Conceptual Framework For Identifying Polymers of C

TYPE Conceptual Analysis
PUBLISHED 23 April 2024

DOI 10.3389/frsus.2024.1399431
Conceptual framework for

OPEN ACCESS identifying polymers of concern
EDITED BY
Shabbir H. Gheewala,
King Mongkut’s University of Technology Sangwon Suh 1,2*, Anne-Marie Boulay 3 , Peter Fantke 4
,
Thonburi, Thailand
Dingsheng Li 5 , Dilip Menon 6 , Raoul Meys 7,8 and
REVIEWED BY
Jorge Emmanuel, Llorenç Milà i Canals 9
Silliman University, Philippines
1
Bethanie Carney Almroth, Bren School of Environmental Science and Management, University of California, Santa Barbara,
University of Gothenburg, Sweden Santa Barbara, CA, United States, 2 Watershed Technology Inc. San Francisco, CA, United States,
3
CIRAIG, Polytechnique Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada, 4 Quantitative Sustainability Assessment,
*CORRESPONDENCE Department of Environmental and Resource Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby,
Sangwon Suh Denmark, 5 School of Public Health, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, United States, 6 United Nations
[email protected] Environment Programme, UNEP, Marine and Fresh Water Branch, Ecosystems Division, UNEP India,
RECEIVED 11 March 2024 New Delhi, India, 7 Carbon Minds GmbH, Cologne, Germany, 8 Institute for Technical Thermodynamics,
ACCEPTED 16 April 2024 RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany, 9 United Nations Environment Programme, UNEP, Industry
PUBLISHED 23 April 2024
& Economy Division, Paris, France
CITATION
Suh S, Boulay A-M, Fantke P, Li D, Menon D,
Meys R and Milà i Canals L (2024) Conceptual With the increasing global concern over plastics’ environmental and human
framework for identifying polymers of health impacts, the urgency for effective regulatory measures is evident. The
concern. Front. Sustain. 5:1399431.
doi: 10.3389/frsus.2024.1399431
UN Environment Assembly’s initiative to establish an international, legally binding
instrument via the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) on Plastic
COPYRIGHT
© 2024 Suh, Boulay, Fantke, Li, Menon, Meys Pollution marks a significant step toward addressing this issue. However, the
and Milà i Canals. This is an open-access vast diversity of plastic types and their myriad applications present a complex
article distributed under the terms of the challenge in pinpointing the most critical targets for regulation. This study builds
Creative Commons Attribution License (CC
BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in on the existing body of literature to outline potential key criteria for identifying
other forums is permitted, provided the Polymers of Concern (PoC). We recommend a dual-focused definition of
original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) PoCs considering both (1) the type of the plastics and (2) their domain of
are credited and that the original publication
in this journal is cited, in accordance with applications based on the environmental and human health impacts throughout
accepted academic practice. No use, the polymer’s life cycle. Recognizing the current gaps in our understanding
distribution or reproduction is permitted of the full spectrum of plastics’ impacts across their life cycles, we suggest
which does not comply with these terms.
adopting a precautionary approach that factors in the volume of plastics entering
natural ecosystems alongside their life cycle impacts as reported in the literature.
We then bring forward existing data on the assessment of some of the main
polymer types and applications. We propose that policymakers examine a wide
spectrum of strategies including not only bans and phaseouts but also economic
incentives, innovation, and the redesign of plastic materials and products to
mitigate the adverse impacts of PoCs. We further emphasize the importance
of thoroughly assessing the feasibility, costs, and environmental, social and
economic implications of alternative materials to avoid “regrettable substitution.”
We conclude by identifying existing knowledge gaps and emphasizing the need
for further research to refine the proposed criteria for identifying PoCs.
