BRAKING SYSTEM

A brake is a mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy from a moving system. It is used
for slowing or stopping a moving vehicle, wheel, axle, or to prevent its motion, most often accomplished
by means of friction.

Brakes may be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or electromagnetics. One brake may use
several principles:forexample, a pump may pass fluid through an orifice to createfriction:

Frictional brakes are most common and can be divided broadly into "shoe" or " pad" brakes, using an
explicit wear surface, and hydrodynamic brakes.

Typically the term "friction brake" is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and excludes hydrodynamic brakes,
even though hydrodynamic brakes use friction. Friction (pad/shoe) brakes are often rotating devices with
a stationary pad and a rotating wear surface. Common configurations include shoes that contract to rub on
the outside of a rotating drum, such as a band brake ; a rotating drum with shoes that expand to rub the
inside of a drum, commonly called a " drum brake ", although other drum configurations are possible; and
pads that pinch a rotatingdisc, commonly called a "disc brake ". A drum brake is a vehicle brake in which
the friction is causedby a set of brake shoes that press against the inner surface of a rotating drum. The
drum is connected to the rotating road wheel hub.Drum brakes generally can be found on older car and
truckmodels. However, because of their low production cost, drumbrake setups are also installed on the
rear of some low-costnewer vehicles. Compared to modern disc brakes, drum brakeswear out faster due to
their tendency to overheat. The disc brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotationof a road wheel.
A brake disc (or rotor in U.S. English), usuallymade of cast iron or ceramic, is connected to the wheel or
theaxle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads (mounted in a device called a brake
caliper) is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or electromagnetically against both sides of
the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop.
Pumping

Pumping brakes are often used where a pump is already partof the machinery. For example, an internal-
combustion pistonmotor can have the fuel supply stopped, and then internal pumping losses of the engine
create some braking. Someengines use a valve override called a Jake brake to greatlyincrease pumping
losses. Pumping brakes can dump energy asheat, or can be regenerative brakes that recharge a
pressurereservoir called a hydraulic accumulator.

Electromagnetic

Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where anelectric motor is already part of the machinery.
For example,many hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles use the electric motoras a generator to charge electric
batteries and also as aregenerative brake. Some diesel/electric railroad locomotivesuse the electric motors
to generate electricity which is thensent to a resistor bank and dumped as heat. Some vehicles,such as
some transit buses, do not already have an electricmotor but use a secondary "retarder" brake that
iseffectively a generator with an internal short-circuit. Relatedtypes of such a brake are eddy current
brakes, and electro-mechanical brakes (which actually are magnetically drivenfriction brakes, but
nowadays are often just called"electromagnetic brakes" as well).Electromagnetic brakes slow an object
throughelectromagnetic induction, which creates resistance and in turneither heat or electricity. Friction
brakes apply pressure on twoseparate objects to slow the vehicle in a controlled manner.

Characteristics

Brakes are often described according to severalcharacteristics including: Peak force – The peak force is
the maximum deceleratingeffect that can be obtained. The peak force is often greater than the traction
limit of the tires, in which casethe brake can cause a wheel skid.Continuous power dissipation – Brakes
typically get hot inuse, and fail when the temperature gets too high. Thegreatest amount of power (energy
per unit time) that canbe dissipated through the brake without failure is thecontinuous power dissipation.
Continuous power dissipationoften depends on e.g., the temperature and speed ofambient cooling air.

Fade – As a brake heats, it may become less effective,called brake fade. Some designs are inherently
prone tofade, while other designs are relatively immune. Further,use considerations, such as cooling,
often have a big effecton fade.

Smoothness – A brake that is grabby, pulses, has chatter,or otherwise exerts varying brake force may lead
to skids.

For example, railroad wheels have little traction, andfriction brakes without an anti-skid mechanism often
leadto skids, which increases maintenance costs and leads to a"thump thump" feeling for riders inside.

Power – Brakes are often described as "powerful" when asmall human application force leads to a braking
force thatis higher than typical for other brakes in the same class.This notion of "powerful" does not relate
to continuouspower dissipation, and may be confusing in that a brakemay be "powerful" and brake
strongly with a gentle brakeapplication, yet have lower (worse) peak force than a less"powerful" brake.
Pedal feel – Brake pedal feel encompasses subjectiveperception of brake power output as a function of
pedaltravel. Pedal travel is influenced by the fluid displacementof the brake and other factors.

Drag – Brakes have varied amount of drag in the off-brake condition depending on design of the system
toaccommodate total system compliance and deformationthat exists under braking with ability to retract
frictionmaterial from the rubbing surface in the off-brakecondition.

Durability – Friction brakes have wear surfaces that mustbe renewed periodically. Wear surfaces include
the brakeshoes or pads, and also the brake disc or drum. There maybe tradeoffs, for example a wear
surface that generateshigh peak force may also wear quickly.

