BRAKING SYSTEMS

Introduction

The purpose of the braking system is to slow down or stop the vehicle and, when the vehicle is
stationary, to hold the vehicle in the chosen position. It does this by converting the kinetic energy to
heat, which is then given up to the surroundings air as it flows past the brakes. The conversion of
energy is achieved by friction which is the resistance to movement of one object sliding over the
another.

When a vehicle is moving it contains energy of motion (kinetic energy) and the function of the braking
system is to convert this kinetic energy into heat energy. It does so through the friction at the brake
linings and the brake drum, or the brake pads and the disc.
Some large vehicles are fitted with secondary braking systems that are known as retarders. Examples
of retarders are exhaust brakes and electric brakes. In all cases, the factor that ultimately determines
how much braking can be applied is the grip of the tyres on the driving surface.

The Functions and Conditions of Use of a Brake System

In order to understand the behaviour of a braking system it is useful to define three separate functions
that must be fulfilled at all times:
(a) The braking system must decelerate a vehicle in a controlled and repeatable fashion and when
appropriate cause the vehicle to stop.
(b) The braking system should permit the vehicle to maintain a constant speed when travelling
downhill.
(c) The braking system must hold the vehicle stationary when on a flat or on a gradient.

When simply stated, as above, the importance of the role played by the brakes/braking system in
controlling the vehicle motion is grossly understated. Consideration of the diverse conditions under
which the brakes must operate leads to a better appreciation of their role. These include, but are not
limited to, the following:
• slippery wet and dry roads.
• rough or smooth road;
• split friction surfaces;
• straight line braking or when braking on a curve;
• wet or dry brakes;
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 • new or worn linings;
• laden or unladen vehicle;
• vehicle pulling a trailer or caravan;
• frequent or infrequent applications of short or lengthy duration;
• high or low rates of deceleration;
• skilled or unskilled drivers.

Clearly the brakes, together with the steering components and tyres, represent the most important
accident avoidance systems present on a motor vehicle which must reliably operate under various
conditions. The effectiveness of any braking system is, however, limited by the amount of traction
available at the tyre–road interface.

There are four main stages involved in the design of a brake system. The first, and perhaps most
fundamental stage, is the choice of brake force distribution between the axles of the vehicle. This is
primarily a function of the vehicle dimensions and its weight distribution.

Next is the design of the transmission system and this activity embraces the sizing of the master
cylinder together with the front and rear wheel cylinders. Additional components, such as special
valves that modulate the hydraulic pressure applied to each wheel are physically accounted for at this
stage.

The foundation brakes form the focus of the third stage of the process. As well as being able to react
the applied loads and torques, the foundation brakes must be endowed with adequate thermal
performance, wear and noise characteristics.

The last phase in the process results in the incorporation of the pedal assembly and vacuum boost
system into the brake system. To accomplish this design task, the engineer requires access to several
fundamental vehicle parameters. These include:

• laden and unladen vehicle mass;

• static weight distribution when laden and unladen;
• wheelbase;
• height of centre of gravity when laden and unladen;
• maximum vehicle speed;
• tyre and rim size;

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 • vehicle function;
• braking standards.
It is essential to recognize that each of the preceding stages are closely linked and that the final design
will take many iterations to realize. Thus any formal methodology must be designed so as not to
compromise the overall system quality that could result from design changes at the component level.
By way of example, a reduction in
package space could lead to smaller diameter wheel brakes having to be fitted to the vehicle. This will
change the brake force distribution unless checked, by say resizing the wheel cylinders, and in the
worst case this could lead to premature wheel lock and a violation of the governing legislation.

Types of Brakes
Two basic types of friction brakes are in common use on vehicles; these are:
1. the drum brake
2. the disc brake

The Drum Brake

Figure 1 shows the layout of a simple hydraulic drum brake system employing twin leading shoe drum
brakes at the front and single leading shoe drum brakes at the rear. The leading shoe is the one whose
leading edge comes into contact with the drum first, in the direction of rotation. A leading shoe is more
powerful than a trailing shoe and this shows up in the wear pattern because a leading shoe generally
wears more than a trailing shoe owing to the extra work that it does. The road wheel is attached to the
brake drum by means of the wheel studs and nuts.

