BEGS-183

Writing and
Study Skills
Block-1 Developing
Critical, Analytical
and Interpretive
Thinking Skills
Introduction
Block-1 Developing Critical, Analytical
and Interpretive Thinking Skills
Introduction

Thinking critically refers to the ability to analyse,

interpret and evaluate various ideas.
They have statistics, views of experts and
hypothetical situations that may emerge, but their
arguments contradict the figures and arguments
of other experts. In that situation, we need to be a
critical thinker which means we have to take
considered decisions.
We need to think intelligently about the issue. We
have to analyse all the beliefs and evaluate them
by looking at the reasons. We have to examine
opinions closely and in-depth before we accept
them.
These tools will help us become a more reflective
person. We will have the capacity to self-question
and dispassionately analyse, synthesize, and
interpret different kinds of material available and
which we can use in our writings.
Thinking Critically
as A Writer, Reader
and Trouble-shooter
Thinking Critically as A Writer, Reader
and Trouble-shooter

Before we write anything, we should think

critically in the following ways:
As a Critical Thinker: - It means we have
to think critically about all the information we
have collated from different sources
including internet, books and journals.
As a Critical Listener: - It means we have
to be a critical listener as we hear about
experiences, beliefs and ideas of other people.
Strategies for
Reading
Critically
 Strategies for Reading Critically

The reader needs to adopt different strategies for

reading different types of texts. In critical reading,
the reader has to understand the text on its own
terms and critically questions the ideas and
language in that. The critical reading strategies,
adapted from Axelrod and Cooper, are given
below: -
 Annotating: - It means recording or taking
notes of our reactions, interpretation and
questions as we read the given text.
 Taking Inventory: - It refers to listing and
categorizing the annotations or note to find
meaningful patterns in them. For this, we have
to look for repetitions such as recurring
images, stylistic features like repeated words
or phrases, repeated examples or illustrations.
We may get some meanings in these patterns.
 Outlining: - It implies listing the main ideas
or the gist of the text and important supporting
details given in the text.
 Summarizing: - It means extracting the key
ideas or gist of the text.
 Synthesizing: - It implies integrating our
own ideas with the information inferred from
other sources.
 Contextualizing: - It means placing the text
in its historical and cultural context and to see
whether it is useful or relevant in our context.
Explaining the
 Significance of Figurative Language: - It
means examining how metaphors, similes,
personification and other literary devices have
been used in the text with an intent to convey
different meanings and evoke feelings in the
reader.
 Reflecting on Challenges to Our Beliefs
and Value: - It means thinking about our
own ideas and belief system in the context of
the contradictory information given in the text.
We do not have to out rightly reject the
contradictory information.
 Evaluating the Topic of An
Argument: - It refers to understanding
 whether the arguments in the text is well
reasoned and adequately backed by facts.
 Recognizing Emotional Manipulation: -
It means knowing whether the text is unfairly
manipulating us, based on exaggerated or false
views.
 Judging the Writer’s Credibility: - It
implies identifying whether the writer
represents different points of view and has
satisfactory information on the topic or subject
she has written. These strategies would help in
the writing process and make us a reflective
writer with a vision and with considered and
rational opinions. We can similar strategies
when we are listening to a lecture.
 Thinking
Critically as a
Writer
 Thinking Critically as a Writer

When you being drafting your essay or assignment

or story, you must be a critical thinker in another
way. You have to become your toughest reader
critic. You must develop the skill of objectively
reviewing what you have written at every stage. The
questions you could ask yourself are: -
1) Do my ideas appear clear and logical not only
to me but also to my readers?
2) Will my readers find my opinions well
developed and well supported?
3) Does my writing reflect my core beliefs in a
considered, well-thought of way?
In order to be a reflective person, one needs to be
aware of the following issues: -
Learn to differentiate fact from
opinion: - A fact remains the same always.
Facts have been verified by research and
generally accepted by everyone. Tigers are wild
animals and cows are domestics are facts. There
are different opinions about the killer of John F.
 Kennedy. Some people say – Lee Harvey
Oswald killed him, others say two shooters
killed him, and some people even blame the
CIA.
Support your opinions with evidence: -
Examples and illustrations, statistics, opinions
of experts or even experiences of family and
friends should be provided to back opinions.
The more convincing the evidence means the
more likely readers accepting your views as
true.
Evaluate the strength of your evidence: -
The evidence should support the topic sentence.
The information should be included from a
reliable source. We must be sure that the
experts are unbiased and their research is
careful and professional. The sources should be
acknowledged. We must develop a critical eye
for choosing the best evidence to support the
topic we are writing about. We should look at
the writing from the point of view of the reader.
We must see the relevance and the clarity as we
read along. We must check whether the
material is adequate to buttress the arguments
or the views are vague. We must check whether
 our views are too general or we can improve the
sentence structure.
Avoid biases and strong emotions: -
Prejudices and strong emotional attitudes that
may distort the information that you are
presenting, especially in argumentative and
persuasive essays. Thus, we should check such
elements. The writing should be sensitive to
gender, caste, racial or religious issues. For
examples, we should know the stereotypes like
“All girls like pink colour”.
Analysing As a
Strategy
 Analysing As a Strategy

The skill of analysing and synthesizing are

needed for effective writing and we must develop
them. Analysing, which is more a reading
strategy, and synthesizing, which is more a
writing strategy, go hand in hand. Analysing
involves pulling things apart. Analysing an
argument means we need to read it closely and
critically. Axelrod and Cooper say analysing
arguments involve two categories: Basic Features
and Motivating Factors.
The basic features are: -
Issues: - What the writer wishes to address,
which means what problems or issues she has
written about and how the writer defines or
frames the issues.
Position: - The writer’s own views on the
issue, which is normally be the ‘Thesis
Statement’ of the essay.
Arguments: - What evidence the writer
provides to support his or her position,
including facts, examples, statistics and views
of experts.
Counter-argument: - How the writer refutes
the opposite point of view – whether she
concedes to some of the opposing arguments or
how strong are the writer’s own views vis-à-vis
the view of opponents. Certain factors could be
explicitly stated or even implied in the writer’s
arguments, called motivating factors.
Values: - These are moral, ethical or
ideological considerations of the writer, which
inevitably get included in writings.
Needs and Interests: - This are the need of
the writer to highlight any burning issues in his
or her life.
Priorities or Concerns: - The fears and
concerns of the writer would inevitably become
his or her priority.
Synthesizing as
a Writing
Strategy
 Synthesizing as a Writing Strategy

Synthesizing means presenting facts, ideas and

information collected from various sources and
suggesting ways in which these sources have a
link.
For example, facts from a particular article could
be extended in another book; or arguments in one
research paper may be contradicted in another
source.
According to Cooper, when we synthesize
material from different sources, we develop a talk
among various sources and in that conversation
we also participate. Synthesizing is crucial in the
process of writing on any topic, especially if you
are using multiple resources.
To create an effective synthesis, we must read the
all material we have collected, albeit
superficially; and then focus on the source we
have selected as most appropriate for your topic.
 Unit-2
Enhancing
Vocabulary
Introduction
 Unit-2 Enhancing Vocabulary

Introduction
Like bricks when laid out properly, correctly
and with some imagination can build up simple
walls or complex designs for buildings and
mansions, not to talk of other structures,
similarly a language user uses different words
to construct sentences – both single word
sentences and longer ones.
But just as bricks alone are not adequate, and
they need to be strengthened by the use of
mortar/concrete mixture, similarly words alone
may not be adequate.
The appropriacy of the word chosen, the word
order in which it is placed, the nuance of the
meaning – everything plays an important role.
In this lesson, we will read how words – oral or
written – are gradually learnt and how you as a
learner can gradually increase your word base.
Active and
Passive
Vocabulary
 Active and Passive Vocabulary

Just think for a moment. Can you use all the

words the moment you have heard them or have
read them once? Do you use all the unfamiliar
words – the meanings of which you have guessed
while reading or listening – in your speech or
writing?
Some words you may, some you might not. But
you start understanding those words if you hear
or read them again and again. Our listening and
reading vocabulary are much more than our
speaking or writing vocabulary.
The words that you can use appropriately when
you say or write something form what is known
as your active vocabulary and those that you have
an idea of or can guess the meaning of, but cannot
use confidently form a part of your passive
vocabulary.
Our active vocabulary is more limited (smaller)
than our passive vocabulary. As students we try
our best to increase the repertoire of both active
and passive vocabulary and gradually try to
convert our passive into our active vocabulary.
One Word Many
Meanings
(Homonyms)
 One Word Many Meanings
(Homonyms)

Two words that sound alike and may even be

spelled alike but have different meanings.
The word “homonym” comes from the prefix
“homo”, meaning “the same”, and the suffix
“nym,” means “the name”.
Homonyms are words which have the same
spelling and pronunciation but different meanings
in different contexts. In the following sentences,
the word club has different meanings.
As a child, you might have gone to a local club in
your locality. You might have seen the picture of
Bhim with a club in his hand in Mahabharat serial
on television, and if you play cards, you have to
deal with clubs in the pack. Your teacher might
suggest to you to club two paragraphs together to
make the writing more compact.
Homophones
 Homophones