KEYWORDS
life cycle assessment, polymers of concern, precautionary principle, regrettable

substitution, plastic pollution
1 Introduction
The widespread use of synthetic and semi-synthetic polymers (“plastics” or “polymers”
hereafter) has fundamentally transformed modern society since the 1950s (Geyer et al.,
2017). The reliance on plastics has fuelled an over three-fold rise in plastic production
from 1990 to 2015, reaching global annual production of over 400 million tons today
Frontiers in Sustainability 01 frontiersin.org

Suh et al. 10.3389/frsus.2024.1399431
(OECD, 2022). The largest production shares of polymers Revel et al., 2018; Peng et al., 2020; Kumar et al., 2021; Sheraz
are represented by low-density (LDPE), linear low-density et al., 2023). The conversion of macroplastics into smaller particles,
(LLDPE) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE), which, together, especially nano-scale plastics, is known to substantially increase the
represent 24% of the total global annual production, followed by uptake and absorption of plastics into biota (Shen et al., 2019).
polypropylene (PP) (16%), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (11%), Additionally, the environmental emissions generated throughout
while major domains of application include packaging (31%), the life cycle of plastics pose other risks to the environment
building and construction (14%), and automotive (14%) (OECD, and human health (Walker and Rothman, 2020). For example,
2022). forecasts suggest that plastic production and waste management
Projections indicate a continued upward trajectory in plastic could potentially contribute up to 6.5 gigatons of CO2 -equivalent
production and consumption, with estimates pointing toward global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions annually by 2050 (Zheng
>1,200 million metric tons (Mt) per year by 2060 (OECD, and Suh, 2019; Meys et al., 2021).
2022). Under the current trajectory, the cumulative production In addition, concerns have been raised due to the harmful
of plastics is expected to reach 33 billion metric tons by 2050 chemicals used in plastics production. A wide range of substances
(Geyer, 2020; Persson et al., 2022). These projections underscore used for plastics production to achieve certain properties such as
the urgent need for sustainable practices and policies to address flexibility, durability, and resistance to degradation. Studies have
the multi-dimensional challenges posed by plastics on human and shown that some of these substances, which are often referred to as
planetary health. chemicals of concern, exhibit the potential to cause adverse effects
The use of plastics across diverse applications has undeniably to human health, including endocrine disruption, carcinogenicity,
yielded economic benefits and improvements in human and ecological harm (Aurisano et al., 2021a; Scientists Coalition
wellbeing (Andrady and Neal, 2009). Nonetheless, the mounting for an Effective Plastics Treaty, 2023; Wagner et al., 2024). At the
concerns on the environmental and health consequences of root of the global problems associated with plastics today is the
plastic utilization have captured considerable attention from linear economy model of “take-make-dispose,” which is heavily
policymakers, industries, scientists, and the broader public dependent on fossil-based resources such as crude oil (Otto et al.,
(UNEP, 2016; Nielsen et al., 2020; MacLeod et al., 2021). 2015; Kätelhön et al., 2019; Meys et al., 2021; Bachmann et al., 2023;
The concerns that have been raised encompass not only the UNEP, 2023c). Plastics are projected to command 20% of global
impacts of plastics and its chemical constituents, but also its crude oil consumption by 2050 (WEF, 2016; UNEP, 2018). These
production and supply chain processes, end-of-life treatment, trajectories underscore the urgent need for considering a reduction
and degradation byproducts (Revel et al., 2018; Zheng and Suh, in primary plastic production, phasing out or phasing down
2019; Lear et al., 2021; MacLeod et al., 2021; Turner and Filella, certain plastics or plastics products that pose high risk to humans
2021). and the environment, a shift toward sustainable production and
One of the primary concerns is placed on the leakage of plastics consumption, and the adoption of a circular economy approach to
to the environment (Thompson et al., 2009; Jambeck et al., 2015; alleviate the environmental impact of plastics’ life-cycles.
