 Ascomycetes: A - Class of fungi that produce their spores in sac-like cells called
asci
 Ascospores: Sexual spores produced in the asci of ascomycetes fungi
 Ascus: (Pl., asci) the spore-producing cell of an ascomycetes fruitbody
 Basidiocarp: Fruitbody of a basidiomycete fungus
 Basidiomycetes: A - Class of fungi that produce their spores on basidia
 Basidiocarp: Fruitbody of a basidiomycete fungus
 Basidiospores: Sexual spores produced on the basidia of basidiomycetes fungi
 Basidium: (Pl., basidia) spore-producing cell of a basidiomycete fungus
 Cellulose: Component of plant cell walls and of wood composed of glucose units
 Chlamydospores: Asexual spores formed by the breaking up of fungal hyphae
 Clamp Connection: Swollen area formed around septum in a hypha during cell
division
 Coprophilous: Growing on dung
 Cuticle: The surface layer of the cap or stem of a fruitbody
 Deuteromycetes: Obsolete term for a group fungi not known to reproduce
sexually
 Dichotomous: Forking/divided into pairs – as in logical decision-making trees
 Dikaryon: A pair of closely associated, sexually compatible nuclei
 Ectomycorrhiza (EM) : (A mycorrhiza) where the fungus forms sheathes
around plant rootlets (often of a tree), growing between but not penetrating the
 cells of the plant root, and providing the plant with water and nutrients while
the plant supplies sugars to the fungus
 Endomycorrhiza: Mycorrhiza in which fungal hyphae penetrate cell walls of host
plant
 Endophyte: Fungus living within a plant without causing visible symptoms of harm
TERMINOLOGY
 Hypha: (Pl., hyphae) filamentous thread of fungal mycelium
 Inferior: (Describing a ring) located near the base of the stem
 Lichen: Organism comprising a fungus and an alga or a cyanobacterium
 Mucilaginous: (Often describing a mushroom cap) covered with slime
 Mycelium: Body of a fungus, most of which is underground or hidden within wood
 Mycobiont: The fungal component of a lichen or of a mycorrhizal partnership
 Mycology: The study of fungi
 Mycorrhiza: Structure by which a fungus and a plant exchange nutrients mutually
 Myxomycetes: A large and commonly encountered group within the slime moulds
 Organelle: A differentiated (separate) structure within a cell
 Parasitism: Process whereby an organism feeds at the expense of another (host)
 Photosynthesis: Process by which plants convert carbon dioxide and water to
sugars
 Rhizomorph: A root-like mycelial strand comprising bunched parallel hyphae
 Saprophyte: An organism that obtains its nutrients from dead organic material
 Septate: (Describing hyphae) partitioned by cross walls known as septa
 Septum: (Pl., septa) a cross wall separating cells of a hyphal thread
 Slime Moulds: A group of fungus-like organisms that use spores to reproduce
 Spore: Reproductive structure of a fungus, usually a single cell
 Sporophore: Fungal fruitbody
 Superior: (Describing a ring) located near the top of the stem
 Taxonomy: The - Classification of organisms based on their natural relationships
 Thallus: (Pl., thalli) the body of a fungus or a lichen
 Uredinales: Rust fungi (an order within the Basidiomycota)
 Zygomycota: A - Class of simple fungi whose hyphae generally lack cross walls
SOME QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE
LECTURE
 Question 1: What do you understand by fungi?

 Question 2: Highlight the difference between algae and fungi.

 Question 3: What are the characteristic features of fungi?

 Question 4: Describe the habit and habitat of fungi.

 Question 5: Write a note on thallus organization in the fungi.

 Question 6: Discuss the morphology of the fungi in detail.

 Question 7: Give the ultra structure of fungi in detail.

 Question 8: Describe the mode of nutrition in fungi.

 Question 9: Discuss the various mode of reproduction in fungi in detail.

 Question 10: Give the classification of fungi as proposed by Alexopoulos.

 Question 11: Give the outline of classification as given by Martin in 1965.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Vashistha BR and Sinha AK (2010) Botany for degree students: Fungi. S. Chand
&
company limited, Ram nagar, New Delhi.

 https://microbenotes.com/classification-of-fungi/

 https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/fungi-characteristics-classification/

 https://www.biologydiscussion.com/fungi/8-important-characters-of-
fungi-with- diagram/5602

 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/characteristics-of-
fungi/

 https://www.first-nature.com/fungi/~glossary.php