A homophone is a word that is pronounced the

same (to varying extent) as another word but
differs in meaning. A homophone may also differ
in spelling.
The two words may be spelled the same, a for
example rose (flower) and rose (past tense of
rise), or differently, as in rain, reign, and rein. The
term "homophone" may also apply to units longer
or shorter than words, for example a phrase, letter,
or groups of letters which are pronounced the
same as another phrase, letter, or group of letters.
Example of Homophone
Cent/Scent: - I will not spend one cent on a
bottle of perfume until I know that I love the
scent.
Die/Dye: - If you accidentally drank a bottle of
fabric dye, you might die.
Flour/Flower: - To bake a flower-shaped cake,
you will need some flour.
For/Four: - I purchased four new pairs of shoes
for my upcoming vacation.
 Idiomatic
Expressions
 Idiomatic Expressions

An idiom is a phrase or expression that typically

presents a figurative, non-literal meaning
attached to the phrase; but some phrases become
figurative idioms while retaining the literal
meaning of the phrase.
Categorized as formulaic language, an idiom's
figurative meaning is different from the literal
meaning. Idioms occur frequently in all
languages; in English alone there are an estimated
twenty-five thousand idiomatic expressions.
Idiomatic expressions are a type of informal
language that have a meaning different from the
meaning of the words in the expression.
Example of Idioms: -
A blessing in disguise.
A dime a dozen.
Beat around the bush.
Better late than never.
Bite the bullet.
Break a leg.
Hyponyms
 Hyponyms

Hyponymy is a semantic relation between a

hyponym denoting a subtype and a superordinate
denoting a supertype. In other words, the
semantic field of the hyponym is included within
that of the superordinate. In simpler terms, a
hyponym is in a type-of relationship with its
superordinate. For example: pigeon, crow, eagle,
and seagull are all hyponyms of bird, their
superordinate; which itself is a hyponym of
animal, its superordinate. Example: -
Superordinate Hyponyms
Clothes Shirt, trousers, frock, kurta…
Trees Neem, banyan, Tulsi, Mango,
acacia…
Colours Blue, Red, White, Crimson,
aquamarine, sea green,
ochre…
Gemstone Diamond, Emerald, Ruby…
Utensil Fork, Knife, Plate, Spoon,
Stove…
Antonyms
(Opposite
Words)
 Antonyms (Opposite Words)

The term antonym is used to refer to words which

have an opposite meaning. But there are pairs of
words which contrast in terms of a scale, e.g.
hot/cold; tall/short; easy/difficult. These
opposites are gradable. For example, if we put
hot/cold (water) at two ends of a continuum, we
get something like this.
Example of antonyms
Agree → disagree.
Appear → disappear.
Belief → disbelief.
Honest → dishonest.
Likely → unlikely.
Able → unable.
Fortunate → unfortunate.
Forgiving → unforgiving.
Payment → non-payment.
Sense → nonsense.
 Synonyms
(Same Meaning)
 Synonyms (Same Meaning)

A synonym is a word, or phrase that means

exactly or nearly the same as another word, or
phrase in a given language. For example, in the
English language, the words begin, start,
commence, and initiate are all synonyms of one
another: they are synonymous .
The standard test for synonymy is substitution:
one form can be replaced by another in a sentence
without changing its meaning.
Words are considered synonymous in only one
particular sense: for example, long and extended
in the context long time or extended time are
synonymous, but long cannot be used in the
phrase extended family.
Synonyms with exactly the same meaning share a
seme or denotational sememe, whereas those with
inexactly similar meanings share a broader
denotational or connotational sememe and thus
overlap within a semantic field.
Example of Synonyms
ability - capability, competence, skill.
achieve - attain, accomplish, realize, reach.
angry - furious, irate, livid.
appreciate - cherish, treasure, value.
baffle - bewilder, confuse, perplex, puzzle.
beautiful - attractive, pretty, lovely, stunning.
bossy - controlling, domineering,
overbearing.
but - although, besides, though.
challenge - dispute, question.
cold - chilly, chilled, wintry.
create - generate, make, produce.
cute - adorable, delightful, endearing.
Word Building: -
Affixation and
Compounding
Affixation
 Word Building: Affixation and
Compounding

Affixation
We can build new words in English by adding
prefixes and suffixes to the base word. For
example, to the word mortal we can use the prefix
im to make a new word immortal and we can get
the word immortalise by adding the suffix-ise.
Similarly, the word agree can take the prefix dis-
to make a new word disagree and another word
disagreement with the suffix -ment.
Use of prefixes like im-, dis- or multi- when
added to the root word gives it a different
meaning.
For example: -
un - uncommon, unable.
in - inconvenient, injustice.
dis - disadvantage, disagree.
il - illegal, illegible.
ir - irregular, irrelevant.
im - impossible, impatient.
multi - multilingual, multifaceted.
 fore - forenoon, forewarn.

Here are some suffixes: -

age bag-baggage, post-postage
-dom kind-kingdom, star-stardom
-hood state-statehood, boy-
boyhood
-ism hero-heroism, Hindu-
Hinduism
-acy privacy, fallacy, delicacy
-al refusal, recital, rebuttal’
-ance, -ence maintenance, eminence,
assurance
-dom freedom, kingdom, boredom
-er, -or trainer, protector, narrator
Compounding
 Compounding

Compounds are made up of two or more parts

which can also occur independently as words.
These separate words are combined to form other
new words which are listed separately in the
dictionary and have separate meanings.
Example of Compounding: -
Air Plane Airplane
Air Port Airport
Angel Fish Angelfish
Beach Ball Beachball
Ball Park Ballpark
Blue berry Blueberry
Sun Flower Sunflower
Body Guard Bodyguard
Book Store Bookstore
 Using A
Dictionary
 Using A Dictionary

Dictionaries are of help in checking and learning

of pronunciation with the correct stress pattern,
meaning in contexts (with examples) or grammar
of a word (e.g. the part of speech it belongs to;
whether transitive or intransitive in case of a verb
or whether countable or uncountable in case of a
noun).
Moreover, dictionaries like the Cambridge
International Dictionary of English (1995
edition), includes a picture dictionary (e.g. on
kitchen, bicycles, etc.) as does Advanced Oxford
or Collins Co build.
The last dictionary mentioned here also includes
Word Webs or topic related vocabulary through
encyclopedia – like readings combined with
related art work, word partnerships (collocations)
and word links (word origin) e.g. (geo-earth;
geography; geology, geopolitical) or even usage
like less and fewer.
You also have used the dictionary to decide
whether a particular word is formal, informal.
Unit-3 Improving
Grammar and
Punctuation Skills
Introduction
 Unit-3 Improving Grammar and
Punctuation Skills

Introduction
“Grammar is the structural foundation of our
ability to express ourselves. The more we are
aware of how it works, the more we can monitor
the meaning and effectiveness of the way we
and others use language.”
After studying this Unit and completing the
activities you would be able to: -
Explain the significance of grammar in
meaning-making when learning a language;
Distinguish between forms and functions of
similar or dissimilar sentences (with suitable
examples) and establish the relationship (or the
lack there of) between these two aspects;
Revisit and review a few selected aspects of
English grammar i.e. tenses, conditional
clauses and passive constructions
Understand some difficult aspects of
punctuation.
 Understanding
Forms and
Functions in
English Language
Understanding Forms and Functions in
English Language

Before we proceed to discuss the relationship

between form and function in the English
language, let us quickly review the two concepts.
The forms of language include the types of
sentences (structures/patterns) used i.e.
declarative, interrogative, imperative and
exclamatory.
These structures that make up the grammar of the
language include such things as the present
simple. (e.g. She reads) or the past continuous
(e.g. He was driving) or adjectives of comparison
(Pari is taller than Ruby) or number of nouns (I
found a little child crying on the road and a few
older children talking to her).
On the other hand, language functions refer to its
purposes; its use and what it does when we use
language to communicate. These are: -
Informative Language Function: -
Communicating information such as facts,
comparison and contrast, cause and effect
 relationship, summarising, sequencing,
questioning, answering techniques, etc.
Expressive Language Functions: -
Reporting feelings or attitudes or evoking
these feelings in the reader or listener (e.g.
persuasion, agreeing / disagreeing,
apologizing, expressing enthusiasm/
disappointment, dealing with anger, sadness,
indifference, etc.)
Directive Language Functions: - Using
language to cause or prevent actions, such as
commands or requests (e.g. inviting some of
your friends to dinner, giving directions to
reach the restaurant, how to make soft rotis,)
etc.

We must comprehend and appreciate the fact that

there is no one to one match between grammatical
form and communicative functions.
For example, the room is quite warm (declarative
sentence in simple present tense) might be used in
different contexts as informative (an
observation); expressive (how one feels at the
moment) or directive (to switch on the air-
conditioner).
Hence, you must realize that a context often
determines the purpose of an utterance. Similarly,
if we wish to invite someone, we use the language
of inviting.
For example, we might say:
Are you free this Saturday? Would you like
to come to the picnic we are planning to
have?
We will be very happy if you come to the
picnic with us this Saturday.
How about coming to the picnic on
Saturday?
Hence for every function there is a number
of different ways to express it.
The Use of
Tenses in
English
 The Use of Tenses in English

Tenses play a crucial role in the English language.

