Modal Verbs of Certainty and Possibility

Certainty in the present

To express certainty in the present, we use must. To express certainty in the past, we use must have
+V3

Must

We use must when we feel sure that something is true because there’s very strong evidence.
Examples:

– She looks weak and pale. She must be ill. The speaker is sure that she is ill.
– The traffic policeman is stopping all cars turn by turn. He must be checking a licence.

Instead of must, we can use have to/ has to

Examples:
– The teacher has been working for eight hours without rest. He has to be tired
– The teachers have been working for eight hours without rest. They have to be tired

Certainty in the past

When we consider some present evidence and draw a reasonably certain conclusion about what
happened in the past, we use must have +V3 /had to +present infinitive.
Examples:
– Marry: Abebe and Feleke are brothers. They live together and quarrel every day.
Whenever they quarrel; they throw glasses at each other.
– Belete: They must have broken a lot of glasses. or, They had to break glasses.
Can’t /couldn’t- If we are sure that something is IMPOSSIBLE Examples:
– Child to mother: I am thirsty, Mammy.
– Mother: You can’t/couldn’t be thirsty. You have just drunk two glasses of water.

– Must means that the speaker sees something as necessarily and logically true.

– Can't means that the speaker sees it as logically impossible for something to be true.

– Must and can't are opposites. The bill can't be so much. There must be some mistake.

Can’t/ couldn’t +have +V3-

When we are certain that something was IMPOSSIBLE Example:
– A: I saw Hana in a hotel yesterday.
– B: You can’t/ couldn’t have seen here. She spent the whole day at home.

Present or future possibility

May /might / could

We use might, may or could to say that we think something is possible but we’re not sure.
Example:
 – Almaz: What are you going to do tomorrow?
– Hana: I am not sure. I may go to Addis. (Perhaps a 50% chance)
I am not sure. I could go to Addis. (Perhaps less than a 30% chance)
I am not sure. I might go to Addis. (Perhaps a 30% chance)

Past possibility

Might/ may / could +have + V3

We use might, may or could with the perfect infinitive to say that we think something was possible
but we aren’t sure.
– Amsalu: One of our goats is missing, – Hiwot: It may have been stolen.
It might have been stolen. It could have been stolen
10 CRITICISM / BLAME REGRET
 Modal verbs in this function are usually used to express that something was advisable to do but
it wasn’t done or something was not advisable to do but it was done.
The Perfect form of the verb used after modals suggests that the action/condition was already done
and we don’t like it.
• should/ought to have done sth
You should have asked me before you took the whole pie. (but you didn’t ask me)
You shouldn’t have left the door unlocked. (but you did leave it unlocked)
1.-could have done = we had the ability to do something in the past but did not do it.
You could have told us about the new project!
She could have called me when she arrived but she forgot.
2. could / may / might have done = it is possible that something happened in the past but we
aren'tsure.
• Laura hasn't arrived yet. She may/might/could have missed the bus.
3.Needn't have done = it wasn't necessary to do something but we did it.
You needn't have gone to the supermarket. I've already done the shopping.
• The weather was warm and sunny. I needn't have taken an umbrella.
4. Should have / ought to have done = (a) it was the right thing to do but we didn't do it.
(b) we expected something to happen but it didn't.
You should have told him the truth.
They ought to have received the cheque by now.
5.Must have done = we are almost sure something happened in the past
• Jane wasn't feeling well yesterday. She must have caught a cold.
• Bill didn't answer the phone when I called him. He must have fallen asleep.
6. can't have done = we are almost sure something did not happen in the past
She can't have forgotten to send you an invitation. I gave her your address.
• They can't have gone to bed late. They were very tired.
6.- may / might have done = we can guess something of the past .
• I didn't see Paul at work. He may/might/could have been ill.
7. would have done = we wanted to do something but we didn't do it in the end.
• They would have emailed you but the Internet was down yesterday.
• I would have bought that DVD but I didn't have enough money
Using “should have done” and “shouldn’t have done” (REGRET IN
THE PAST
1) We use the expression should have done to indicate that I am sorry that I
didn’t do something (to indicate a “past mistake”), as in the following sentences:
I should have studied harder for my English test.
Jean should have done his homework last night.
2) We use the expression shouldn’t have done to indicate that I am sorry that I
did something:
I shouldn’t have stayed up so late last night.
Jorge shouldn’t have eaten so much.
 Ought to is also used to express a recommendation or regret in the past
ought to + have + past participle (Also ought to + have + been + verb(-/ng))
We ought to have thought more about the planet before using so much fuel.