The system can be said to consist of two main elements: a master cylinder and a wheel cylinder. The
master cylinder converts the driver’s efforts on the brake pedal into hydraulic pressure, and the wheel
cylinder converts the hydraulic pressure into effort to move the brake shoes into contact with the brake
drum. The master cylinder and the wheel cylinder are connected together by metal pipes and flexible
holes.

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 Figure 1: Basic Drum Brake System

Leading and Trailing Shoe Drum Brake System

Operation:
When the brake is applied, one piston is moved to push the brake shoe out in the same direction as the
drum rotation. This is known as the leading shoe. The drum rotation helps to pull this shoe into harder
contact with the drum and increases the driver’s effort. This is known as self-servo action.

The other shoe is pushed against the direction of drum rotation and is called trailing shoe. When the
trailing shoe is pushed into contact with the drum the reverse is true: the drum rotation tries to push the
shoe away. This results in les braking effort than the that provided by the leading shoe.
This type of arrangement is often used for the rear wheel brakes because it can easily incorporate both
mechanical and hydraulic method of operation.

Advantages of Leading and Trailing Shoe Drum Brake:

1. it is relatively simple in construction.
2. The same braking power is available in reverse as well as when going forward.
3. Good braking power in reverse for vehicles that carry or pull heavy loads.

Disadvantages:
1. One disadvantage is Where a vehicle is always driving forward, the shoes wear unevenly
because the leading shoes do more work.
Some manufacturers have tried to overcome this by making the frictional lining on the leading
shoe thicker than that on the trailing shoe.
2. It requires larger effort at the pedal than are needed by two leading shoes arrangement.

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Twin Leading Shoe Drum Brake System
In this layout both brake shoes are forced into contact with the drum in the same direction of normal
drum rotation. To achieve this, two expander units are used. Each shoe rest on a separate pivot, the
other end being moved by its own expander.

Advantages:
1. Both shoes now have the leading shoe self-servo effect, which gives a greater stopping force
for a given size of brake drum.
2. Compared with the leading and trailing shoe arrangement a more powerful braking effort is
achieved for the same pedal pressure.
3. Less driver’s effort is required at the pedal.

Disadvantages:
1. The operating mechanisms are more complex because it requires two expanders.
2. When the vehicle is reversing, the two leading shoes become trailing shoes, which results in
poor braking performance.

Vehicles with twin leading brake shoes on the front often have leading and trailing shoes at the rear to
provide some self-servo effort when the vehicle is reversed.

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Figure 2: Operation of leading and trailing shoe drum brake system: (a) at rest; (b) brake pedal
pressed.

Wheel Cylinders
The hydraulic cylinders that push the drum brake shoes apart, or apply the clamping force in the disc
brake, are the wheel cylinders. There are two principal types of wheel cylinders, a single acting
cylinder and a double acting cylinder.

The Single Acting Wheel Cylinder

The space in the wheel cylinder, behind the rubber seal and piston, is filled with brake fluid. Pressure
from the master cylinder is applied to the wheel cylinders through pipes. Increased fluid pressure
pushes the piston out and this force is applied to the brake shoe or brake pad.

Double Acting Wheel Cylinder

Figure 3 (b) shows that the double acting wheel cylinder has two pistons and rubber seals. Hydraulic
pressure applied between the pistons pushes them apart. The pistons then act on the brake shoes and
moves the linings into contact with the inside of the brake drum.

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 Figure 3: Wheel cylinders: (a) single acting; (b) double acting.

Figure 4: Exploded view of double acting wheel cylinder.

The Disc Brake

Figure 5 shows the principle of the disc brake. The road wheel is attached to the disc and the slowing
down or stopping action is achieved by the clamping action of the brake pads on the disc.

In this brake the disc is gripped by the two friction pads. When hydraulic pressure is applied to the
hydraulic cylinder in the caliper body, the pressure acts on the piston and pushes the brake pad into
contact with the disc. This creates a reaction force which causes the pins to slide in the carrier bracket
and this action pulls the other pad into contact with the disc so that the disc is tightly clamped by both
pads.