Tenses are depended upon the helping verb and
main verb. It denotes the time an action takes
place, whether sometime in the past, in the
present or will take some time in the future.
The main tenses found in many languages include
the past, present, and future. It has four sub
categories which are Indefinite, Continuous,
Perfect, Perfect Continuous.
Tenses generally express time relative to the
moment of speaking.
In some contexts, however, their meaning may be
relativized to a point in the past or future which is
established in the discourse (the moment being
spoken about). This is called relative (as opposed
to absolute) tense.
Some languages have different verb forms or
constructions which manifest relative tense, such
as pluperfect.
The verb form is the main marker of time in an
English sentence.
Punctuation
 What is
Punctuation?
 What is Punctuation?

 Punctuation, according to the Merriam-

Webster Dictionary, it is the act or practice of
inserting standardized marks or signs in written
matter to clarify the meaning and separate
structural units."
 Punctuation (or sometimes inter-punctuation) is
the use of spacing, conventional signs (called
punctuation marks), and certain typographical
devices as aids to the understanding and correct
reading of written text, whether read silently or
aloud.
 Another description is, "It is the practice,
action, or system of inserting points or other
small marks into texts in order to aid
interpretation; division of text into sentences,
clauses, etc., by means of such marks."
 In written English, punctuation is vital to
disambiguate the meaning of sentences. For
example: "woman, without her man, is nothing"
(emphasizing the importance of men to
women), and "woman: without her, man is
nothing" (emphasizing the importance of
 women to men) have very different meanings;
as do "eats shoots and leaves" (which means the
subject consumes plant growths) and "eats,
shoots, and leaves" (which means the subject
eats first, then fires a weapon, and then leaves
the scene).
 The sharp differences in meaning are produced
by the simple differences in punctuation within
the example pairs, especially the latter.
 So, in case you forgot, those are:
 Capital Letter
!
 ()
;
:
“ ”
,
.
/
?
…
-
 []
 ‘’
Some Common
Mistakes and
Don'ts
Some Common Mistakes and Don'ts

 Avoid using exclamation marks (!) in academic

writing.
 Never combine a question mark and an
exclamation mark (?!) or use multiple signs (! /
???)
 Avoid using ellipses (...) at the end of your
sentences. Only use this to indicate omission in
quoting.
 Don't use apostrophes to make plurals, for
example the 1920's.
 Watch out for misplaced commas. If you're
uncertain, read your sentence out loud and see if
there's a natural pause.
 Some things are okay to do on WhatsApp and
Facebook, but keep them out of your academic
writing.
Capital
letters
 Capital letters

 Usage of Capital Letter in sentence are given

below: -
1. We use capital letters to mark the beginning of
a sentence and we use full stops to mark the end
of a sentence:
 We went to France last summer.
 We were really surprised that it was so easy
to travel on the motorways.
 The Football World Cup takes place every
four years.
 The next World Cup will be held in South
Africa. In 2006 it was held in Germany.
2. We also use capital letters at the beginning of
proper nouns. Proper nouns include personal
names (including titles before names),
nationalities and languages, days of the week
and months of the year, public holidays as well
as geographical places: -
 Dr David James is the consultant at Leeds
City Hospital.
 They are planning a long holiday in New
Zealand.
  Can she speak Japanese?
3. We use capital letters for the titles of books,
magazines and newspapers, plays and music:
 ‘Oliver’ is a musical based on the novel
‘Oliver Twist’ by Charles Dickens.
 The Straits Times is a daily English language
newspaper in Singapore.
 They are performing Beethoven’s Sixth
Symphony.
 Full
Stop(.)
 Full Stop

Full Stop- .
1. Use a full stop at the end of a sentence: -
 The man arrived.
 He sat down.
2. Use full stops with abbreviations (in and
abbreviation the last letter of the word and of the
abbreviation are not the same):
 Co. (Company)
 etc. (et cetera)
 M.P. (Member of Parliament)
 Dr. (Doctor)
3. If the last word in the sentence ends in a full stop,
do not use another full stop after it.
 Examples: I know that M.D.
 She is my sister-in-law.
 Please shop, cook, etc. I will do this thing.
Ellipses
(…)
 Ellipses

 Ellipses look like a set of three full stop

together:
 Sign of Ellipses: - . . .
 They’re used to show that information has been
omitted from a quote, usually to shorten it.
 In fiction and poetry, they’re also used to build
suspense, show a speaker’s voice is trailing off
or faltering, or represent incomplete thoughts.
Use no more than three marks whether the
omission occurs in the middle of a sentence or
between sentences.
 This evolved into ellipses’ use in casual
conversation, like text messages and social
media posts, where they’re frequently used to
indicate pauses . . . or voices or thoughts fading
away.
 Examples: - I don't know …I'm not sure.
 She opened the door . . . and saw . . . a cake!
 I was thinking . . . maybe we should call home.
 I know I saw my keys somewhere . . .
 "I'm not sure what to do . . .," he said.
 I never thought . . .
Comma
(,)
 Comma

Comma- ,
 The comma, is a punctuation mark that appears in
several variants in different languages. It has the
same shape as an apostrophe or single closing
quotation mark (’) in many typefaces, but it
differs from them in being placed on the baseline
of the text.
 Usage of Comma: -
1. To avoid confusion, use commas to separate
words and word groups with a series of three or
more.
 Example: My property is to be split among
my husband, daughter, son, and nephew.
 (Omitting the comma after son would
indicate that the son and nephew would have
to split one-third of the property.)
2. Use a comma to separate two adjectives when
the word and can be inserted between them.
 Example: - We is a strong, healthy man.
3. Use commas before or surrounding the name or
title of a person directly addressed.
  Examples: - Will you, Aisha, do that
assignment for me?  Yes, Doctor, I will.
4. Use a comma to separate the day of the month
from the year and after the year.
 Example: - She talked to her husband on
December 5, 2003, in Mill Valley, California.
(If any part of the date is omitted, leave out
the comma) They talked in December 2003,
in Mill Valley.
5. Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt
the flow of the sentence.
 Example: - I am, as you have probably
noticed, very nervous about this.
6. If something or someone is sufficiently
identified, the description following it is
considered nonessential and should be
surrounded by commas.
 Example: - Freddy, who has a limp, was the
only person available with required
qualification.
7. When starting a sentence with a weak clause,
use a comma after it. Conversely, do not use a
comma when the sentence starts with a strong
clause followed by a weak clause.
  Example: -If you are not sure about this, let
me know now. Let me know now if you are
not sure about this.
8. Use a comma to separate two strong clauses
joined by a conjunction—and, or, but, for, nor.
You can omit the comma if the clauses are both
short.
 Examples: - I have painted the entire house,
but he is still working on sanding the doors.
I paint and he writes.
9. Use the comma to separate two sentences if it
helps to avoid confusion.
 Example: - I chose the colors red and
green, and blue was his first choice.
10. Use commas to introduce direct quotations
shorter than three lines.
 Example: - He actually said, ‘‘I do not
care.’’
11. Use a comma to separate a statement from
a question.
 Example: I can go, can’t I?
12. Use a comma to separate contrasting parts
of a sentence.
 Example: That is my money, not yours
13. Use a comma when beginning sentences
with introductory words such as well, now, or
yes.
 Examples: - Yes, I do need that report.
Well, I never thought I’d live to see the day.
14. Use commas surrounding words such as
therefore and however when they are used as
interrupters.
 Examples: - I would, therefore, like a
response. I would be happy, however, to
volunteer for the Red Cross.
Colon
(:)
 Colon (:)

1.It introduces a list. Be careful to use it only after

a word that typically introduces a list, for
example the following. Also only use it after a
noun. Example: -
 Example - I was given the following
suggestions: to call the manager, to visit the
office, or to write a letter.
2.A colon introduces an idea. Example:
 We were left with only one option: to abandon
the ship.
 There is something you should know about the
chops: they're burnt.
3. It is used after a clause that introduces quoted
material Example: -
 I was reminded of the words of the apostle Paul:
'For to me, to live is Christ.'
4. It can also be used to emphasis an idea.
Compare the following examples: -
 The one thing he can't go without is coffee. Vs.
There is one thing he can't go without: coffee.
 Semi-
colon (;)
 Semicolon (;)

 The semicolon or semi-colon- ; is a symbol

commonly used as orthographic punctuation. In
the English language, a semicolon is most
commonly used to link (in a single sentence) two
independent clauses that are closely related in
thought.
 When a semicolon joins two or more ideas in one
sentence, those ideas are then given equal rank.
 The semicolon has two main uses: -
1. It separates two related, but independent
clauses. If your clauses are very complex, rather
use a full stop.
 Example - Once clean water was plentiful; now
it is a scare resource.
2. It separates a complex list of items, especially
containing commas: -
 Example- I visited Phoenix, Arizona; Los
Angeles, California; Atlanta, Georgia and
Charlotte, North Carolina on my trip.
Question
Mark (?)
 Question Mark