Using “could have done”

We use the expression could have done to indicate that I had the opportunity to do
something, but didn’t do it. Unlike with should have done, this expression does
not indicate that I am sorry or feel any regret:
I could have gone to the movies last night, but I decided to stay home and go to
sleep early. (I do not feel any regret about this decision).
Igor could have taken classes last summer, but he decided to take a break from
his studies.
Using “may/might/could” and “must be”
 We sometimes use may/might/could be to indicate that we are not sure
about something in the present (“present possibility”). For example, if I can’t find
my car keys, I could say
They may be in my car.
They might be in my coat pocket.
They could be in my bookbag.
We use the word must to indicate that we are almost completely sure of something
(about a 90% probability). If I am almost sure that I left the keys on my office desk, I
could say
They must be on my office desk.
Using “may/might/could” and “must have been”
We use may/might/could have been to indicate that we are not sure about
something in the past (“past possibility”). For example, if Maria was absent from
class yesterday, we could say
She may have been sick.
She might have been visiting a friend in the hospital.
She could have been at the movies.
 Again, we use the word must to indicate that we are almost completely sure of
something. For example, we could say about Maria
She must have had a good reason for being absent from class.
Practice exercises (UNIT 13)
Decide on an appropriate past modal verb and the correct form of the verb
in brackets to finish the sentences. There may be more than one correct
answer.
1 When fossil fuels were discovered, people____________ [know] the negative effects
they would eventually cause as no research had been done on them.
2People_____________[take] more care of endangered species. Over a hundred
species have become extinct in the last 50 years and it’s a terrible shame.
3A new lizard has been discovered in the rainforests of Sumatra. Some experts say they
[inhabit] the deeper rainforest for up to a million years.
4 Resentment= hostility among the citizens_____________ [develop] for a long time
before the
overthrow of the Empire, because popular support for a revolt had been growing for
decades.
Answer
1 couldn't have known
2 should have taken OR ought to have taken
3 . might/could/may have been inhabiting
OR might/could/may have inhabited
4 must have been developing OR must have developed

Unit Four: Modal Verbs

Certain words in English (called “modal verbs”) are used in front of verbs in English
to indicate the following meanings:
1) will (future):
I will call you tonight.
2) can (ability or permission):Can I borrow your pen?
John can play the guitar.
 Note that we usually would say “John plays the guitar (with the “third person s,”
but we don’t use an “s” with the modal verbs. Note also that the expression be
able to is sometimes used to indicate ability, as in “John is able to play the
guitar.”
3) May (permission or possibility): May I speak to you about this problem?
I may go out tonight.
4) might (weak possibility):
I might go to John’s party.*
 Note that may indicates about a 50% possibility (50% yes/ 50% no), whereas
might indicates about a 30% possibility (30% yes/ 50 % no – I probably won’t
do this).
5) Must (necessity):
You must go to the doctor if you are very sick.
 Note that the expression have to has the same meaning as must, so we can
also say “You have to go to the doctor if you are very sick.”
 Note also that although must and have to have the same meaning, must not
and don’t have to have different meanings, as in the following sentences:
You must not cross the street when the light is red. (indicates that it is necessary
not to cross the street)
I don’t have to do any homework tonight.
(indicates that there is no necessity – I can do homework tonight but it is not
necessary.)
6) Should (advisability):
I should write to my parents more often.
(indicates that this would be a good thing to do, but is not really necessary)
 Note that the expression ought to is sometimes used to indicate advisability, so
we can also say “I ought to write to my parents more often.”