Law, 2017; Napper and Thompson, 2023; UNEP, 2023c). It is A wide spectrum of approaches to mitigating the impacts
estimated that aquatic ecosystem received as much as 19 to 23 Mt of plastics have been proposed, including the scaling of circular
of plastic waste generated in a single year, 2016, which is set to technologies (Ren et al., 2020; Meys et al., 2021; Stegmann et al.,
grow to 53 Mt per year by 2030 (Borrelle, 2020). Another global 2022; Bachmann et al., 2023; UNEP, 2023c), decarbonization of
estimate suggests that 6.2 Mt (confidence interval, CI: 2.0–20.4 Mt) energy supply (Posen et al., 2017; Zheng and Suh, 2019; Meys
of macroplastics and 3.0 Mt (CI: 1.5–5.2 Mt) of microplastics were et al., 2021), the use of renewable feedstock such as plastic waste,
lost to the environment in 2015 (Ryberg et al., 2019). Washing of biomass, or captured CO2 (Shen et al., 2010; Kätelhön et al., 2019;
synthetic garments alone is estimated to have emitted 5.6 Mt of Zheng and Suh, 2019; Meys et al., 2021; Lee et al., 2022; Raj et al.,
synthetic microfibers to the environment between 1950 and 2016, 2022; Stegmann et al., 2022; Bachmann et al., 2023), eliminating
while emissions to terrestrial systems are growing rapidly (Gavigan or reducing the use of chemicals and polymers of concern
et al., 2020; Geyer et al., 2022). As a result, today, plastics are found and problematic plastic products, minimizing waste generation
even in the world’s most remote environments such as Antarctica (Idumah and Nwuzor, 2019; Okan et al., 2019; Chu et al., 2023),
and Galápagos islands (Barnes et al., 2010; Muñoz-Pérez et al., and disposal to the environment (Willis et al., 2018; Williams and
2023). Rangel-Buitrago, 2019; Schmaltz et al., 2020), economic incentives
The presence and accumulation of plastic pollution in both and behavioral change (Allison et al., 2022; Abiola et al., 2023),
natural and human environments pose a grave risk to ecosystems and improving reuse and recycling (Keane, 2007; Hopewell et al.,
and human health (Beaumont et al., 2019). First, macroplastics 2009; Pacheco et al., 2012; Garcia and Robertson, 2017; Rahimi
emitted to the environment, such as abandoned or lost fishing and García, 2017; Milios et al., 2018; Rosa et al., 2018; British
nets and plastic bags, are reported to cause a variety of harms Plastics Federation, 2021; Schwarz et al., 2021; Schyns and Shaver,
to the wildlife, through entrapment, entanglement or ingestion 2021). Studies indicate that these approaches, in concert, have the
(Alexiadou et al., 2019; Barboza et al., 2019; Valente et al., 2020; potential to reduce plastics discarded to the environment, carbon
Blettler and Mitchell, 2021). Second, the micro- and nano-plastics and other pollutant emissions as well as the dependence of plastic
released and emitted from the use, fragmentation, and degradation products on fossil fuels throughout the life cycle of plastics (UNEP,
of macroplastics in both the human and natural environment 2018; Zheng and Suh, 2019; Meys et al., 2021; Bachmann et al.,
pose risks to human and ecosystem health (Teuten et al., 2009; 2023).

Suh et al. 10.3389/frsus.2024.1399431
In parallel, countries around the world have been enacting 1907/2006] Article 57, which are based largely on chemicals’
regulatory approaches to address plastic pollution at different intrinsic properties including carcinogenicity, mutagenicity,
stages of the plastic life cycle (UNEP, 2020, 2023c). According to reproductive toxicity, persistence, bioaccumulation, endocrine
Raubenheimer and Urho (2024), 33 countries have regulated one disrupting properties, and their combinations (European
or more plastic polymers or monomers, and up to 141 countries Commission, 2006). The European Commission is also evaluating
have banned or restricted some form of plastic products. Many in a proposal that seeks mandating registration of certain polymers
the private sector have also taken the initiative of eliminating plastic under the REACH directive (Groh et al., 2023). The criteria
packaging made of specific polymers, as part of the New Plastics for determining the EU REACH registration requirement are
Economy Global Commitment (Ellen MacArthur Foundation and also relying heavily on the polymers’ intrinsic properties such as
UNEP, 2023). molecular weight, surface activity, and hazard characteristics (Groh
This paper aims to establish the conceptual framework for et al., 2023).