 Question Mark- ?
 The question marks? (Also known as
interrogation point, query, or journalism) is a
punctuation mark that indicates an interrogative
clause or phrase inmany languages.
 Uses of question Mark: -
1. Use a question mark only after a direct
question.
 Example: Will you go with me? I asked if he
would go with me.
2. Use a question mark when a sentence is half
statement and half question.
 Example: You do care, don’t you?
Hyphen
(-)
 Hyphen

 Hyphen is -
 The hyphen ‐ is a punctuation mark used to join
words and to separate syllables of a single
word. The use of hyphens is called
hyphenation. Son-in-law is an example of a
hyphenated word.
 Uses of Hyphen
1. Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving
as a single adjective before a noun Example: -
 A one-way street.
 Chocolate-covered peanuts.
 Well-known author.
2. Use a hyphen with compound numbers
Example: -
 Forty-Six.
 Sixty-Three.
 Our much-loved teacher was sixty-three years
old.
3. Use a hyphen to avoid confusion or an awkward
combination of letters:
 Re-sign a petition (vs. Resign from a job).
 Semi-independent (but semiconscious).
 Shell-like (but childlike).
4. Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning
former), self-, all-; with the suffix -elect;
between a prefix and a capitalized word; and
with figures or letters:
 Self-assured.
 Mid-September.
 All-inclusive.
 Mayor-elect.
 Anti-American.
 T-shirt.
 Pre-civil war.
 Mid-1980s.
Apostrophe
(‘or’)
 Apostrophe

 The apostrophe (' or ’) is a punctuation mark, and

sometimes a diacritical mark, in languages that
use the Latin alphabet and some other alphabets.
In English,
 It is used for five purposes: -
1.The marking of the omission of one or more
letters Example: -
 The contraction of "do not" to "don't". (You
took out “o”).
 They + have = they've (you took out "ha").
 Are + not = aren't (you took out "o").
 They + will = they'll (you took out "wi").
2.Use an apostrophe +"s" ('s) to show that one
person/thing owns or is a member of something
Example: -
 Amy's ballet class.
 Lisa's car.
 Robert's car.
3.Use an apostrophe after the "s" (s') at the end
of a plural noun to show possession.
  The parents' bedroom.
 The smiths' lives.
4.If a plural noun doesn't end in "s," add an
apostrophe + "s" to create the possessive form.
 The children's rooms.
 The tuna's beds.
5.Each individual owns separate versions of the
same type of item, then you would make
possessive. Example: -
 Darnell's and Dylan's have their own open
houses
 Tim's and Jane's goes to different trips.
 Sally's and Steve's have their own cottages.
Exclamation
mark (!)
 Exclamation mark

 The exclamation mark i.e. !, also sometimes

referred to as the exclamation point, especially in
American English, is a punctuation mark usually
used after an interjection or exclamation to
indicate strong feelings, or to show emphasis.
 Uses of Exclamation mark: -
1. Use an exclamation mark to indicate strong
feelings or a raised voice in speech. For
Example: -
 She shouted at him, "Go away! I hate you!"
 He exclaimed: "What a fantastic house you
have!"
 "Good heavens!" he said, "Is that true?"
 "Help!"
 "Shut up!"
 "Stop!"
2. Many interjections need an exclamation mark
For Example: -
 "Hi! What's new?"
 "Oh! When are you going?"
 "Ouch! That hurt."
3.A non-question sentence beginning with
"what" or "how" is often an exclamation and
requires an exclamation mark. For Example: -
 What idiots we are! (We are such idiots.)
 How pretty she looked in that dress! (She
looked very pretty in that dress.)
Slash
(/)
 Slash

 The slash is an oblique slanting line punctuation

mark /. Once used to mark periods and commas,
the slash is now most often used to represent
exclusive or inclusive or, division and fractions,
and as a date separator.
 Use of Slash: -
1. To Separate Lines in Prose. For Example: -
 Mary had a little lamb/ little lamb, little
lamb/ Mary had a little lamb/ whose fleece
was white as snow.
 The quality of mercy is not strained/ it
dropped as the gentle rain from heaven/ upon
the place beneath. It is twice blest/ it blessed
him that gives and him that takes.
2. To Indicate Or. For Example: -
 When leaving the classroom, the teacher
noticed that a student had left his/her
backpack.
 College freshmen should bring a mattress
and/or cot to sleep on during orientation.
 If/when Mary ever shows up, we can all head
out to the party together.
  Burgers or pizza for dinner? Yeah, either/or
is fine with me.
3.To Indicate Connecting and Conflicting
Relationships. For Example: -
 The pro-life/pro-choice debate is a hot-
button issue for many voters this election.
 The designer often works in his bonus
room/home office.
Quotation
Mark (“or”)
 Quotation Mark

 Quotation marks i.e., “” can also be used to

indicate titles of books, songs, poems etc. Titles
can alternatively be indicated by italicizing
them. Once again, if you choose single inverted
commas, the punctuation will go outside.
 For Example: -
1.Quotation marks are used in narration or
Direct and Indirect Speech. For Example: -
 "I have been to Spain", he told me.
 He explained that he had just turned out the
light.
 They complained that they had been waiting
for hours.
2.Full stops and commas always go inside
quotation marks.
 Example: She said, ‘‘you need to hurry up.’’
 He said, “He is very handsome”.
 They said, “We are playing very well from
last few matches.
3.The placement of question marks with quotes
follows logic. If a question is in quotation
 marks, the question mark should be placed
inside the quotation marks.
 Examples: She asked, ‘‘Will you still be my
friend?’’
 Do you agree with the saying, ‘‘All’s fair in
love and war’’? (Only one ending
punctuation mark is used with quotation
marks. Also, the stronger punctuation mark
wins. Therefore, no full stop after war is
used.)
4.When you have a question outside quoted
material AND inside quoted material, use only
one question mark and place it inside the
quotation mark.
 Example: - Did she say, ‘‘May I go?’’ 4.
Use single quotation marks for quotes
within quotes.
 He said, ‘‘Danial said, ‘Do not treat me that
way.’’
5.Use quotation marks to set off a direct
quotation only.
 Example: - ‘‘When will you be here?’’, he
asked.
 He asked “when you will be there”.
Brackets: -
()
 Brackets

 A bracket is either of two tall fore- or back-facing

punctuation marks commonly used to isolate a
segment of text or data from its surroundings.
 Typically deployed in symmetric pairs, an
individual bracket may be identified as a left or
right bracket or, alternatively, an opening bracket
or closing bracket, respectively, depending on the
directionality of the context.
 Use of Brackets: -
1. To explain or clarify in the sentences. For
Example: -
 Tony Blair (the former British prime
minister) resigned from office in 2007.
2. To indicate plural or singular in the sentences.
For Example: -
 Please leave your mobile telephone(s) at the
door.
 Please come here with your student(s) in the
room.
3. To add a personal comment in any sentence.
For Example: -
 Many people love parties (I don't).
  Many people don’t love play (She does not).
4. To define abbreviations in sentences. For
Example: -
 The matter will be decided by the IOC
(International Olympic Committee).
 The best space organization in India
ISRO(Indian Space Organization).
Parenthesis: -
[]
 Parenthesis

 A parenthesis i.e. [] is a tall, curvy punctuation

mark used to set off material that isn’t
fundamental to the main topic, like an
afterthought or an aside (or a funny joke).
 Use of Parenthesis: -
1. Use parentheses to enclose words or figures that
clarify or are used as an aside.
 Example: - I expect five hundred dollars
[$500].
 He finally answered [after taking five
minutes to think] that he did not get the
question.
 (Commas could have been used in the above
example. Parentheses show less emphasis or
importance.)
2. Use full parentheses to enclose numbers or
letters used for listed items.
 Example: We need an emergency physician
who can think quickly, treat patients
respectfully, and handle complaints from the
public.
3. Full stop goes inside parentheses only if an
entiresentence is inside the parentheses.
 Example: Please read the analysis. [I have
enclosed it as Attachment A.] Please read
the analysis.
 Block- 2
Writing
Effectively
 Unit 1-
The Basics
of Writing
Introduction
 Block- 2 Writing Effectively
Unit 1 The Basics of Writing
Introduction

This is our practical need. But learning to write

effectively is important for other reasons as well.
Why do we think writing is important?
Well, writing helps you to think, to be creative yet
organized and logical. When you write, and this
pertains to any type of writing, you generate ideas
and content which you must arrange in systematic
ways to be an effective writer. By combining
words into phrases and sentences and often
joining them with conjunctions, a writer creates
complex new ideas.
For example, the word and brings out additions to
the point, but emphasizes differences and because
gives reasons for your ideas.
Since we have to write so much and in such
diverse forms and modes, why not do this task
really well. In this unit we will reflect on the
writing process and suggest ways to improve our
writing skill.
Understanding
How Writing
Helps
 Understanding How Writing Helps