Using modals about past action

1) Would is sometimes used as the past of will (as a sort of “past-future” tense):
Alberto said that he would call me yesterday.
2) Could is sometimes used as the past of can:
Viktor asked if he could borrow my book.
3) Might is sometimes used as the past of may:
Rosa told me that she might be able to help me yesterday.
4) We do not use must in the past: instead, we use had to:
My boss told me that I had to work last week.
5) We can use should in the past:
I thought that I should read that book for my research paper.

MIXED CONDITIONALS
 Mixed conditional is used to express the present result of a past situation or
explain how a present situation affected a past action.
 To do this we use a combination of second and third conditionals.
Transnational corporations wouldn’t exist if globalization hadn’t become the dominant
form of trade in modern society.
If capitalism wasn’t so popular, globalization may not have happened so quickly.
7 We should have bought that picture five years ago because it would be quite valuable now.
=7 If we'd/we had bought that picture five years ago, it would be quite valuable now.
Practice exercises UNIT 14
Decide on the correct conditional form and finish the sentences using the
verbs in brackets. Decide which conditional matches the meaning of each
sentence.
1. The restaurant__________(not go] out of business if that international burger
company__________ (not open) last year. Conditional:___________
2. When teenagers__________ [buy) technology, they usually___________[want) the
same products as all their friends. Conditional:-----------------
3. As long as international travel----------------- [continue), people___________[stay)
closely connected. Conditional:-----------------
4. W e__________ (not communicate) so successfully nowadays if
technology___________ (developed) more slowly. Conditional:-----------------
5. If more people__________ [be connected) via the Internet,
communication___________ [be) easier. Conditional:-----------------
ANSWER
1 would not have gone, had not
opened
Conditional: third
2 buy, want Conditional: zero
3 continues, will stay Conditional: first
4would not communicate, had developed
Conditional: mixed (second + third)
5 were connected, would be Conditional: second
2) We may use semi-colons with “sentence connectors.”
a) addition
We can use the word and between two sentences when the second sentence is similar in meaning.
We
generally use a comma before and in this situation. We can also use certain sentence connectors
which have the same meaning as and, such as the word moreover:
Maria is a good student; moreover, she is a good athlete.
Note that we can also use a period before the word moreover, as in “Mary is a good student.
Moreover, she is a good athlete.”

b) contrast
We can use the word but between two sentences when the second sentence is in contrast with the
first sentence. We generally use a comma before but in this situation. We can also use certain
sentence connectors which have the same meaning as but, such as the word however:
Jane did not study for this test; however, she got a good grade anyway.
c) result
We can use the word so between two sentences when the second sentence is a result of the first
sentence.
We generally use a comma before so in this situation. We can also use certain sentence
connectors which have the same meaning as so, such as the word therefore:
John wants to go to medical school; therefore, he has to get good grades in his science courses.
The above sentence connectors indicate a) addition, b) contrast, and c) result. The following are some
other types of sentence connectors:

d) time
There are many things you have to do if you want to learn English well. First, you pedestrian
should read a lot. Trump

e) comparison
Women are entering many professions that used to be considered for men only;
similarly, women are being promoted to high positions that used to be reserved for
men.

f) illustration
There is a lot of educational opportunity in New York City; for example, it is possible to attend a
branch of City University of New York and get financial aid from the government.
g) explanation
Many working mothers do not wish to interrupt their careers; that is, they return to work
after taking only a short maternity leave.
h) emphasis
A lot of people don’t like to live in cities; in fact, a lot of the population growth occurring in the U.S. is
taking place in the suburbs.
Two rules about using colons (:)
1) Use a colon at the end of a complete sentence followed by a list (instead of a period,
to attach a list to the end of the sentence), as in the following example:
At the store, I bought many things: cheese, bread, milk, etc.
2) Use a colon at the end of a complete sentence followed by an “explanatory” word
phase or sentence, as in the following examples:
There is one thing that everybody needs: love.
There is one thing that everybody needs: to be loved.
There is one thing that everybody needs: Everyone needs to be loved.