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 Figure 5: A disc brake

Hydraulic Operation of Brakes

The main braking systems on cars and most light commercial vehicles are operated by hydraulic
systems. At the heart of a hydraulic braking system is the master cylinder as this is where the pressure
that operates the brakes is generated.

Principle of the Hydraulic System

The small diameter master cylinder is connected to the large diameter actuating cylinder by a strong
metal pipe. The cylinders and the pipe are filled with hydraulic fluid. When a force is applied to the
master cylinder piston a pressure is created that is the same at all parts of the interior of the system.
Because pressure is the amount of force acting on each square millimetre of surface, the force exerted
on the larger piston will be greater than the force applied to the small piston. In the example shown in
Fig. 6. The force of 100 Newtons on an area of 400 square millimetres of the master cylinder piston
creates a pressure of 0.25 Newtons per square millimetre. The piston of the actuating cylinder has an
area of 800 square millimetres and this gives a force of 200 Newtons at this cylinder.

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Figure 6: The principle of a hydraulic braking system. The hydraulic pressure is equal at all parts
of the system

The Master Cylinder

The part of the hydraulic braking system where the hydraulic operating pressure is generated is the
master cylinder. Force is applied to the master cylinder piston by the action of the driver’s foot on the
brake pedal.

In the example shown in Fig. 7 the action is as follows. When force is applied to the push rod the
piston moves along the bore of the master cylinder to take up slack. As soon as the lip of the main
rubber seal has covered the by-pass hole, the fluid in the cylinder, and the system to which it is
connected, is pressurised. When the force on the brake pedal and the master cylinder push rod is
released, the return spring pushes the piston back and the hydraulic operating pressure is removed. The
action of the main piston seal ensures that the master cylinder remains filled with fluid.

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 Figure. 7: A simple type of hydraulic master cylinder

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 Drum brake – basic principle

Figure 8: Drum brake

Figure 8 shows the basic principle of a drum brake with one leading shoe and one trailing shoe.
The actuating force P is provided by a hydraulic cylinder or cam. The shoes are pivoted at A1 and A2.
The action of force P creates a friction force between the rotating brake drum and the brake lining.
The friction force on the leading shoe is 𝜇F and it acts tangentially to the drum. On the trailing shoe
the friction force is 𝜇F1. The pivots are distance y from the centre of the drum and the actuator force P
is at distance X from the pivots. The drum radius is R.

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Action of the leading shoe
Taking moments about pivot A1, Px = Fy−𝜇FR
𝐹𝑋
𝐹= (1)
(𝑦−𝜇𝑅

Action of the trailing shoe

Taking moments about pivot A2, Px = F1y+𝜇F1R

𝑃𝑋
𝐹1 = (2)
𝑦+𝜇𝑅

The effective braking force on the leading shoe is greater than that on the trailing shoe. It should be
noted that this effect is dependent on the direction of rotation of the brake drum, which is the reason
why two leading shoe brakes are less effective when reversing a vehicle.

Example 1
In a certain drum brake the distance x as shown in Figure 7 (b) is 12 cm, the distance y is 24 cm and
the drum radius R = 14cm. If the actuating force P is 800 newtons and the coefficient of friction 𝜇 =
0.4 calculate the effective friction forces on each of the brake shoes.

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Disc brake
The disc brake shown in Figure 9.8 utilises opposed cylinders to apply force to the friction pads and
these pads apply a clamping force to the disc. In Figure 9.8 the following data apply: hydraulic
pressure is P N/m2; area of the pistons is A m2; the coefficient of friction between the pads and the
disc is; the effective radius of the brake is R m. The hydraulic force on each pad = P × A newtons. The
friction force at each pad = 𝜇PA newtons

The braking torque = 2R𝜇 PA newton metres (two pads) (3)

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 Figure 9: Disc brake
Example 2
In a disc brake of the type shown in Figure 9, the hydraulic pistons are 50mm in diameter and the
effective radius of the brake disc is 150 mm. Calculate the braking torque when the hydraulic pressure
is 20 bar and the coefficient of friction is 0.4.