How Writing Helps: - As you are probably

aware, writing helps you develop many skills
which are helpful for your academic life and
which will be useful later at your work life – when
you have to write letters, reports, proposals, etc.
Writing helps you remember what you are
studying, by helping you to make coherent
notes, analyse, synthesize, and summarise
information from different sources.
Writing as you read by taking notes,
summarizing, responding to assumptions or
arguments in a text, makes you a better reader.
This kind of reflection enhances your
understanding and helps you develop new
insights. It helps you become a critical thinker.
Attempting different kinds of writing
contributes to learning in different ways, giving
you an awareness of different genres, their
possibilities, and arrangements. An expository
composition helps you organise and present
what you have learnt with clarity. You are able
to marshal facts and array them in order of
 importance. A narrative helps you sequence
events and highlight the important ones.
Arguing a position teaches you not only to
support your reasons but also anticipate
objections to your arguments and learn to refute
them.
Can Writing be Learned: - Many people
believe that people who are good at writing do not
need to spend a lot of time learning to write – they
are born writers. Writing comes naturally to them.
However, this is not true. Writing research shows
that all good writers also keep learning how to
write and they constantly practice their skill. So,
learning to write is essential to developing the
writing skill. What do you need to do in order to
be an effective writer?
Learn to write by reading: - Reading
extensively will enable you to become a better
writer. All good writers are avid readers who
not only read for enjoyment and information,
but also to hone their craft. One of the important
ways in which reading helps is, it enables you
to understand a particular genre or type of
writing. Although individual texts of a
particular genre would be different from each
 other, they nonetheless will follow a certain
pattern that is quite predictable and these are
known as conventions.
One of the best ways to become a good
writer is by constantly writing: - Practice
will make your writing more thoughtful and
ideational. Fortunately, all of us use social
media. Blogging about your experiences or
your skills is a great way to improve your
writing. You could also keep a journal or a diary
of your special moments. This will also help
you write continuously, which will help you
write better.
An effective writer constructs a reader-friendly
plan by dividing the information into clearly
distinguishable parts or sub-topics. This gives
readers cues or road signs to guide them through
your assignment. So, a writer will use some of
these building blocks: defining, classifying, or
dividing, comparing, and contrasting, illustrating
with examples, reporting, explaining cause and
effects, and so on. Of course, you must only use
those building blocks as are required for your
assignment. To convince the reader of the
trustworthiness or authenticity of your
information, you must acknowledge the expert
writers that you have consulted. There are two
main ways in which you can do that: -
Discovering what you already know
about the subject: - Consider what you
already know about the subject and why you
find it interesting. Write quickly, without
planning and organizing. Check your class
lecture notes first, before you look at other
sources.
Doing research is essential: - To find
comprehensive, updated information of your
topic, you should locate it in relevant articles,
books, on the internet, etc. Doing an internet
search often creates a focus for your
assignment.
Bookmark websites that appear useful and be
sure to include the URL, the title of the site, the
date when the information was posted, and the
date you accessed it. Similarly, make careful
records of the author, title, publication
information, page number of the articles,
journals, and books you refer to.
This will help you go back to the sites as well
acknowledge them if you make use of them.
 Writers, therefore, plan and then revise their
plan, draft, and then revise their drafts, write,
and then rewrite.
This is known as the process approach to
writing and it is important to follow such an
approach: -
 Writing a plan: - It is important to write
an outline. This may be in points, and
remember these points will be changed if
required. In fact, your plan must be
dynamic and flexible.
 Writing a draft: - While writing a draft,
you will benefit from frequent pauses to
reread what you have written. Rereading
helps you to add an example, choose
different words and fill in a gap in the logic
of an argument. Rereading leads to
substantial rethinking and revising; i.e.
cutting, reorganizing, rewriting.
 Revising: - Review the comments of your
friends and teachers and incorporate them
if they are reasonable. Check for spelling,
punctuation, and grammatical errors.
another draft.
 Editing and
Proofreading
 Editing and Proofreading

Editing: - Editing is the process of selecting and

preparing written, photographic, visual, audible,
or cinematic material used by a person or an entity
to convey a message or information. The editing
process can involve correction, condensation,
organisation, and many other modifications
performed with an intention of producing a
correct, consistent, accurate and complete piece
of work.
Proofreading: - Proofreading is the reading of
a galley proof or an electronic copy of a
publication to find and correct reproduction errors
of text or art. Proofreading is the final step in the
editorial cycle before publication. Let us discuss
some tried and tested techniques of proofreading
which you could use on your draft.
Keep your dictionary and thesaurus handy to
check for spelling, usage, meaning of words
in doubt and synonyms. If you are working on
the laptop, be sure to use these tools.
Eliminate the common mistakes which all of
us make, such as it’s or its, lets or let us,
who’s or whose, and so on.
Look out for the problem areas in your
writing which your teachers have commented
on.
Reading aloud of your drafts also helps as you
get to hear what your eye may have missed.
Some of the grammatical errors you could
look out for are: fused sentences, misused
past-perfect verbs, order of adjectives,
adjective clauses with misplaced commas,
and so on.
 Thinking
Critically of
Your Writing
 Thinking Critically of Your Writing

Critical thinking is a way of thinking,

understanding, and expressing ourselves. See the
Critical thinking checklist. Critical thinking is
about using your ability to reason. It is about
being active in your learning and questioning
ideas, arguments, and findings.
As we said at the start, reflecting on your own
experience, knowledge, reading helps you
become a better and more versatile writer.
Reflecting enables you to be aware of what you
already know and what you still need to learn.
Reflecting helps you to be aware of your own
thinking process.
It will enable you to ask questions about the topic,
which genre it belongs to, what is the purpose of
writing and who is the reader. This will help you
to understand your writing process creatively and
expand your understanding of the genre.
 Unit-2
Developing
Different Types of
Paragraphs
Introduction
 Unit-2 Developing Different Types of
Paragraphs
Introduction

A paragraph is a self-contained unit of discourse

in writing dealing with a particular point or idea.
A paragraph consists of one or more sentences.
Though not required by the syntax of any
language, paragraphs are usually an expected part
of formal writing, used to organize longer prose.
In these longer pieces of writing, paragraphs
generally introduce new ideas to develop the
central theme. The division into paragraphs also
prevents boredom as it provides a physical break
on the page.
You know a paragraph is unified by a central,
controlling idea or theme. This idea or theme is
called the topic of the paragraph. It is sometimes
expressed at some place in the paragraph by one
sentence, which is usually called the topic
sentence. You can write the topic sentence in the
form of a statement or even a problem.
This topic sentence you can either write in the
beginning of a paragraph, or at the end or even in
the middle of the paragraph. Very often you can
find that there may not be a topic sentence in a
paragraph but it may be implied within the
paragraph.
Developing
The Topic
 Developing The Topic

In order to develop the central theme of a

paragraph, you have to expand the idea contained
in the topic sentence. This you can do by adding
more information, explanation, examples,
illustrations, etc. to the idea you have expressed
in the topic sentence. You will notice that this
paragraph is developed mainly by adding
examples and it can be analysed as follows: -
Topic sentence: “The vast majority of people,
wherever they live and whatever their occupation,
come in contact with animals in one way or
another and have to deal with them.”
Examples given to develop the paragraph:
the hunter
the farmer
the fishermen
the city-dweller
Summing up: This is done by stating that there is
a common bond between humans and other
creatures.
Coherence
 Coherence

When you look at different paragraphs, each

paragraph is developed slightly depending upon
the information that you want to convey to the
reader. Moreover when you write a paragraph of
your own, choose the topic and write down all the
points that you know about the topic.
As you make your list, do not stop to question
whether a detail fits or not, any of the points that
do not fit can be removed later. This will help you
generate new ideas, and also give you something
concrete to work on. However, when you start
writing, see that every sentence contributes to the
central idea, which is contained in the topic
sentence. Only then your paragraph will have
unity. Also to have unity in your paragraph, you
need to understand that other than topic sentences
and supporting details (the sentences which
support the topic sentence) it should be coherent.
In a coherent paragraph, you as a writer take the
reader logically and smoothly from one idea to
the next. The reader must clearly recognize that
sentence logically leads to the next.
Cohesion
 Cohesion

Another technique which brings about coherence

in a paragraph is the use of cohesive devices or
signal words or signposts between sentences or at
the beginning of sentences. These words or
phrases will help you as a writer to move
smoothly from one sentence to the next and show
logical relationship between sentences. The
following list includes other words and phrases
that function as cohesive devices or signal, words,
or signposts:
To express result: therefore, as a result,
consequently, thus, hence
To give examples: for example, for instance,
specifically, as an illustration
To express comparison: similarly, likewise
To express contrast: however, nevertheless, on
the other hand
To express addition: moreover, furthermore,
also, besides, in addition
To indicate time: now, later, meanwhile, since,
then, after that, before that time.
Organisation Of
a Paragraph
 Organisation Of a Paragraph