Note that when a colon is followed by a complete sentence, we

start the sentence with a capital letter
(unlike with semi-colons, where we do not capitalize the first word in the second sentence).
Use a colon to introduce material that illustrates, explains, or restates the
preceding material.
Note: A complete sentence following a colon should be capitalized.
EXAMPLE The cause of the fire was obvious: Children had been playing
with butane lighters.
EXAMPLE The joyous news was announced to the patiently waiting crowd:
The queen had given birth to a healthy daughter.
Use a colon to introduce a long or a formal quotation. A formal quotation
is often preceded by such words as this, these, the following, or as follows.
EXAMPLE Patrick Henry, speaking before the Virginia Convention, closed
his memorable speech with these words: “I know not what course others
may take; but
as for me, give me liberty or give me death!”
PRACTICE Colons
Rewrite each sentence below, correcting any errors in the use of colons.
1. The following countries, as well as others, belong to the
United Nations England, Spain, France, and Russia.

2. [Letter form] Dear Members

3. The quarter-finals will begin at 130 P.M. on Thursday.
They will be held at the following four locations,
Bellwood, Homewood, Stiverson, and Shelby.

4. Camden College will accept Hal’s application, He ranks

high in his class.
6. The first three runners to cross the finish line were:

S6. She read the following from A. E. Housman

When I was one-and-twenty,
I heard a wise man say,
“Give crowns and pounds and guineas
But not your heart away. . . .”

7. From the Bible’s John 8, 32, he quoted the following sentence, “And ye shall
know the truth, and the truth shall make you free.”

8. Lisa will be a good manager, She is very responsible.

9. Our study is in these three areas short stories, poetry, and essays.
10. Dear Sir By the 530 P.M. deadline, I received applications from the following
Tico Jiminez, Pedro Vasquez, and Lorenzo White.

11.5 THE SEMICOLON

SEMICOLONS TO SEPARATE MAIN CLAUSES
Use a semicolon to separate main clauses that are not joined by a comma
and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, so, yet, or for).
EXAMPLE I love jazz, and the blues are my favorite kind of jazz.
EXAMPLE I love jazz; the blues are my favorite kind of jazz.
EXAMPLE George Gershwin wrote music during the Jazz Age; his
compositions were influenced by jazz.
Use a semicolon to separate main clauses that are joined by a conjunctive
adverb (such as however, therefore, nevertheless, moreover, furthermore,
and subsequently) or by an expression such as for example or that is.
In general, a conjunctive adverb or an expression such as for example is
followed by a comma. AGE / MECHANICS
EXAMPLE

George Gershwin wrote popular as well as traditional

music; in fact, he combined the two forms in pieces such as Rhapsody in
Blue.
EXAMPLE The jazz-opera Porgy and Bess is generally considered to be
Gershwin’s masterpiece; consequently, Gershwin enthusiasts call its hit
songs “Summertime” and “It Ain’t Necessarily So” gems.
SEMICOLONS AND COMMAS
 Use a semicolon to separate the items in a series when one or more of
the items already contain commas.
EXAMPLE Three important jazz musicians of the twentieth century were
Louis Armstrong, a trumpet player; Duke Ellington, a composer; and
Sarah Vaughan, a singer.
 Use a semicolon to separate two main clauses joined by a coordinating
conjunction when one or both of the clauses already contain several
commas.
EXAMPLE Arthur Mitchell, as a leading dancer with the New York City
Ballet, danced in such works as A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Agon, and
Western Symphony; but he is also famous as the founder of the Dance
Theater of Harlem, an internationally acclaimed dance company.
PRACTICE Semicolons
Rewrite each sentence below, correcting errors in the use
of semicolons.
1. We visited friends in Akron, Ohio, Ann Arbor, Michigan,
and Chicago, Illinois.

