When designing IST there are a number of can have faster recovery rates then TST.

training variables to consider, some of which

you will have already heard me mention. Research has found that both short and long
Just like in traditional strength training, IST repetition durations are effective at
is described in sets and reps. However, with increasing cross sectional area of both
isometric strength training the duration of a muscle and tendon. However, when it comes
repetition is critical. Therefore, the to increases in tendon stiffness, moderate
prescription format of isometric strength and long duration repetitions seem to be
training exercises is written as number of more beneficial. One can see that variation
sets, multiplied by repetitions, multiplied by or periodisation considerations in relation to
repetition duration. For example, 3x3x5secs. repetition durations may need to be
considered.

Training Volume

Total isometric strength training volume is

another important variable and is essentially
a product of the number of sets multiplied
by the number of repetitions multiplied by
repetition duration. For the example I just
used (3x3x5secs) the total volume would be
Repetition Duration 45 seconds.

In general, short duration repetitions may be

classified as repetitions lasting up to 10
seconds, moderate duration can range for
up to 20 to 40 seconds and long duration
repetitions may best classified as repetition
durations upwards of 60 seconds.

Longer repetition durations have a greater

metabolic cost. With blood flow occluded by
the isometric muscle there is reduced Low total volume can sit in the range of 10
clearance of metabolites and an increase in to 40 seconds, moderate volume in a range
pH within the muscle. Ensuing periods of of 60 to 90 seconds and high volumes from
rest to overcome increasing levels of fatigue 120 seconds.
are required when using longer duration
repetitions. Thus, the use of longer Similar to TST higher volumes of IST seem
repetition durations come at a cost in terms to be more beneficial at increasing cross
of the intensity of isometric work that can be sectional area of muscle. Higher volumes of
performed. However, it's important to note IST may be beneficial for the tolerance of
that this is comment relative to IST and not metabolic by products and in early
to TST. Even longer duration repetitions preparation where general base by which to

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build higher intensity work on is prioritised. amplitude have also been found in long
Higher volume work may also be used to muscle length IST.
provide a more effective training stimulus in
novice athletes who may not be ready for However, short muscle length IST induces
for higher intensity work. Lower total less fatigue than long muscle length IST.
training volumes can decrease both This again is an important training factor to
peripheral and neural fatigue while still consider in the periodising and planning of
driving adaptations dependent on other muscle length specific IST work.
training variables utilised.
Intent
Muscle Length
Intent is also a vitally important training
Muscle length is another critical IST variable. There is a grinding intent effort
variable. Performing IST at short or long (also known as a maximal isometric) and an
muscle lengths seems to bring about similar explosive intent effort (also known as a
increases in peak force and tendon CSA. ballistic isometric). In a maximal isometric
Although there is limited evidence it seems effort the objective is to build and ramp up
that both short and long muscle length IST to an all-out effort. By building in stages
may also have the same effect on increasing over a few seconds this heightens the output
muscle fascicle length. and allows time to generate maximal levels
of force. In a ballistic isometric the objective
Specificity is a key when it comes to the is to rapidly produce force and although
muscle length that isometric strength there is an intent to produce high levels of
training in performed at. If you train at short force, the rate by which force is developed is
muscle lengths, you will get stronger at the primary goal. The intent to produce
shorter muscle lengths. Likewise, if you train force rapidly sacrifices maximal force in
at longer muscle length you will get stronger favour of rate of force development (RFD).
at longer muscle lengths. Long muscle
length IST seems to enhance fast dynamic Both maximal and ballistic intent both have
performance ( explosive/higher velocity a positive effect on dynamic performance;
movements) whereas shorter muscle length but maximal effort isometrics increase the
IST seems to enhance slower dynamic EMG activity during maximal voluntary
performance (high force movements). isometric contractions and correspondingly
peak force. While ballistic effort isometrics
A host of other favourable adaptations seem improve EMG activity at Oto 100 and 100
to come from long muscle length IST in to 150 milliseconds and correspondingly
comparison to short muscle length IST. rate of force development. Ballistic efforts
Greater increases in pennation angle of the also seem to cause greater adaptations at the
muscle and greater increases in the stiffness tendon with both increases in tendon cross
of the tendon have been found in long sectional area and increases in tendon
muscle length IST, while greater stiffness found.
improvements in force throughout the range
of motion and a greater increase in EMG