In the last section, you have read about how to

develop the topic in a paragraph. Now you are
going to deal in more detail with some of the
principles observed in organizing paragraphs.
These relate to chronological (time) sequencing,
spatial relationships, and class relationships.
Chronological Sequence: - What do you
understand by chronological sequencing? By
chronological sequencing you need to know that
you arrange the events in the order in which they
occur in time, beginning with the first event,
going on to the next event, and so on until you
come to the last event. This is the method that you
normally use when you tell a simple story,
describe a process, report incidents and events, or
write a biographical sketch.
Biographical Writing: - When you write
biographies, you will probably realize that the
cues used to organise the biographical details
chronologically are the dates mentioned in the
text. You will find that most biographies are
organized sequentially in a clear time frame,
according to the dates of important events. Your
daily lives are also generally organized in a
similar fashion, where you see time moving in
one direction – from the past to the present and
from the present to the future. Yet, there are
moments in your lives which are more important
than others and which you tend to highlight. If
you write about the events, you may break the
natural chronological sequence to emphasise
these occurrences.
Narrative
 Narrative

In more complex pieces of writing, you can

manipulate time if you wish. You can move
backwards and forwards through time, according
to the purpose in writing.
In general, writers use unexpected chronological
sequences when they want to emphasize
something other than the time sequence which is
usually used by the writers when they use the
narrative style of chronological sequence.
In the passage given below, the writer has used
such a complex time movement, why do you
think so? When you read the passage, you may
realize that it is because he wants to highlight the
happy and comfortable life of the protagonist and
his family lived in the past, in contrast to the
unfortunate circumstances they have fallen into
now.
Now let us analyse the movement of time in the
passage: -
The story begins at a particular time: - ‘He
returned home in the evening, …. behind the
Market.’
It flashes in the past: - ‘His wife would be
invariably be standing at the door….he would
come back home with magic fulfilment.’
In fact, here we see a complex use of different
times. Rama Rao uses his knowledge of the
past to anticipate the coming scene.
Again we see a complex interplay of the past
and the present: - ‘As he remembered the
futile way in which he searched for a job, ….
had less trust in him.’
Present time: - ‘His wife looked at his face,
…… see them in this condition.’
Process
 Process

Another type of writing which involves

chronological sequencing is what is known as
process analysis. Like narration, a process is
organized chronologically. But here, the natural
time order is strictly followed, i.e. starting at the
beginning of the process, and continuing step-by-
step to the end. It involves how to give
instructions and how to explain the process. Both
are different in manner of telling, in the first one,
you are telling someone to do something whereas
in the second one, you are mentioning step-by-
step procedure to complete the task.
When you tell someone how to do something,
how to perform a specific task you are giving
instructions. The instructions may involve giving
directions for preparing a recipe, or informing
someone about the procedure for conducting a
scientific experiment. If your instructions are
carefully thought out and planned, they should
enable your readers to carry out the task
successfully.
To write accurate and easily understood
instructions, you must keep the following things
in mind: -
You must thoroughly understand the process
that you are describing, and if possible, try it out
yourself. This will help you anticipate any
difficulties that might happen.
Inform your readers of the special tools or
materials needed for the job. These could be
mentioned right at the beginning, in a section
labelled ‘Tools Required’ or ‘Materials
Required’. This is to enable the reader to have
all his or her tools ready before making a
beginning.
Alert your readers to be careful with steps that
require precise timing or measurement.
Warn your readers of potentially dangerous
steps or materials. For example, if there are
some other materials which are flammable, let
your readers know before they reach that step.
Give illustrations if you think your instructions
will be better understood that way. Illustrations
can simplify instructions by reducing the
number of words necessary to explain
something. You will be able to focus your
 attention on the steps making up the
instructions, rather than on the description of
the various parts of the apparatus or equipment.
Use linking words which will make clear the
sequence in which events or the stages in a
process occur.
 Spatial
Relationships
 Spatial Relationships

In the section above, you have looked at how

paragraphs are organized according to a
chronological sequence. Paragraphs can be
organized according to space relationships.
Very often you have to write about the Location
of a place, how a place is to be laid out (e.g.
Proposals for landscape work) or how a set of
objects are connected (e.g. description of
laboratory equipment).
For this, you need to be aware of the spatial
relationships involved. In a spatial sequence, you
describe an object or a process according to the
physical arrangements of its features.
Thus, a paragraph developed through a proper
spatial relationship presents the point of view of
the writer and at the same time turns the reader’s
attention in a certain direction.
Supposing you were to write a paragraph
describing your university campus, you might
organise the description in different ways:
You might use some important landmark, for
example, the library, and describe other
 places in relation to it. The order in which you
discuss each place is not as important as its
relationship to the landmark.
You might use an important landmark as the
starting point, and move from it to the next
place, on to another, and so on, perhaps
ending at the original landmark.
Another type of development specially might
give importance to the boundaries of an area.
This would lead to a logical progression from
one location to another.
Still another spatial development might stress
the interrelationships between locations.
Then, the order of description is not
necessarily important.
 Class
Relationships
 Class Relationships

There are various ways in which people organise

the world around them. You have already read
about two such ways: time and space. Another
way to do it is by looking at relationships among
objects or ideas and classifying them into groups
according to their similarities and differences.
Why do you need to classify things? Without
classification systematic thought would be
difficult. For example, biologists classify forms
of life in order to describe them better. They
classify living things into plants and animals.
They classify animals into vertebrates (having a
back-bone) and invertebrates.
They classify vertebrates into mammals, birds,
reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Each class has its
distinct characteristics, and so, if a biologist
comes across some creature he has not met
before, he has at least some way of describing it.
When you organise, you are writing according to
class relationships, you must keep in mind the
following points: -
Use only one principle of classification, e.g. Cars
can be classified according to size, manufacturer,
price, and country of origin. Choose the principle
of classification suitable for your purpose.
Be consistent. Once you have decided on a
scheme of classification, stick to it throughout
your composition. Mixing different ways of
classification would cause a lot of confusion. For
example, if you are classifying television
programmes, do not put ‘morning shows,
afternoon shows, evening shows’ with ‘detective
serials, UGC programmes and children’s
programmes’.
Make the categories as complete as possible. All
individual units you are describing should fit into
one of the classes you have adopted. In some
cases, you may be faced with the prospect of an
endless number of classes. For example, if you
are discussing festivals celebrated in India, you
may end up with a long list of types. It may, then,
be a good idea to restrict yourself to, say, ‘Major
Festivals in India.’
 Types of
Paragraphs
 Types of Paragraphs

In the above sections, you have learnt the

elements that made a good paragraph and how to
organise a paragraph in terms of chronological
sequence, space relationship and class
relationship.
Now you will read about how to develop different
types of paragraphs. Paragraphs can be developed
in a number of ways, depending upon your
purpose, the topic, and the kind of reader you
have in mind. The different methods of paragraph
development can be considered in terms of two
broad categories: -
Those which stay strictly within the scope of
the topic: e.g. illustration, description,
definition, and cause and effect.
Techniques which involve a second topic: e.g.
comparison and contrast.
Illustration
 Illustration

Illustration is expressed in different ways,

sometimes through examples or through pictures,
figures, or tables. Giving examples is one of the
easiest ways of developing a topic. When you
give examples, you help the reader to understand
a rather difficult and abstract generalization
which may be contained in the topic sentence.
You are also able to persuade the reader that the
generalization is correct because there are
examples to support it. Examples also add to the
reader’s interest .Often examples are introduced
by using expressions like for example, for
instance, an example, etc.
When giving examples to support your topic
sentence, keep in mind that: -
There should be enough examples to support
your point
Each example should be logically related to
your main idea
Each example should be developed with
interesting details, (note that the writer of the
paragraph below does not merely list the
 examples, but tells us in what way each of these
animals is helpless, the results of their
helplessness and how they become self-
sufficient.)
The examples should represent a reasonable
cross-section of the group you are dealing with.
Description
 Description

You may never have to write descriptions which

are complete in themselves, but you may need to
include descriptions in other pieces of writing,
e.g. personal letters, narratives, reports, and
travelogues. You may like to describe people,
places, objects, habits, and conditions, as well as
scenes such as accidents.
Since description are concerned with detail, the
larger and more precise your vocabulary, the
better your descriptive writing will be. The
following items are usually included in
descriptive writing: -
Place and position, direction.
Measurements: weight, size, volume, distance.
Shapes and patterns.
Colours and textures.
Materials and substances.
Cause and
Effect
 Cause and Effect

Besides using illustration and description to

develop the topic of your paragraph, you may in
some cases need to use the technique of cause and
effect. You may, for instance, want to know the
cause of your poor grades, or of a bus accident, or
the effects or consequences of taking drugs, of
deforestation, etc.
Cause: - Analysing the cause can be quite a
complex task. For example, a daughter’s rebelling
against her father and leaving home may have an
apparent immediate cause, but there may also be
a chain of causes going back into the past. Thus,
there are likely to be many causes not just one.
The choice between one cause and several causes
is often not a free option. Usually your topic will
determine it. When you work with several causes
or reasons, you face the problem of arranging
them in a significant order. If the reasons follow
a logical pattern, i.e. if the main event is caused
by A, and A in turn by B, and B by C, the
organisation is predetermined. But sometimes the
reasons or causes may be parallel, all contributing
 to the same result. Then, a good strategy is to
begin with the least important cause and conclude
with the most important.
Effects: - Effects or consequences can be
handled in much the same way as you handle
reasons or causes. But keep in mind now the main
idea is regarded as causing the consequences
discussed in the rest of the paragraph. The
paragraph you may write deal with only a single
effect or refer to several effects. If several
consequences are listed, you must be careful to
distinguish between the major and the minor
ones. Read the example given below to
understand how effects are listed.
Cause and Effect: - In the above two examples,
you have read a paragraph which gives reasons to
support a topic, and a paragraph which deals with
effects. Often, however, you may note that cause
and effect are more closely related, forming a
chain where A gives rise to B, B to C and so on.
In such a link, B is both a consequence of A and
the cause of C.
Definition
 Definition