2. This will be a year of difficult decisions for you for

example, you must decide on a career.

S3. Write what you really think don’t let others sway your
thinking.

4. This road map is several years old, however, it is adequate for our needs.
5. Ms. Lippman, a banker, Mrs. Ballard, an office manager, and Mr. Laird, an
accountant, spoke to us yesterday.

7.3 PRONOUNS AFTER THAN AND AS

 When words are left out of an adverb clause that begins with than or
as, choose the case of the pronoun that you would use if the missing
words were fully expressed.
EXAMPLE You skate more skillfully than I. [That is, . . . than I skate.
The nominative pronoun I is the subject of the adverb clause than I skate.]
EXAMPLE The crash startled Becca as much as me. [That is, . . . as
much as it startled me. The objective pronoun me is the direct object in the
adverb clause as much as it startled me.]
Some sentences can be completed with either a nominative or an
objective pronoun, depending on the meaning intended by the speaker or
writer.
EXAMPLE The manager respects the director more than I [respect
the director].
EXAMPLE The manager respects the director more than [the manager
respects] me.
For each sentence, write the correct pronoun from the choices in
parentheses. Unit 7
1. Listen to the person (who, whom) you trust most.
2. (Who, Whom) is your favorite actor?
3. (Who, Whom) are they paging?
4. The rules state that the winner is (whoever, whomever) comes closest to
guessing the number of peanuts in the jar.

5. For (who, whom) is this gift?

6. I’m sure that (whoever, whomever) leaves the concert early will be
disappointed.

7. A person (who, whom) is fair and honest is usually respected.

8. The boy (who, whom) I met last night only recently enrolled in our school.
9. (Whoever, Whomever) wants to go to the amusement park should be on the
bus by eight in the morning.

10. (Who, Whom) cuts your hair?

 Correlative conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are coordinating words that work in pairs to join words, phrases, and clauses.
Below are five pairs of correlative conjunctions commonly used in English:

Correlative conjunction Meaning Example

both … and both Both Tariku and his son are artists.
not only … but also both To accomplish great things, we must not only act but
also dream; not only plan, but also believe.

either ……or one of the two Either you or Susan must stay with me.
neither …… nor none of the He helps neither his parents nor his brothers.
two
whether …. Or dilemma Tom is trying to decide whether to go to medical school
/confusion/ or to go to law school.

Correlative conjunctions always join grammatically equal elements in a language (e.g. noun & noun,
phrase & phrase, clause & clause, verbs & verbs etc.)
Examples
1. Both my sister and my brother work with computers.
(The Correlative conjunction joins the noun.) 2.
Put your gold either in a bank or in a treasury
account.
(The Correlative conjunction joins the prepositional phrases)
3. Either help us in our struggle for equality or step aside and let us pass.
(The Correlative conjunction joins two independent clauses.) 4.
Bethlehem became angry both with our singing and with our shouting.
(This Correlative conjunction links two prepositional phrases.)
5. She wanted neither cake nor ice cream.
(The Correlative conjunction links two nouns.)
6. The teachers are not only intelligent but also friend.
(This is not correct because intelligent is an adjective and friend is a noun.)
7. The athletes did not know whether to run or walking in order to warm up.
(This is not correct because to run is the infinitive form, and walking is the present
participle form.)
8. Not only Mary but also Gabriel is from Italy.
9. I can have either cola or tea.
10. Neither George nor his brother is very tall.

Both Either Neither

The two alternatives =this One of the two alternatives None
and that =this or that =not this and not the other
– I can speak both English and – I can speak either – I can speak neither French nor
Spanish. English or Spanish. Arabic.
– Both=English and Spanish – Either=English or Spanish – Neither=French nor Arabic

Neither …. nor
 – The neither …nor structure is used to connect the same kind of word or
phrase in the sentence. Neither makes a negative statement about two
people or things.
Examples
– Neither Mark nor his wife is very tall.
– My sister neither drinks nor smokes.
– Neither my friends nor the bookstore has the book.
– Neither the employees nor the boss was at work.
– Neither Susan nor her friends are going to go to the party tonight.
– Neither my father nor my mother went to university.
Both…and
Both…and refers to two things or people together. It is always considered plural in a sentence.
Examples
– You can be both mother and business woman.
– I used to like playing both football and basketball when I was young.
– She both dances and she sings.