identifying the criteria for polymers of concern as a means to Defining polymers of concern based solely on the materials’
prioritize the target areas that international efforts to tackle global intrinsic properties such as hazards, biodegradability under
plastics pollution can focus on. These criteria can help inform environmental conditions, and bioaccumulation characteristics,
strategies to mitigate environmental and health impacts across however, poses several challenges. First, literature suggests that
the polymer life cycle, including substituting polymers of concern non-plastic emissions from upstream and downstream plastic life-
with suitable alternatives, promoting optimal technologies for cycle processes contribute substantially to various environmental
polymer production and design practices promoting circularity, problems. The life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of
phasing down or phasing out polymers of most concern, as well as plastics, for example, contribute to around 1.7–2 Gt CO2 e
regulating certain applications to avoid the leakage of plastic to the emissions, which are much higher than for example the direct
environment (UNEP, 2023a). In addition, we aim to offer insights emissions from global aviation industry (Zheng and Suh, 2019;
into research gaps and data needs for future research efforts. Cabernard et al., 2022; OECD, 2022). Studies also highlight regional
and local emissions of Particulate Matter (PM), SO2 and NOx
associated with plastics production in the regions that rely heavily
2 Methods for identifying the criteria on coal as the feedstock (Ren et al., 2020; Cabernard et al.,
for polymers of concern 2022). Second, the usage pattern largely determines the nature of
interactions between plastics and the environment, and therefore
2.1 Existing literature not only the types of polymer materials but also the context under
which they are utilized should be considered as an important
While there is currently no internationally agreed definition for attribute in determining the polymers of concern.
polymers of concern, the concept, as well as some of the closely Recognizing these shortcomings, recent studies tend to use
related concepts such as “chemicals of concern” and “products multiple criteria, both intrinsic and extrinsic to the chemicals
of concern,” have been widely discussed in both academic and in question, in determining chemicals of concern. Zimmermann
regulatory contexts over the last two decades (Montes-Grajales et al. (2022), for example, identified the food contact chemicals of
et al., 2017; Aurisano et al., 2021a; Huang et al., 2022; Zimmermann concern (FCCoCs) based not only on the chemical hazard, but also
et al., 2022; Scientists Coalition for an Effective Plastics Treaty, on usage pattern, and chemical production volume, among others
2023). (Zimmermann et al., 2022).
The US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) defines
products of concern based on their hazard properties and
biodegradability as “compounds with high acute or chronic aquatic
toxicity (L/E/IC50 ≤ 10 ppm or LOEC ≤1 ppm) and a slow 2.2 Potential criteria to be considered
rate of biodegradation (>28 days)” (US EPA, 2014). In addition,
Section 5(b)(4) of the US Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) Environmental and human health impacts of plastics are
authorizes USEPA to maintain a list of chemical substances of materialized throughout their life cycle, and it is therefore crucial
which “manufacture, processing, distribution in commerce, use, to maintain the life-cycle perspective when developing the criteria
or disposal, or any combination of such activities, presents or for polymers of concern (Figure 1) (Rikhter et al., 2022). Emitted
may present an unreasonable risk of injury to health or the to the environment throughout the life-cycles of plastics are
environment” (US EPA, 2015a, p. 5). (i) macroplastics such as plastic bags and bottles as well as
The Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD) abandoned fishing nets and fishing gears, (ii) micro- and nano-
of the European Commission, disclosure requirement E2- plastics and associated chemicals (e.g., processing aids, plasticizers,
5, “Substances of concern and substances of very high colorants, non-intentionally added substances) through the normal
concern,” mandates the reporting companies to disclose the use or wear-and-tear of plastic products such as plastic bottles
risks and opportunities related to the use, distribution and and synthetic garments, and (iii) other, non-plastic constituent
commercialization of the substances (European Commission, emissions including CO2 , SO2 , NOx, and particulate matter (PM)
2022). The European Commission defines the substances of (Figure 1). In particular, it is important to note that not only
concern and substances of very high concern using the criteria the plastics and their chemical constituents, but also non-plastic
laid out under the Registration, Evaluation, Authorization, emissions and wastes generated from the life cycle of plastics
and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) [Regulation (EC) No do contribute substantially to various environmental impacts

Suh et al. 10.3389/frsus.2024.1399431
including climate change, acidification and toxicological effects to criteria. Specific chemicals in polymers that have raised a concern
humans and the ecosystem (Valavanidis et al., 2008; Koornneef include certain monomers, flame retardants, UV light stabilizers,
et al., 2012; Ren et al., 2020; Cabernard et al., 2022; Rikhter Per- and Polyfluorinated Substances (PFASs), phthalate plasticizers,
et al., 2022). These primary pollutants generated throughout the bisphenols, certain ethoxylates, biocides (e.g., formaldehyde),
life-cycle of plastics may directly affect the environment and metals and metalloids, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and non-
human health. Furthermore, they may go through a variety intentionally added substances, such as dioxins and furans (UNEP,
of physicochemical and biological transformations including 2023b). Wagner et al. (2024) reports the state of science on the
fragmentation, degradation, and leaching and may form secondary chemicals used in plastics and identifies 15 priority groups of
pollutants (Figure 1), while the mechanisms of such processes are chemicals of concern.