Comparison of Drum and Disc Brakes

Disc brakes are better at managing and dispersing heat than drum brakes. This means that they
experience less brake fade than drum brakes and offer a more consistent performance. This is because
the disc is closer to the pads and expands even when the calipers are relaxed.

The disc brake has two main disadvantages over the drum brake:

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 1. Disc brakes are not as effective at low speed.
2. The disc brake needs more pressure to work effectively.

However, the disc brake has many advantages over the drum brakes:
1. The disc brake loses heat more effectively. Heat loss is dependent on the amount of air flowing
around the brake assembly and the area of heated surface exposed to that air flow. The drum
brake is generally enclosed and can lose heat only through the brake drum; much of a brake
disc of exposed, and can give up its heat very quickly off the surface. Resistance to brake fade
(loss of braking effect due to overheating) is very high.
2. The disc brake has the same stopping power in forward or reverse.
3. Disc brakes have progressive action; the greater the effort applied to the pedal the more
effective the brake will be.
4. Disc brakes are self-adjusting.
5. Disc brake pads can be easily checked for wear.
6. New brake pads are often very easy to fit.

Figure 10: Comparison of Drum and Disc Brakes

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Mechanical Brakes

Mechanical brakes are usually used for parking brakes. It generally acts on the rear wheel drum brake
or rear disc assembly. Its operation is normally entirely mechanical i.e. manually operated and is
usually applied by a hand lever working through cables of rods.

It is independent of the hydraulic part of the braking system, through it generally uses the same brake
shoes or pads. The linkage is designed to multiply the force applied at the lever. This enables the driver
to apply the hand-brake with sufficient force to hold the vehicle on an incline.

Figure 11: Parking Brake (Mechanical Brake)

Power Assisted Brakes

automobiles consequently were equipped with power brake systems. These are virtually the same as
the hydraulic system except that the piston of the master cylinder is multiplied by power assists of
several types instead of by foot pressure on the pedal.

Vacuum-Assisted Power Brake (Brake Servo)

It is common practice to provide some means of increasing the force that the driver applies to the brake
pedal. The servo is the device which allows the driver to apply a large braking force by the application
of relatively light force from the foot. The amount of increased force that is produced by the servo is
dependent on the driver’s effort that is applied to the brake pedal. This ensures that braking effort is
proportional to the force applied to the brake pedal.

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In the Vacuum-assisted power brake for automobiles, a constant vacuum is maintained in the brake
booster by the engine. When the brake pedal is depressed, a poppet valve opens, and air rushes into a
pressure chamber on the driver's side of the booster. The pressure exerted by this air against the
vacuum pushes a piston, thus assisting the pressure exerted by the driver on the pedal. The piston in
turn exerts pressure on the master cylinder, from which brake fluid is forced to act on the brakes.

On petrol engined vehicles, manifold vacuum is used to provide the boost that the servo generates.
On diesel engined vehicles, there is often no appreciable manifold vacuum, owing to the way in which
the engine is governed. In these cases, the engine is equipped with a vacuum pump that is known as an
exhauster.

Figure 12: Vacuum servo and master cylinder

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Air-Hydraulic System
This system is sometimes used in light commercial vehicle, and is also known as Air over hydraulic
system. an engine-driven compressor controlled by a governor feeds air under pressure to a reservoir.
This air is then used to assist the driver in operating the hydraulic brakes. It acts in a similar way as the
vacuum servo unit, except that it uses pressurised air instead of atmospheric air pressure. This unit gives
greater assistance than vacuum servo for a given chamber size. It provides the benefits of air brakes but
at a much lower cost.

Figure 14: Air-Hydraulic Servo-Assisted Brake system

Air-Operated Brakes

An air brake or, more formally, a compressed air brake system, is a type of friction brake for vehicles
in which compressed air pressing on a piston is used to apply the pressure to the brake pad or brake
shoe needed to stop the vehicle. Air brakes are used in large heavy vehicles, particularly those having
multiple trailers which must be linked into the brake system, such as trucks, buses, trailers, and semi-
trailers, in addition to their use in railroad trains.

Components:

Typical Air brakes systems consist of a compressor, a reservoir, a brake valve, and diaphragm units etc.