Activity- 1
Write an appropriate coordinating conjunction in the space provided.

1. You read a news-paper every day, ______you do not know what is going on in the world.
2. Members of the churches met for dinner,______ they held an inter faith service.
3. The runner admitted taking steroids,______ they held an inter faith service. he was
forced to give up his medals.
4. Employers do not want the theft,_____do they want the expense and had publicity of
having an employee arrested.
5. You should return the paper on time,______you will lose grade for lateness.
Activity- 2
Combine the following pairs of sentences by using coordinating conjunctions.
1. A: The dog ate the food very fast.
B: It was very hungry.
2. A: The boy sang very well at the Ethiopian idols.
B: The Judge didn’t allow him to pass the next stage.
3. A: She didn’t bring her exercise book. B: She didn’t bring her pen.
4. A: The farmer worked all day and night.
B: He harvested a lot of crops.

Activity-3
In the space provided, write an appropriate correlative conjunction.

a. ________bananas________ oranges are cheap in this town; both are expensive.

b. I am______ opportunity to me. proud to be here______happy to meet you. It is
good
c. _________go to bed early this evening stop complaining about being tired in class.
d. When they found the man who had been lost for four days, he was _______tired
________hungry.
e. ________the life of an individual the history of a society can be understood without
understanding both.
 f. The newlyweds could not decide _______to live with her parents_______ rent an
apartment.
g. __________my uncle my cousin live in San Diego.
h. You could _________stay here ________go with us.
i. _______my brother ________my sister loves football. They always watch English
Premier League.

Activity- 4
Combine the following pairs of sentences.
Example:

– You can pay your fees in cash. You can pay your fees by cheque. You can pay your fees
either in cash or by cheque.

1. You can see her now. You can see her tomorrow.
2. He couldn’t meet his mother. He couldn’t meet his sister.
3. Belaynesh is a secretary. Her daughter is a secretary.
4. To go to Gondar, you can use a bus. To go to Gondar, you can use a plane.
5. Azeb is beautiful. She is honest.
6. I want to go to class. I want to go to my appointment.
7. America is a capitalist county. England is a capitalist country.
C. Adverb Conjunction
Adverb conjunction is an adverb used to relate and connect main /independent/ clauses in a
sentence. Common conjunctive adverbs are:

also still consequently however hence

then furthermore moreover thus instead
nevertheless therefore besides on the other hand
indeed likewise otherwise on the contrary
Example:
1. I ordered the concert tickets by mail; therefore, I didn’t have to stand in line.
2. Our muscles were tired and sore; nevertheless, we kept on jogging.
3. The band struck up a familiar tune; indeed, they were playing our song.
4. Meron is clever, besides, she is polite and kind.
5. The new model car is small; moreover, it consumes little benzene.
6. She recognized me; still she didn’t talk to me.
7. Run away; otherwise, they will kill you.
8. We entirely agree with you on this issue. However, there is one objection.

The following table presents the meaning of different adverb conjunction.

Meaning Adverb conjunction
Addition furthermore, moreover, in addition, also, besides …
Contrast however, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary
Alternative instead, otherwise ….
Result therefore, consequently, thus …
 comparison similarly, likewise
Emphasis namely, certainly, indeed

Activity- 5: In the space provided, use the appropriate conjunctive adverbs.

1. Sunshine construction company is building a plant in Nazareth; _______ to build
another in Bahir Dar within three years., it is planning
2. Everyone liked the hotel; _________ , no one was able to pay the required price.
3. She made coffee;________ , she cooked breakfast.
4. He teaches in private school;__________ , he runs his own restaurant.
5. It’s dark and you can’t go out;___________ , it is raining.
6. They wouldn’t accept our demands,_______we must fight them.
7. We entirely agree with you on this issue. There is one small objection, ________ .
8. We were getting late; ________, we decided to take a taxi.