Weight – Brakes are often "added weight" in that theyserve no other function. Further, brakes are often
mountedon wheels, and unsprung weight can significantly hurttraction in some circumstances. "Weight"
may mean thebrake itself, or may include additional support structure.

Noise – Brakes usually create some minor noise whenapplied, but often create squeal or grinding noises
that are quite loud.

Classification of Brakes: The following are the classifications of Brakes:

1. Hydraulic braking system with and without booster

Hydraulic braking system

A hydraulic brake is an arrangement of braking mechanism which uses brake fluid, typically containing
glycol ethers or diethylene glycol, to transfer pressure from the controlling mechanism to the braking
mechanism.
 Construction

The most common arrangement of hydraulic brakes for passenger vehicles, motorcycles, scooters, and
mopeds, consists of the following:

∙Brake pedal or lever

∙A pushrod (also called an actuating rod)

∙A master cylinder assembly containing a piston assembly (made up of either one or two pistons, a return
spring, a series of gaskets / O-rings and a fluid reservoir)

∙Reinforced hydraulic lines

∙Brake caliper assembly usually consisting of one or two hollow aluminum or chrome-plated steel pistons
(called caliper pistons), a set of thermally conductive brake pads and a rotor (also called a brake disc) or
drum attached to an axle.

Hydraulic braking system with booster

The vacuum booster or vacuum servo is used in most modern hydraulic brake systems which contain four
wheels. The vacuum booster is attached between the master cylinder and the brake pedal and multiplies
the braking force applied by the driver. These units consist of a hollow housing with a movable rubber
diaphragm across the center, creating two chambers. When attached to the low-pressure portion of the
throttle body or intake manifold of the engine, the pressure in both chambers of the unit is lowered. The
equilibrium created by the low pressure in both chambers keeps the diaphragm from moving until the
brake pedal is depressed. A return spring keeps the diaphragm in the starting position until the brake
pedal is applied. When the brake pedal is applied, the movement opens an air valve which lets in
atmospheric pressure air to one chamber of the booster. Since the pressure becomes higher in one
chamber, the diaphragm moves toward the lower pressure chamber with a force created by the area of the
diaphragm and the differential pressure. This force, in addition to the driver's foot force, pushes on the
master cylinder piston. A relatively small diameter booster unit is required; for a very conservative 50%
manifold vacuum, an assisting force of about 1500 N (200n) is produced by a 20 cm diaphragm with an
area of 0.03 square meters. The diaphragm will stop moving when the forces on both sides of the chamber
reach equilibrium. This can be caused by either the air valve closing (due to the pedal apply stopping) or
if "run out" is reached. Run out occurs when the pressure in one chamber reaches atmospheric pressure
and no additional force can be generated by the now stagnant differential pressure. After the run out point
is reached, only the driver's foot force can be used to further apply the master cylinder piston. The fluid
pressure from the master cylinder travels through a pair of steel brake tubes to a pressure differential
valve, sometimes referred to as a "brake failure valve", which performs two functions: it equalizes
pressure between the two systems, and it provides a warning if one system loses pressure. The pressure
differential valve has two chambers (to which the hydraulic lines attach) with a piston between them.
When the pressure in either line is balanced, the piston does not move. If the pressure on one side is lost,
the pressure from the other side moves the piston. When the piston makes contact with a simple electrical
probe in the center of the unit, a circuit is completed, and the operator is warned of a failure in the brake
system.

An hydraulic brake booster for an automobile hydraulic system comprising of a boost cylinder, a boost
piston and a boost chamber defined by a boost piston working in a bore in a body and being adapted to
apply an output force to an output rod in response to a pressure applied to a boost chamber under a
control valve, in turn responsive to an input force from input rod, wherein the input rod move in a forward
operating direction up to a prescribed point so as to prevent fluid from a radial high pressure supply port
from entering the boost chamber when the booster is in an inoperative position, any added movement of
the input rod in a forward operating direction lifts the boost piston ball and uncovers the supply port so as
to allow pressurized fluid into the boost chamber from the accumulator.

Hydraulic braking system without booster

Braking moments for shoe and disc brakes

Braking moment is the most important parameter of brake from operation point of view. It is directly
connected to braking distance as well with amount of force needed to achieve assumed braking
parameters for the mechanical vehicle. Stability of braking moment is important in order to get optimized
characteristics of the braking process itself. Most of the brake characteristics and efficiency calculations
base on assumption that braking moment should be stable during braking process

Braking moments for shoe brakes

The brake shoe carries the brake lining, which is riveted or glued to the shoe. When the brake is applied,
the shoe moves and presses the lining against the inside of the drum. The friction between lining and
drum provides the braking effort. Energy is dissipated as heat.