Often when you write, you need to explain what

something is or means, especially if you feel that
your reader may not be familiar with it. This
generally happens when you use technical terms
or when you want to give your own meaning to
an ordinary word. The simplest way to define a
term is by giving a synonym or by placing the
word in a general class and then distinguishing it
from others in that class. For example: -
Term Class Differentiation
Widow a woman whose husband died
Surgeon a doctor who performs operation
Such definitions are rather formal in style and are
generally found in dictionaries. Some concepts or
ideas you know that cannot be defined in such a
manner, and for this purpose extended definitions
are useful. Topic sentences which relate to
concepts such as ‘freedom’, ‘democracy’, etc.
need the support of specific examples. In fact,
both in your thinking and writing, you often
require extended definitions.
This can be done by adding details like uses,
component parts, examples, being similar to
something else, being different from something
else, and stating what it is not.
Comparison
and Contrast
 Comparison and Contrast

So far you have seen ways of developing

paragraphs which deal with only one topic.
Sometimes a topic can be developed by showing
how two things are alike or how they are
different.
Do you know that comparison and contrast are
common devices in writing? Mainly because we
tend to think that way! You know our decisions
are often based on comparison and contrast.
For instance, comparison and contrast dominate
your thought if you decide to join a particular
college or university, when you choose a career
or a job, and even when you buy a particular
brand of toothpaste.
In your mind, you often try to compare your
teachers, your neighbours, the cities that you have
been to, the food served at different restaurants
and so on. Hence comparison and contrast are a
continuous process in everyone’s lives.
Generally two items are compared and contrasted
for three basic purposes: -
To point out distinctions in order to give
information about the two things.
To clarify the unfamiliar by comparing it
with the familiar
To show the superiority of one thing over
another, for example comparison between
two cars
 Block-3
Note Taking
 Unit-1: -
Learning Study
Skills
Introduction
Unit-1: - Learning Study Skills
Introduction

Today language is viewed as a ‘skill’ rather than

as ‘knowledge’. What does this mean? If you
want to acquire knowledge about any subject, you
read books or listen to lectures. The same is true
of dancing, painting, cycling, or swimming.
These are known as ‘skills’. Skills are acquired
through practice. Language is also regarded as a
skill by experts. The more you speak, the more
fluent you become.
The more you read, the faster you can read. There
are, as you know, four linguistic skills: listening,
speaking, reading, and writing. These four skills
have to be mastered by any user of the language.
If you want to study anything through a language,
you have to master what are known as study
skills. In the next section we shall try to define
study skills and also look at the various types of
study skills.
What are Study
Skills?
 What are Study Skills?

In very simple terms, ‘study skills’ may be

defined as skills which help learners to study
more efficiently. There are two ways of being
more effective learners: -
Directly–by studying to increase your
knowledge of the subject matter.
Indirectly–by improving your ability to learn
independently and at will. We must be careful
to distinguish linguistic skills from study skills.
Linguistic skills help you to ‘communicate’,
study skills, on the other hand, enable you to
‘study’, and the process of study involves four
operations: perception, comprehension, retention,
and retrieval.
In the literature on study skills, we refer to three
major types of study skills corresponding to the
four operations in the process of study. They
are: -
Gathering skills (perception, comprehension).
Storing skills (Retention).
Skimming and Scanning.
Gathering
Skills
 Gathering Skills

These skills enable learners to identify and locate

relevant information. These skills include
reference skills and sub-skills of reading viz.
scanning and skimming. Together they equip the
learner with the tools to find sources of
information. Reference skills can be further
subdivided according to the material to be
consulted into the following: -
 Use of dictionary, thesaurus, etc.
 Use of library
Reference
Skills
 Reference Skills

As we know, a very important source of

information in ESL (English as a second
language) teaching/learning situation is the
dictionary. Most of our learners use a bilingual
dictionary and consult the dictionary when they
encounter a problem with the meaning of a word.
The use of a dictionary just to check the meaning
is a valid use but also one of the many uses a
dictionary can be put to. A good monolingual
dictionary of English for learners is the most
invaluable source of information regarding the
knowledge of a word, which involves
pronunciation, spelling, meaning (core meaning
and extended meanings), grammar, collocations,
idiomatic expressions, associations, etc. (Refer to
the unit on ‘Enhancing Vocabulary Skills’).
The dictionary remains an under-utilized source
of information, if it is used at all. Every dictionary
comes with a section at the beginning telling us
how to use it with detailed annotated examples.
However, these introductory sections often
remain unread.
 Using A
Dictionary
 Using A Dictionary

Dictionaries are of help in checking and learning

of pronunciation with the correct stress pattern,
meaning in contexts (with examples) or grammar
of a word (e.g. the part of speech it belongs to,
whether transitive or intransitive in case of a verb
or whether countable or uncountable in case of a
noun).
Moreover, dictionaries like the Cambridge
International Dictionary of English (1995
edition), includes a picture dictionary (e.g. on
kitchen, bicycles, etc.) as does Advanced Oxford
or Collins Co build.
The last dictionary mentioned here also includes
Word Webs or topic related vocabulary through
encyclopaedia – like readings combined with
related art work, word partnerships (collocations)
and word links (word origin) e.g. (geo-earth,
geography, geology, geopolitical) or even usage
like less and fewer.
You also have used the dictionary to decide
whether a particular word is formal, informal.
Use of
Library
 Use of Library

When using a library, learners should know how

to use the catalogue to locate the book they are
looking for. In modern times, catalogues are
computerized – hence some knowledge of
computers is essential. After they know how to
locate the material, they should learn how to refer
to the material.
Every book that they think is relevant may not be
really useful. Many times they have to make
choices; they have to select not only relevant
books but also relevant chapters of books and
relevant articles for purposes of study.
It is not possible to go through every book, every
chapter, and every article in depth before they
decide whether it contains useful information or
not. So the learners have to know the techniques
to make a quick survey and try to make a guess if
the material is relevant to their specific need.
This requires training in surveying skills. Some of
the questions we can ask are: -
Is the material relevant to the subject I am
interested in?
Which parts are relevant?
Is it a recent publication or an old one?
If an old one, is it a reprint?
Is it by a known author?
What is the level at which it is pitched?
What are the comments about it?
Skimming and
Scanning
 Skimming and Scanning

The reference skills have to be complemented by

training in skimming and scanning the two sub-
skills of reading, which require a different reading
style and speed, dictated by one's purpose in
reading. Let us again understand what we mean
by skimming and scanning.
Skimming involves searching for the main ideas
of a text by reading the first and last paragraphs
or by looking for the topic sentences in each
paragraph, noting other organizational clues such
as semantic markers or summaries used by the
author.
Skimming does not require reading each and
every word of the text, because the purpose of the
reading is looking for the main drift of the text.
Scanning involves rapidly glancing down the
page looking for specific facts or key phrases.
Every text has an organizational framework and
it is important to see how different parts of a text
hang together. We can say that every text is based
on a ground plan, which looks roughly like this: -
 Introduction: - a general statement
The main idea: - a hypothesis or a thesis
statement
Elaboration and development: - details,
definitions, illustrations, comparisons, and
contrasts
Conclusion: - restating the thesis, finalizing
discussion.
Similarly, scanning skills are valuable as an aid to
locating new terms, definitions, dates, or
formulas as in a science textbook. The learner
also needs to scan charts and figures for they
present the facts in a graphic form. The use of
these skills will help not only in reducing the time
for intensive reading but also in retaining the
details of the text.
Storage
Skills
 Storage Skills

In this section we shall consider the ways in

which we can store the information/knowledge
we have gathered for later use. The ways in which
we do this are: -
Note taking (in class).
Note making (at home or in the library).
These skills are important as: -
An aid to understanding and comprehension.
A record of facts and processes.
An aid to jog one’s memory later on.
A record of different points of view.
An aid for further study.
A summary of arguments and ideas.
A check that one does not fall asleep!

Note-Making: - Note making (also known as

note-taking) is the practice of keeping the record
from different sources. By taking notes, one can
record the essence of the information, freeing
their minds from having to recall everything.
Notes are commonly drawn from a brief source,
 such as a lecture or an oral discussion at a meeting
in which case the notes may be the only record of
the event or from a long content. Note making is
not just only about writing down everything you
read or hear but also a process of synthesizing and
reviewing ideas from your lectures or reading.