Activity- 6
Combine the following pairs of sentences by using the appropriate conjunctive adverb.
1. He won the lottery. His father gave him a lot of money.
2. He worked hard. He became rich.
3. Abebe’s parents are wealthy. They are not happy.
4. Bahir Dar is growing fast. Debre Markos is growing slowly.
5. He works in the supermarket. He learns in the evening.
6. They work in the same Department. They do not talk to each other.

Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordination is the joining of an independent clause and a dependent clause in the same sentence
by using subordinators. Subordination uses a subordinating conjunction and relative pronouns to
make one clause dependent on another. The dependent clause is subordinated to the independent
clause.
The linking devices we use in subordination are:

A. Subordinating Conjunction
B. Relative Pronoun

A. Subordinating Conjunction
It is a kind of conjunction that joins subordinate clauses with independent clauses. Here the
subordinate clauses cannot stand alone; they must be joined to an independent clause to be
grammatically correct. They tell when, where, why, how, and to what extent. More often we use a
subordinating conjunction to show a difference in importance and strength of ideas. Examples
– Because the train was late, I arrived late to work.
– Even though polar bears look like land animals, they are extremely skilled in the
water.
– Rahel was reading fiction while her brother was listening to music.
– I never knew what love meant until I met you.
 – Wherever you can find an empty spot, just drop your luggage there.
– Although I have called repeatedly, the credit card company has not corrected my
account.
– He won’t listen to you unless you make him turn off the radio.
– My uncle always calls after he watches film.
– She saves money so that she could build her own house.
– We ate our lunch as soon as we arrived home

Some of the common subordinating conjunction are given below:

Meaning subordinating conjunction

Reason because, since, as,
Purpose so that, in order that
Contrast although, even though, though, even if, whereas, while,
Condition unless, if, as long as, provided that,
Result so………. that, such a(an)……that
Time after, until, as soon as, before, since, when, while, once, whenever,
Place where, wherever
Comparison than, as … as

Activity- 7
– In the space provided, use appropriate subordinating conjunction, As, until,
although, because, after, if, whenever, as soon as, and where
1. . _________it was easy for me; I help Aster write the letter.
2. Please come to my home___________ you can.
3. had hurt____________ my legs, I did not stop playing.
4. ____________he ate his lunch; he went out for work.
5. He cannot study his lesson__________ he is busy helping his parents.
6. ___________he is thin, he won the race easily.
7. I will stay here ______________my colleagues return from their meeting.
8. I found my book_____________ I had left them.

Activity- 8
Join the following sentences using the most appropriate subordinating conjunction

1. Meron reaches home quickly. She will tell her father about the accident.
2. He works hard. He doesn’t succeed.
3. The day was very cold. They continued their work.
4. She is a decent girl. Everyone likes to marry her.
5. He is poor. He is honest.
6. They have been very miserable. Their father died.
7. I took a taxi. I received your message.
 B. Relative pronoun
Like the other subordinating conjunctions relative pronouns are used to join subordinate clauses with
the independent sentences. They also introduce relative clauses. Examples:
1. The boat that was owned by Mr. Mitchell sank in the seaport.
2. This is the purse that I found on the road.
3. The book which I bought yesterday cost me 4.50 Birr.
The girl whose pen you borrowed, has come to ask for it

Even if means whether or not. It is used to emphasize that something will still be true if another thing
happens. It is followed by a clause (subject + verb). Examples
– Even if you take a taxi, you will still miss your plane.
– You will go to that cinema even if they don’t allow you.
Even if I had three hours to spare for shopping, I wouldn’t go out and buy a notebook.