yet to be fully understood (Teuten et al., 2009; Law, 2017; Ryberg Impacts of these chemicals contribute to human and
et al., 2019; Chamas et al., 2020; Groh et al., 2023). environmental health burden, which lead to substantial economic
Based on the literature and legislative review, the following burden worldwide, through exposure to the chemicals along
criteria to determine polymers of concern are proposed: the full life cycle of plastics, including occupational exposure.
For example, human disease burden in the U.S. attributable
a) Health and safety issues by polymers;
to plastic-related chemicals in 2018 led to costs of around 250
b) Environmental impacts through emissions and resource use
billion USD, mostly associated with exposure to PBDE, phthalates
across the life cycle;
and PFASs (Trasande et al., 2024). All major polymers contain
c) Circularity of polymers;
hundreds of chemicals of concern, but “rubber, polyurethanes,
d) Leakage of plastics to the environment.
polycarbonates, and PVC are most likely to contain such
compounds” (Wagner et al., 2024). While these criteria for
chemicals of concern apply generally to all chemicals found in
2.2.1 Health and safety issues of polymers plastic polymers, additional criteria need to be defined to cover
The materials and chemicals that constitute plastic materials other concerning aspects around polymers not driven by their
themselves can directly affect the environment and human chemical constituents.
health. In general, there are two types of chemicals that are As plastic products can be used in a wide variety of consumer
intentionally added to form plastic materials: (1) polymerized products (e.g., flooring, furniture, food packaging materials,
monomers that form the foundation of the polymer matrix, and personal care products, cleaning supplies), human exposure to
(2) various chemicals that fulfill specific functions and deliver its ingredient is ubiquitous with numerous studies focused on
desired properties. The functions of additives include enhancing the resulting potential human health risks from these ingredients
material flexibility (plasticizers), incorporating fire resistance such as bisphenols and phthalates (Li and Suh, 2019). Among
(flame retardants), giving color (colorants), and preventing such ingredients, bisphenol-A (BPA) and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate
oxidation (antioxidants) (Maier et al., 2009). Other constituents (DEHP) are the most well-studied due to their endocrine
are unintentionally added, such as transformation or degradation disrupting capabilities, which may cause series of reproductive
byproducts, and contaminants from plastics manufacturing and developmental toxic effects (Halden, 2010; Dodson et al.,
processes (Geueke, 2018). Overall, approximately 16,000 chemicals 2012; Katsikantami et al., 2016). In fact, public concerns for these
are associated with plastics and related production processes across two chemicals have risen to levels high enough for them to be
the numerous plastics applications in the building, food, cosmetics, banned or phased out from certain consumer products in the 21st
and other industries (Aurisano et al., 2021b; Wiesinger et al., century (European Commission, 2005; FDA., 2012). Nevertheless,
2021; UNEP, 2023b; Wagner et al., 2024), many of which are challenges remain in the search of safer alternatives for these
of potential concern regarding human and environmental health chemicals, as reports of concerns for their replacements have also
(Aurisano et al., 2021a; Huang et al., 2022; Geueke et al., 2023). surfaced (Bui et al., 2016; Winkler et al., 2022).