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Type ofIST maximal voluntary isometric contraction,
PIMAs are more commonly used in
Both in execution and in an examination of research while HIMAs have had little
neural output there are two distinct types of consideration in research but substantial use
isometric muscle actions described in in practice.
coaching manuals and scientific literature; a
pushing isometric muscle action (known as A HIMA is an isometric action where
a PIMA), and a holding isometric muscle muscle resists the flexion or extension of a
action (known as a HIMA). For clarity, joint/s by applying an opposing force equal
popular coaching terminology refers to to the mass being held. A HIMA therefore
PIMA as overcoming isometrics and HIMA resists an eccentric action by applying the
as yielding isometrics. I will be using the requisite force to avoid joint movement and
scientific terminology to describe the two corresponding lengthening of the muscle.
isometric actions for this course.
The notion that a PIMA is a "stopped"
A PIMA is an isometric action where concentric muscle action and a HIMA is a
muscle attempts to extend or flex a joint/s "stopped" eccentric muscle action is
into an immovable object. A PIMA warranted from a practical sense and
therefore attempts a concentric muscle ultimately may have further implications
action but fails to move the joint due to the when deciding on the type of isometric
external mass being too great to overcome. action prescribed in IST.

Perhaps due to ease of set up and the ability The research would suggest that failure
to quantify and prescribe intensity off a occurs earlier in HIMA and therefore when

Example of PIMA exercise

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Example of HIMA exercise

prescribing repetition duration at equivalent mechanical muscle oscillations have been

intensities holding durations should be observed. Evidence suggests that these
reduced in comparison to pushing neural control mechanisms further
durations. differentiate HIMA from PIMA and may be
another reason why the onset of fatigue
The PIMA and HIMA variants have often occurs earlier in HIMA.
been described as "pure" isometrics but in
reality, no isometric muscle action is pure "True" or "pure" isometric actions, by
(except perhaps in rigor mortis). The definition, likely don't exist as there are
concept of adaptive force is a key constant oscillations of shortening and
determinant of successful execution of lengthening of the muscle/s throughout both
PIMA and HIMA. Adaptive force describes PIMAs and HIMAs. Further to this, in an
the capability of the neuromuscular system isometric muscle action the tendon and
to acutely adapt to externally applied forces aponeurosis exhibit viscoelastic behaviour
in order to provide effective control of the known as tendon creep whereby the tendon
isometric action. Isometric muscle actions slowly elongates. In order to hold a fixed
require constant updating of the isometric joint position, as the tendon
sensorimotor system to regulate force elongates the muscle fibres undergo active
output. The more complex the isometric shorten. To the eye isometrics are static but
task, the more adaptive and more in reality, they are more dynamic than they
kinaesthetically demanding this is to the appear. This may well be one of the reasons
sensorimotor system. This constant why IST can transfer effectively to dynamic
fluctuation and adaption of force is more performance.
evident in the HIMAs where greater