1. The function of the air compressor is to pumps air from the atmosphere to the air storage tank
or air reservoir for storage. It is driven by the engine through a belt drive.

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 2. The air reservoir stores the compressed air in it for later usage. This storage always has enough
amount of compressed air so that the brakes can be applied several time and also prevents the
brake failure when the air compressor shows malfunctioning.

3. The function of the unloader valve is to release the excessive air pressure to the atmosphere.
4. The brake valve functions as a control valve and directs the pressurized air to the respective
diaphragm to expand it.
5. The function of the diaphragm is to expand due to the compressed air pressure and operate the
“S” cam shoes and thereby the brakes.
6. Air compressor governor- It is the governing device used in the air brake system that controls
the compression pressure of the air that is pumped to the air storage tank through the air
compressor.
7. Air dryer- It is the device used to remove moisture content from the air coming from the
atmosphere to prevent the lines and air storage from water condensation that can cause brake
failure such as during winters due to the freezing of that condensed water.
8. Brake pedal- It is the mechanism that is operated by the driver and is used to actuate the brakes
in order to stop or decelerate the vehicle. Brakes, when pressed, pushed the compressed air which
in turn applies brakes to the moving tire.
9. Dirt collector- It is the device that is placed inside a brake pipeline at a place where a branch is
separated and taken off to the triple valve which removes dirt from the air before sending it to
the triple valve
10. Brake cylinder or Brake chamber- It is the device that consists of a cylinder and piston over
which the compressed air pressure is applied in order to push brake pads which in turn makes
frictional contact with the disc or drum in order to stop or decelerate the vehicle.
11. Brake valve or Triple valve- The actuation and release of brake require continuous release and
building of pressure inside the brake lines and brake cylinder according to the motion of the
brake pedal this is done by the triple valve used in the air brake system.
12. Brake drums – Brake drum is the component through which the brake force due to frictional
contact between brake pads and drum lining is transferred to the wheel in order to stop or
decelerate the vehicle, Outer surface of the brake drum consisting of drum lining rotates with the
wheel and the inner part consisting of brake shoes stays in its state of rest when the brake pedal
is not pressed.

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Note – Usually brake drums are used in air brake system but with the suitable arrangement, disc brake can also
be used in the air brake system.

The Operation of Air Brakes System:

A hand or foot-operated valve controls these diaphragms. When the driver applies brakes, the brake-
valve controls the braking operation, directing the flow of air from a reservoir against diaphragms in the
brake chambers. It directs the air form brake chambers to the atmosphere when the driver releases the
brakes. The engine drives the air compressor that furnishes compressed air to the reservoir when it falls
below the set value.

Figure 15: Air pressure braking system

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 Figure 16: Air braking ‘S’ actuation system

Advantages of Air Brakes

Air brakes are used as an alternative to hydraulic brakes which are used on lighter vehicles such as
automobiles. Hydraulic brakes use a liquid (hydraulic fluid) to transfer pressure from the brake pedal
to the brake shoe to stop the vehicle. Air brakes are used in heavy commercial vehicles due to their
reliability. They have several advantages for large multi-trailer vehicles:

• The supply of air is unlimited, so the brake system can never run out of its operating fluid, as
hydraulic brakes can. Minor leaks do not result in brake failures.
• Air-line couplings are easier to attach and detach than hydraulic lines; the risk of air getting into
hydraulic fluid is eliminated, as is the need to bleed brakes when they are serviced. Air brake
circuits on trailers can be easily attached and removed.
• Air not only serves as a fluid for transmission of force, but also stores potential energy as it is
compressed, so it can serve to control the force applied; hydraulic fluid is nearly incompressible.
Air brake systems include an air tank that stores sufficient energy to stop the vehicle if the
compressor fails.
• Air brakes are effective even with considerable leakage, so an air brake system can be designed
with sufficient "fail-safe" capacity to stop the vehicle safely even when leaking.
• The compressed air inherent in the system can be used for accessory applications that hydraulics
are not appropriate for, such as air horns and seat adjusters.