Human exposure to these potentially harmful substances can occur Additionally, micro- and nano-plastics released from the use
throughout the life cycles of plastic products, be that from direct and degradation of plastic products such as plastic water bottles
consumer use or via production or disposal related emissions to the have also been considered as an important emerging pollutant with
general environment. many experiments showing potential toxic effects on the cellular,
Concerns around chemicals in plastics are associated with organ, and whole-body levels (Li et al., 2023; Qian et al., 2024).
various chemical properties, including environmental persistence Consumer exposure to microplastics can happen via multiple
and mobility, bioaccumulation in ecological and human food pathways as plastics are used in various products—oral ingestion
chains, and various toxicity-related effects on humans and of food and water containing microplastics (WHO, 2019; Udovicki
ecological organisms (e.g., carcinogenicity, reproductive and et al., 2022) and inhalation of suspended microplastics in the
developmental effects, endocrine disruption, and specific organ indoor air from synthetic fabrics and coating (Kacprzak and
and neurotoxicity). These properties are often used as criteria Tijing, 2022). These exposure pathways have led to confirmed
for identifying chemicals or groups of chemicals of concern in presence of microplastics in human placenta, lung, brain, and
plastics. For example, the European Union’s chemicals regulation, arterial plaque (Ragusa et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2022; Kopatz
REACH (European Commission, 2006; Strempel et al., 2012; et al., 2023; Marfella et al., 2024). Alarming research implicates
Wagner et al., 2024) considers mobility of the chemicals in the potential for congenital deformities and brain disease similar
addition to the Persistent, Bioaccumulative and Toxic (PBT) to Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob or other prion diseases (Hollóczki

Suh et al. 10.3389/frsus.2024.1399431
FIGURE 1
Life-cycle impacts of plastics: a schematic diagram.
and Gehrke, 2019; Windheim et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2023). 2.2.2 Life-cycle environmental impacts
While large scale epidemiological evidence linking microplastic Life cycle assessment (LCA) is an approach to quantify
exposure and adverse health outcomes is still absent, a recent the environmental impacts of products throughout their life
study found higher risks for heart attack, stroke, and death are cycles including raw material extraction, materials processing,
associated with the presence of micro- and nano-plastic found manufacturing and synthesis, transportation, use and disposal
in carotid artery plaque of patients who underwent carotid (Guinée et al., 2002; ISO, 2006a; Finnveden et al., 2009). Feedstock
endarterectomy (Marfella et al., 2024); another study suggests types for plastics production include petroleum and natural gas,
higher exposure is associated with inflammatory bowel disease biomass, and captured CO2 , while the majority of the plastics
(Yan et al., 2022). produced today (∼99%) are still fossil-based (European Bioplastics,
Finally, the fragmentation and degradation of plastics in the 2019; Ögmundarson et al., 2020). The ISO standards 14040 and
environment may result in harmful secondary chemicals that 14044 serve as the cornerstone for a standardized methodology
adversely affect the ecosystem and human health, while our in conducting LCAs, ensuring uniformity and facilitating result
understanding of the degradation pathways, the fate, transport comparison (ISO, 2006a,b). In essence, LCA encompasses the
and exposure of the degradation byproducts, and their impacts assessment of environmental impacts spanning from raw material
are limited (Chamas et al., 2020; Croxatto Vega et al., 2021). It generation to the final waste management, leading to recycling or
is also worth mentioning that despite bioplastics and plant-based disposal (Guinée et al., 2002; Finnveden et al., 2009).
plastics are often viewed as more sustainable alternatives, they Various life cycle stages contribute to the overall greenhouse gas
may nevertheless exhibit similar toxicity of their petroleum-based (GHG) emissions of plastics (Zheng and Suh, 2019). Overall, GHG
counterparts (Zimmermann et al., 2020). emissions are predominantly attributed to the resin production
The effort to synthesize the studies on hazard characteristics stage, accounting for 61%, followed by the conversion stage at 30%,
of polymers is on-going. Senathirajah et al. (2022), for example, and the end-of-life treatment stage at 9% (Zheng and Suh, 2019).