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Nonetheless, to the normal coaching eye Using the same leg press example, an
there are several other pseudo-isometric oscillatory isometric would be holding the
variants that are clearly not "pure" sled at 140° knee bend and then rapidly
isometrics but still assume a place in the pushing the sled to a 150°knee bend before
isometric strength training catalogue. rapidly relaxing and repeating this
consecutively. Loads used during oscillatory
A term given to a failed HIMA that isometrics are submaximal and are unlikely
becomes a maximally resisted eccentric to provide a sufficient stress to the
muscle action is an eccentric neuromuscular system for adaptation.
quasi-isometric. An example of an eccentric Oscillatory isometrics are seen as a potential
quasi-isometric would be a leg press held at peaking strategy and may contribute to
140° knee extension with a load that induces motor control strategies and may override
isometric failure in 30 seconds. When inhibition of antagonist muscles.
isometric failure occurs, the muscles start to
lengthen, and the exercise essentially I briefly discussed isotonic-isometrics aka
becomes an eccentric exercise as the athlete functional isometrics earlier.
attempts to control the lowering of the Isotonic-isometrics are essentially a partial
weight. Eccentric quasi-isometrics is a concentric lift from a deeper position until
method of resistance training that appears to the lift is blocked and a PIMA is performed
be most beneficial for morphological immediately. Isotonic-isometrics are a
adaptation at the muscle-tendon level as it hybrid lift and a best of both worlds to a
lacks the neuromuscular specificity for high degree. An athlete can still achieve
velocity movements. Eccentric adaptation and potential transfer brought
quasi-Isometric are recommended to be about by concentric work while achieving
placed in early preparation periods due to the training benefits of IST in the same
the adaptations that they drive and also repetition of an exercise. Again, using the
because the fatigue levels induced. leg press example the athlete would lift the
sled from a 90° knee position and then hit
Oscillatory isometrics have also become stoppers at a 140° knee bend where they
popular in modern coaching circles and would perform a PIMA. Often loads used in
there have been a number of variations of an isotonic-isometric are high and this has
oscillatory type work developed over recent been said to bring about higher force
years. Oscillatory isometrics can be used in outputs when the PIMA is performed. A
"semi-static" positions with pulsating high neuromuscular stress is applied during
movements over small joint ranges. During isotonic-isometrics and therefore
this pulsating movement there is a constant adaptations are likely in a well-balanced
and rapid contraction and relaxation of a program. However, it is important to note
targeted muscle or muscle groups and this is that some of the benefits of pure isometric
said to provide a stimulus to increase rate of are negated using this approach, like lower
force development where the rapid mechanical damage, low fatigue and higher
relaxation of muscles is just as important as frequency of training. Isotonic-isometrics
the rapid activation of muscles. Using the are well placed at point in the preparation

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phase as isotonic lifting load can be depending on the intent, repetition duration
modified to cater for other training and and total volume of IST performed. For
competition demands. example, repetitions with a ballistic intent
are less fatiguing and therefore require less
The final group of pseudo-isometrics are inter-set rest. Likewise, a maximal effort for
the so-called quasi-Isometrics. a 3 second repetition duration may only
Quasi-isometric exercises or drills attempt require 5 seconds of intra-set rest. Whereas
to be isometric while an external force acts a 5 second repetition duration may require
against the system forcing the muscles to up to 10-15 seconds of intra-set rest. All
lengthen momentarily. If the applied load is coaches don't agree on the importance of
light or manageable then the muscles can intra-set and intra-limb rest and in popular
brace isometrically but if the load is too coaching manual this rest has been
great the muscles will perform eccentrically described as arbitrary. I certainly think
to decelerate the load. The "load" may come strong consideration is needed depending
from ground reaction forces in an altitude on one's set configurations eg. intensity
landing, or it might be from catching a used, repetition duration and number of
barbell in a braced position after a barbell repetitions performed.
throw. Using the leg press example, the leg
press sled might be thrown and then caught Inter-set rest can be as brief as 60 seconds
in a predetermined braced isometric or as long as 180 seconds and again is
position. High rates of loading are largely dependent on the repetition duration
experienced in quasi-isometrics which and the within set volume utilised; with
provides a substantial stimulus to the higher within set volumes and repetition
neuromuscular system. However, it's durations requiring longer interset rest.
important to be aware that high impact
loads can be experienced in quasi-isometrics Inter-limb rest is normally shorter than
and the placement of these exercises needs intra-set rest but it is still an important
to be considered around other high impact factor to consider despite the use of a
loading elements of the sport and S&C different limb. While the resting limb is
programme, like high-speed running loads unused the central nervous system has been
and plyometrics. Quasi-isometrics normally engaged to a heightened level and therefore
feature later in preparation phases once periods of rest between limbs is essential to
underlying tissues properties and minimise compounding fatigue. Inter-limb
neuromuscular qualities have been rest may be as brief as 3 seconds if
developed. repetition durations are 3 seconds or less or
up to 10 seconds if repetition durations are
Rest times 5 seconds or higher.