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Disadvantages

Although air brakes are considered the superior braking system for heavy vehicles (gross weight
~26,000 to 33,000 pounds or more) which would overload hydraulic brakes, they also have the
following disadvantages when compared to hydraulic braking systems:

• Air brakes generally cost more.

• Air brake systems compress air, which results in moisture that requires air dryers to remove, which
also increases the price for air brake systems and can contribute to higher maintenance and repair
costs, particularly in the first five years. Defective air dryers lead to ice in the air brake system in
cold locations.
• Drivers are required to obtain additional training and licensing, known as an “endorsement,” in
order to legally drive any vehicle using an air brake system. This is because:
o Learning to operate air brakes smoothly has a learning curve, as they are difficult to operate
smoothly.
o Also, since air brakes must be operated differently from hydraulic systems, driving a vehicle
with air brakes requires knowledge of proper maintenance. A driver is required to inspect the
air pressurization system prior to driving and make sure all tanks are in working order.

Anti-lock Braking System (ABS)

The term ABS covers a range of electronically controlled systems that are designed to provide
optimum braking in difficult conditions. ABS systems are used on many cars, commercial vehicles and
trailers.

The purpose of anti-skid braking systems is to provide safer vehicle handling in difficult conditions. If
wheels are skidding it is not possible to steer the vehicle correctly and a tyre that is still rolling, not
sliding, on the surface will provide a better braking performance. ABS does not usually operate under
normal braking. It comes into play in poor road surface conditions, such as ice, snow, water, etc., or
during emergency stops.

Components and Operation

The heart of the system is an electronic controlled unit (ECU), which is provided with inputs of
information, and gives outputs of instructions to the controls. The inputs consist of pulse-generated
signals from the sensors at each roadwheel. They indicate whether each wheel is revolving, and how

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fast it is turning. The ECU uses the sensor inputs to control the braking system through output to a
hydraulic pump assembly.

Based on the input signals from the wheel sensors, the ABS system’s ECU knows the speed of each
wheel. When the brakes are applied, the wheels and the vehicle start to slow down. The ECU monitors
the reducing pulses from the each of the roadwheel sensors. If a wheel seems about to lock up, the
ECU reduces the pressure at the that wheel until the tyre grips again. This sequence of sensing and
adjusting is continuous, and very fast.

Figure 13 shows a simplified diagram of an ABS system, which gives an insight into the way that
such systems operate. The master cylinder (1) is operated via the brake pedal. During normal braking,
manually developed hydraulic pressure operates the brakes and, should an ABS defect develop, the
system reverts to normal pedal operated braking.

The solenoid operated shuttle valve (2) contains two valves, A and B. When the wheel sensor (5)
signals the ABS computer (ECU) (7) that driving conditions require ABS control, a procedure is
initiated which energizes the shuttle valve solenoid. The valve (A) blocks off the fluid inlet from the
master cylinder and the valve (B) opens to release brake line pressure at the wheel cylinder (6) into the
reservoir (3) and the pump (4) where it is returned to the master cylinder.

In this simplified diagram, the shuttle valve is enlarged in relation to the other components. In practice,
the movement of the shuttle valve is small and movements of the valve occur in fractions of a second.

This brief overview shows that an anti-lock braking system has sensors, an actuator, an ECU and
interconnecting circuits. In order that the whole system functions correctly, each of the separate
elements needs to be working correctly.

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 Figure 13: A simplified version of an ABS

Traction control systems (TCS)

Traction control is the way the wheels grip the road surface during acceleration. This is important
under braking system because ABS is also used to control the excessive speed of individual wheels
that are about to lose their grip by spinning. In addition, the power being developed by the engine is
also controlled. The system of the particular benefit during hard acceleration, or when cornering
vigorously.
The traction control system (TCS) uses the ABS wheel sensors, the ECU and the hydraulic pump or
modulator. In addition, there is a throttle control intervention motor to reduce engine speed.
Operation
When the wheel increases its speed relative to the others, the ECU applies the brake to slow down and,
if necessary, reduce the engine power output by partially closing the throttle. As with ABS the sensing
is continuous, and the ECU will constantly strive to obtain the highest level of drive from each wheel,
whenever it is demanded by the driver.

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