1. The 'going to'-future

The going to-future is formed with am/is/are going to + the base form of the verb. a.
to express intentions.
When there is any suggestion of intentions and plans, we tend to use the going to-future rather than
will in informal style:
Example
– I'm going to practise the piano for two hours this evening.
(i.e. that's my intention: what I have planned/arranged to do.)
b. predictions based on current circumstances
The going to-future is often used to express something that we have strong evidence for in the
present.
Examples
– look at that black cloud. It’s going to rain. – I can see you are going to have a baby.
– Oh, look it's going to rain!
– Look out' She's going to faint!
c. We use going to to express something we have already decided to do.
Examples
– I am going to paint my room.

3. Simple Future
We use the simple future will:
a. To make promises
Examples
– I will pay you back tomorrow.
– I will see you tomorrow.
– I will never be rude to you again.
– I' ll buy you a bicycle for your birthday.
– We will not forget Mom’s birthday.
 b. To express instant decisions or decisions at the time of speaking – The phone is ringing.
I will answer it.
– I am bored. I will take a short break.
– It is too cold. I will not go outside.
– The light is red. Is the car going to stop?
c. To talk about future facts.
– I will not be here tomorrow.
– Your test will be on 14th June.
– I will be 17 on my next birth day.
d. To make prediction about the future based on what we think, hope or expected. We
often use these expressions with will: I believe, I hope, I expect, and I think he will say
yes. Examples
– I will not finish all my homework tonight
– Global warming will have many serious impacts.

Exercise

I. Complete the sentences with the correct verb form.

1. Don’t worry! I ________ (phone) you on your birthday.
2. Peter isn’t studying at all these days. He _________ (fail) his final exam.
3. When I finish my secondary education, I _________ (go) to university, no doubt!
4. I’m sorry, but I can’t go to the cinema. I ________(take) my brother to his music
lesson this afternoon.
5. My father says he _________ (give up) smoking, I can’t believe him.
6. According to the weather forecast tomorrow________ (be) hot and sunny.
7. Hurry up! The train ________ (arrive) in three minutes.
8. Mandy and John ___________ (get married) on 25th June.
9. The new TV programme __________ (start) tonight at 9:30.
10. Put some suntan cream on or you _________ (get) burnt.
11. I don’t think Tony __________ (finish) his essay in time.
12. Why don’t you come with us, Susan? We ________(meet) Paul at the pub after
dinner.
13. What_________ (do) this summer, Alice? I don’t know, but I think I _______(surf) the
Internet to look for special offers.

II. Choose the most suitable verb form.

1. It’s a wonderful evening. I really don't think it -------- (to rain) tomorrow.
A. is going to rain B. shall rain C. rains D. will rain
2. Bekele------------ (to visit) his parents’ tomorrow. He has got an appointment with them.
A. is visiting B. will have visited C. will visit D. visits 3. Jim has
invited us to his birthday party. He -------- (to be) 27 next week.
A. shall be B. will be C. is going to be D. is
4. Mike, can you help me? Well, it's a difficult situation but I--------- (to see) what I can do
for you.
A. am seeing B. am going to see C. will see D. see
5. Carol is 15. She already knows what she wants. She ------------- a singer.
A. shall become B. will become C. is going to become D. becomes
6. I'm sorry, but I have no time to do it. I ------- (to take part) in serious negotiations
tomorrow. A. will take part B. am going to take part C. take part D.
shall take part
 7. I promise, I ------------ (to ring up / you) tomorrow.
A. am going to ring you up C. ring you up B. will ring you up D. am
ringing you up 8. I------- (to be) very glad to see you tomorrow.
A. is B. am going to be C. am D. will be
9. I'm so happy! Lisa and Jake are planning the wedding. They ---------- (to marry)
soon! A. are going to marry B. will marry C. will have married
D. marry
10. Jill -------- (to go) to the dentist next Monday. She has made this decision today.
A. goes B. will go C. shall go D. is going to go
11. I suppose that Bob -------- (to return) to Berlin in a few days.
A. is going to return B. will return C. shall return D. returns
When water --------- at 100 degrees, put some salt and spaghetti into the saucepan. A. will boil
B. boils C. is going to boil D. will have to boil