Although less researched, intra-set rest, When prescribing IST with consideration to
inter-set rest and inter-limb rest needs to be rest sequences, the rest is including in
considered along with all other IST brackets after the number of sets, number of
variables. Intra-set periods of rest can range repetitions and repetition duration. For
from 3 to 20 seconds between repetitions, example, 3x3x5secs (3"/5"/2') with the first

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number denoting intra-set rest, the second maximal PIMA force outputs is essential in
denoting inter-limb rest and the final order to accurately prescribe HIMA holding
number denoting inter-set rest. If alternating loads. For example, establishing maximal
limb IST is not performed, and the set is PIMA plantar-flexion force of a single ankle
purely unilateral, then only 2 numbers are can provide an absolute loading value for an
used. equivalent HIMA exercise. In this case if the
measured PIMA force output equates to
150 kg the maximal load for the HIMA
exercise would be very close to 150 kg
(there are some other confounding factors
that should be considered which I will
addressed later in this course).

The prescription of HIMA load is

commonly achieved using the % 1RM of the
TST exercise. However, depending on the
Intensity muscle length used, isometric muscle
actions can produce considerably more
Similar to TST, intensity of IST is a crucial force then the equivalent TST exercise.
training variable and can be described in a Performance in the TST exercise is
number of different ways. Prescribing PIMA generally limited by strength at the deepest
intensity is relatively straight forward in that portion of the lift, where the longer muscle
a percent effort ( eg. 80% or 100% effort) or length compromises force production. TST
rate of perceived effort (RPE) (eg. 8 out of can also be limited by the weaker shortening
10 or 10 out of 10) is generally prescribed. muscle fibres as opposed to static or
A benefit of percent effort or RPE lengthening muscle fibres.
prescription for PIMA exercises is that
intensity is self-regulated and dependent on
how the athlete feels on any given day, much
like velocity-based prescription in TST.

To accurately prescribe and quantify PIMA

loads force plates should be used as gold
standard practice to provide actual force
output and direct feedback to the athlete.
Unfortunately force plates are not accessible
to all training environments and so there are
For example, when comparing force output
cost-effective solutions in the market, likebetween a common TST exercise like the
strain gauges, that can offer reliable and leg press to a 90° knee angle versus a PIMA
instantaneous feedback. Leg Press at a 120° knee angle, force output
can range from approximately + 25% to
Other than providing important feedback to + 75%. With such a vast range of isometric
quantify PIMA training intensity, measuring strength abilities across trained individuals

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this raises further complications when training, finally maximal efforts or
assigning arbitrary % 1RM TST exercise ramping/grinding efforts are suggested.
values to HIMA exercises. Thus, the
assumption that a 100- 1 10% 1RM load When it comes to the development of power
would be an accurate prescription for a or rate of force development, the attempt to
"max intensity isometric" may be achieve 90+ % of a maximal voluntary
problematic for an individual and most isometric contraction is always there
certainly for a cohort of athletes. Thus, it is however repetition durations are very short,
recommended to establish HIMA loads as a as brief as half a second and up to two
percent of the measured and quantified seconds. Therefore, the ability to reach
PIMA load. maximal force outputs is difficult with these
time constraints. Total volume generally
Low intensity naturally comes at a lower ranges from between 30 to 60 seconds and
energy cost, has lower levels of fatigue and it is suggested that specific muscle lengths
has the added effect of allowing one to for the task to be prepared for are utilised. It
tolerate higher repetition durations which is recommended to use the ballistic
have been shown to provide analgesia in isometric variant when the goal is higher
painful tendons. However, high intensity rates of force development.
work drives both nervous system and tissue
adaptation with increases in both peak force For the development of hypertrophy it is
and tendon cross sectional area. suggested that an intensity of between 70 to
80% maximal voluntary isometric
Developing different qualities contraction is utilised. Repetition durations
range from 3 to up to 30 seconds and total
Now putting a lot of this evidence together volume ranges from 80 to 150 seconds.
for tendon morphology, the scientific Isometrics performed at long muscle lengths
literature suggests using an intensity of are said to be more optimal for hypertrophic
between 70- 100% of a maximal voluntary adaptations.
isometric contraction, using repetition
durations of 1-60 seconds, using a total Not only can IST be an effective stimulus
volume of 60 to 120 seconds, using long for neuromuscular adaptation, IST can also
muscle lengths and also using ballistic significantly enhance performance. There's a
isometric variants. host of evidence of isometric strength
training having a positive effect on
For the most optimal improvements in performance and this body of literature is
maximal force, the literature suggests using growing quite rapidly. From as little as one
intensities of 80 to 100% maximal voluntary set of three seconds of maximal isometric
isometric contractions, using repetition leg extension per week for six weeks a
durations from the three to five seconds, significant increase in countermovement
using a total volume of 30 to 90 seconds jump height and kicking distance was found
using specific muscle lengths, where in a cohort of amateur soccer players.
strength gains are targeted or using a There's also a number of fairly recent
variation of muscle length's throughout studies by Lum and also Kordi comparing