Note-Taking: - Note-taking is the practice of

recording information from different sources and
platforms. By taking notes, the writer records the
essence of the information, freeing their mind
from having to recall everything. Notes are
commonly drawn from a transient source, such as
an oral discussion at a meeting, or a lecture (notes
of a meeting are usually called minutes), in which
case the notes may be the only record of the event,
but notetaking software has made digital
notetaking possible.
Retrieval
Skills
 Retrieval Skills

While writing an examination, or participating in

a conference or seminar, students need to
summarise their ideas in a coherent form, so that
their readers can understand them.
Or sometimes they have to prepare a research
abstract based on their reading. The student will
of course base their summary or abstract on the
notes they had prepared earlier.
The length of a summary may vary depending on
the purpose for which it is intended. Generally,
the Precise in the examination papers is required
to be one-third of the original; but all summaries
need not be so. Summarising is not an exercise to
be learnt for use in the class room alone; it has
relevance for life. We can summarise articles,
chapters and even books for future reference.
Unit-2 Techniques
of Note Taking: -
Main and
Subordinate Points
Introduction
 Unit-2 Techniques of Note Taking: -
Main and Subordinate Points
Introduction

Almost anyone who studies at a college or

university or works in an office has to take notes
sometimes. As a student you generally take notes
while listening to a lecturer in the classroom or a
speaker at a seminar, or when reading your course
books.
In an office you may need to take notes when the
boss gives you instructions, or when you attend a
meeting or a conference. Sometimes you may
have to take an examination to improve your
qualifications or to compete for a better job.
Then you have to take notes from the books you
read. While taking notes, have you ever asked
yourself the reason for taking them? There are
usually two main reasons:
To keep a record of the speaker's or the writer's
main ideas (not to take down or copy every
word).
 To help your memory when, for example, you
are revising for an examination, or preparing a
report.
The tendency of many students is to try to write
down as much as possible of what the teacher is
saying. In this process, they often miss the main
points of the lecture, but, on the other hand, take
down a lot of unimportant information. Similarly,
when you are taking notes from a book or an
article, it is generally not a good idea to copy out
large chunks of a text, unless you are going to
quote from it.
Reading
 Reading

Reading is the process of taking in the sense or

meaning of letters, symbols, etc., especially by
sight or touch. For educators and researchers,
reading is a multifaceted process involving such
areas as word recognition, orthography (spelling),
alphabetics, phonics, phonemic awareness,
vocabulary, comprehension, fluency, and
motivation. When we read, we generally have a
purpose in mind. The purpose may be to spend
some time on a rainy afternoon by reading a
detective novel or a love story.
Often our purpose is to obtain information on a
particular topic. When you read a passage in order
to obtain specific information, it is a good idea to
acquaint yourself with the text by quickly going
through it. You will notice that some paragraphs
will contain the information you want, and they
must be read carefully. Other paragraphs may
contain a lot of repetition, and they can be
skimmed. There may be some passages that are of
no interest to us or are completely irrelevant for
our purpose, and they can be skipped.
Reduction
Devices
 Reduction Devices

Reduction devices are an important technique in

note-taking. They help you save time when you
are noting down something from a book.
They are particularly useful when you are taking
down notes from a lecture, because otherwise it
will be difficult to keep pace with the speaker.
Since notes do not contain repetitive and
unnecessary information, reduction devices help
to give a more organized picture of what the
writer/ speaker is saying. You can use symbols
(lines, arrows, etc.) instead of words.

a) Arrows
Look at this passage from the text:
An arrow can also mean 'changes into', 'causes',
'contributes to', etc.
An arrow in the reverse direction () means
'is attributed to', 'is caused by' as in the
Following example: -
'Rheumatic heart disease is caused by an
infection of the throat which is not treated'.
Rheumatic hd.  untreated throat infection.
 An arrow with two heads  can mean
'related to'.
b) Underlining is used to show what is
important.

c) You can use abbreviations (a few letters

instead of the whole word).
Units of measurement:
Second - sec.
Minute - min.
Hour - hr.
Year - yr.
Month - mth.
Meter - m.
Kilogram - kg.

Shortening -tion or -sion at the end of a

word, e.g.
reaction - reactn.
conclusion - conclusn.
Headings and
Subordinate
Points
 Headings and Subordinate Points

When the information content is small and not

particularly well-organized, our notes may
contain just a few phrases. However, when we
study, our information content is often large and
organized around a topic. In such a situation, it
makes our notes clearer, if we have headings and
subordinates points. For example, look at Notes
(1) again.
Heading: Types of Heart Disease - Their Causes
& Symptoms

the heading is underlined;

the subordinate points are placed under the
heading and indented, that is, the lines are
started further into the page than the line for
the heading. This shows that they are
dependent on the main topic. The subordinate
points are directly under each other.
Unit 3- Techniques
of Note Taking: -
Use of Tables and
Diagrams
Introduction
Unit 3- Techniques of Note Taking: -
Use of Tables and Diagrams
Introduction

Reading with a purpose in mind so as to

differentiate between paragraphs that contain
essential information and those that do not;
The use of shortening devices such as the use of
abbreviations and symbols which will save time
and effort; the ability to organize the material in
terms of main headings and subordinate points.
In this unit we shall continue our discussion on
notes from reading material. We shall,
however, concentrate on the organization of
notes in terms of tables, charts, and diagrams.
Organization
Of Notes: -
Diagrams
 Organization Of Notes: - Diagrams

When the information in a paragraph can be

presented visually, it is better to use a drawing,
a flow chart, or a tree diagram.
This is especially true of scientific material,
where it is simpler and clearer to express
information in the form of a labelled diagram
than by using words only.
The diagram should present a mental picture of
what you understand from the paragraph. This
will make it easier for you to understand the
information given in the paragraph.
Unit 4- Making
Effective
Summaries
Introduction
 Unit 4- Making Effective Summaries
Introduction

Of all the writing we have discussed so far, note

making and summary writing may well be the
ones you are most expected to do in your
academic life as a student and as a researcher.
In fact, we are summarizing information all the
time. We watch a movie and tell our friends the
story in two minutes, we listen to long
conversations and say, "So what you are actually
saying is..."
Think of a long newspaper report running into
three columns, but with a neat five-word headline
which summarizes the entire report.
Summaries may involve one or two key words, a
line, or it may be quite an elaborate write-up. It
all depends on the purpose of the writing.
Why do we summarize what we read? Most often
we summarize what others have said. We use this
material for future reference.
Paragraph,
Precise and
Summary
 Paragraph, Precise and Summary

Paraphrase: - is to rewrite something using

different words without changing the original
meaning: this is what is usually meant by the
phrase, 'in your own words.' The paraphrase is
usually clearer and more easily understood than
the original, and is usually similar in length to the
original. The purpose of a paraphrase is to convey
the meaning of the original message and, in doing
so, to prove that we have understood the passage
well enough to restate it in our own words.
Precise: - usually reduces the length of the
original passage by at least two-thirds. Every
important idea must be retained, preferably in the
order in which it appears in the original. A
summary is much shorter than the original text,
and communicates the main idea of the text and
the supporting points written again.
Summary: - should give someone who has not
read the original a clear and accurate overview of
the text. Writing a summary therefore requires a
combination of precise writing ability and the
ability to paraphrase.
 Writing
Summaries
 Writing Summaries

 The art of condensation: - One of the skills

required to write precis and summaries is using
concise language. Before practicing writing
summaries, let us look at how we can say and
write sentences in brief.
 Writers often load their prose with extra words or
phrases that do not seem to add to the meaning of
the sentence. Although such words and phrases
are meaningful in the appropriate context, they
can easily be left out. We can eliminate these
unnecessary word and phrases.
 Identifying the topic sentence: - A paragraph
is a group of sentences related to a particular
topic, or central theme. Every paragraph has a key
concept or main idea. The main idea is the most
important piece of information the author wants
you to know about that paragraph.
 A writer will state his/her main idea explicitly
somewhere in the paragraph. That main idea may
be stated at the beginning of the paragraph, in the
middle, or at the end. The sentence in which the
 main idea is stated is the topic sentence of that
paragraph.
 Identifying the Key Ideas: - Any piece of
writing is made up of a few key (or main) ideas.
However, if all a writer did was to put these
forward briefly and concisely, few – if any –
readers would be able to fully grasp the writer's
meanings, or be able to see the significance and
implications of what he or she has to say.
Consequently, writers tend to explain, extend, or
'flesh-out' what they think and say by including
examples and evidence that lead the reader
through the piece to make it more understandable.
 As a reader, our job is to grasp these key ideas or
items of information; to understand the essential
points in a text. One useful technique to help you
do this effectively is for you to highlight the key
ideas. Underlining key ideas will help you focus
your attention on what you are reading.
 Identifyingthe Main Claim and
Supporting Arguments: - Every essay
contains many ideas but the first thing you need
to determine is what the central thesis of the text
is. You need to be able to state this claim in a clear
and concise manner. You should skim through
each text before reading it carefully and, after
skimming, try to determine the central thesis or
claim. Then you will be able to go on to the next
step. The next thing you need to look for is the
author's specific arguments in defence of his or
her overall position (thesis). Usually an author
gives more than one argument in favour of his/her
thesis. A text can be seen as the following: -