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TST and IST on not only changes in significant improvements in peak force,
physical qualities but also sport muscle tendon unit stiffness and
performance. In these studies, IST provided importantly running economy at 95% of
superior adaptations and performance lactate threshold.
change in power lifting, sprint kayak and
sprint cycling. Each of these studies were High-speed running performance along
conducted over 6 weeks and involved 2-3 with peak force and jump height in team
session per week with volumes of IST sport players have also been enhanced by
ranging from 2x5 seconds (a total volume of isometric strength training. This
10 seconds) to 4x4x3 seconds (a total intervention was a knee dominant protocol
volume of 48 seconds). In these studies, using an isometric squat performed two
both peak force and rate of force times a week for six weeks; with one group
development increased and so too did power completing a maximal PIMA protocol of
output on the respective ergometry for each 3x5x3s and the other a ballistic PIMA
sport. A very interesting point in the protocol of 3xlOxls.
powerlifting study was that an IST
intervention was more successful at Those studies I just summarised
improving strength in the key lifts that were substantiate a lot of what I have found over
performed in TST. Let me say that again in the years in my use of IST for running
a different way. A 6-week, low volume IST performance and it leads me to where I am
intervention improved powerlifting today with regards to Run Specific
performance and therefore strength in the Isometrics.
specific lifts, better then training specifically
for the different lifts. Recoininended resources
• Article - Strength training: Isometric
Earlier studies related to running training at a range of joint angles versus
performance or physical qualities directly dynamic training - Jonathan Folland
underpinning running performance have • Article - Isometric training and long term
also shown how effective isometric strength adaptations: Effects of muscle length,
training is. Isometric strength training has intensity, and intent: A systematic review -
been shown to be more effective than Dustin Oranchuk
plyometric training at increasing tendon • Article - Brief review: effects of isometric
stiffness, jump height and equally as strength training on strength and dynamic
effective as increasing rate of force performance - Danny Lum
development. These improvements were
achieved with a ballistic PIMA
plantarflexion intervention of 3xl5xls,
performed two to three times per week over
six weeks. Another isometric plantarflexion
protocol, consisting of 4xlx20s at 80% of
peak force, was performed three times a
week for eight weeks in highly trained
endurance runners and brought about

Sportsmith I couRsEs
Terminology recap
• IST - Isometric strength training

• TST - Traditional strength training

• PIMA - Pushing isometric muscle action

(also known as overcoming isometrics)

• HIMA - Holiding isometric muscle action

(also known as yielding isometrics)

• Oscillatory isometrics - used in

"semi-static" positions with pulsating
movements over small joint ranges.

• Quasi-isometrics - an exercise that

attempts to be isometric while an external
force acts against the system forcing the
muscles to lengthen momentarily

• Isotonic isometric training - a partial

concentric lift from a deeper position until
the lift is blocked and a PIMA is performed
immediately

• Prescription format ofIST - 3x3x5secs

(3"/5"/2') - sets, repetitions and repetition
duration (intra-set rest/inter-limb
rest/inter-set rest). If alternating limb IST is
not performed, and the set is purely
unilateral, then only 2 numbers are used.

• Intra-set rest - within set rest

• Inter-limb rest - rest while changing the

working limb

• Inter-set rest - between set rest

• EMG - Electromyography - a technique

for evaluating muscle electrical activity

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