identified Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Polypropylene (PP), However, it needs to be noted that fugitive methane emissions
and Polystyrene (PS) as the polymers with highest risk of from fossil fuel extraction have been poorly accounted for in the
harms using 21 criteria and multi-criteria prioritization past, and recent studies suggest that improved measurement could
framework. The dominant sectors to which these polymers significantly increase the climate change impact linked to fossil-
contributed were building and construction, packaging, consumer fuel derived products such as the majority of synthetic polymers
and household, and automotive sectors (Senathirajah et al., (Allen et al., 2021; Burns and Grubert, 2021). Chemical processes
2022). involved in transforming these feedstocks into plastic polymers

Suh et al. 10.3389/frsus.2024.1399431
also release GHGs, with refinery operations and steam cracking natural ecosystems. The more microplastic release potential and the
emitting notable amounts (Ren et al., 2008; Young et al., 2022). longer the particles are exposed to their environment, the higher the
Additionally, the energy-intensive operations within the plastic impact in, and to, that environment (Hurley and Nizzetto, 2018;
production chain, from refining feedstocks to molding, result in Revel et al., 2018; Chamas et al., 2020; Peng et al., 2020; Kumar
substantial emissions, exacerbated by using fossil fuels for energy et al., 2021). The variability of these two parameters can make the
generation (Posen et al., 2017; Zheng and Suh, 2019; Meys et al., impacts of the plastic emission vary from one of the least “toxic”
2021). substance to one comparable to the top 25% of substance toxicity
In some cases, the precursors or chemical constituents of as assessed in life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) (Corella-Puertas
polymers emitted to the environment over their life-cycles may be et al., 2023). However, these assessments are still incomplete and
harmful to the environment and human health. This is the case their high uncertainty representative of the limited data availability.
for products made of polystyrene (PS) releasing styrene (listed as Biodegradable polymers do not necessarily offer a better alternative,
“probably carcinogenic” by IARC), or emissions of vinyl chloride as very few alternatives degrade faster in the environments (Chamas
from the life cycle of PVC (Huff and Infante, 2011; Iizuka et al., et al., 2020). For larger size debris (macroplastics), such as strapping
2020; Sun, 2023), both regulated by the US EPA as Hazardous Air bands and ropes, size, and shape affect the potential impacts
Pollutants under the US Clean Air Act (US EPA, 2015b). via entanglement (Gregory, 2009; Høiberg et al., 2022). Plastic
Other relevant emissions during the life cycle of polymers bags can wrap animals around, causing lacerations, infections,
include SO2 , NOx and particulate matter (PM) emissions and ultimately death (Derraik, 2002; Gall and Thompson, 2015).
(Ren et al., 2020; Cabernard et al., 2022). Several ozone Abandoned, lost, or discarded plastic fishing gear, is considered
depleting substances (ODSs) and a few hydrofluorocarbons as the main source of entanglements for many marine species
(HFCs) controlled under the Montreal Protocol are used as (Johnson et al., 2005; Gregory, 2009; Stelfox et al., 2016; Hamilton
feedstocks in plastics manufacture including, for example, and Baker, 2019; Høiberg et al., 2022). Macroplastics fragment into
polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE), polyvinylidene fluoride microplastics, hence their impact is additive (Woods et al., 2021).
(PVDF), and polytetrafluoroethylene or Teflon (PTFE); possibly Other impact pathways have been identified although not
also polyvinyl fluoride (PVF); and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) quantified yet; for example, drifting plastic items contribute to the
(Andersen et al., 2021). invasive species problem, carrying species from one eco-region to
Furthermore, conventional incineration of plastics waste that another where they may not have any natural predators (Rech et al.,
contains chlorine or brominated flame retardants is known to lead 2018; García-Gómez et al., 2021). Plastic litter also play a role of
to the release of highly toxic products of incomplete combustion vector of other pollutants, such as heavy metals, which are adsorbed
and reformation byproducts such as furans and dioxins into the to the plastic and thus increasingly ingested by animal species
atmosphere, if no strict air pollution control technologies are (Nguyen et al., 2023; Guo et al., 2025). Maquart et al. (2022) provide
applied (Wang et al., 2003; Buekens and Cen, 2011; Zhang et al., a comprehensive review of studies linking mismanaged plastic
2016). waste with the spread of infectious diseases, e.g., by generating
Plastic materials and products discharged to the environment suitable habitats for vectors of arthropod-borne diseases both
throughout their life cycles may also adversely affect the ecosystem. directly (e.g., plastic cups or bottles) and indirectly (clogging drains
Species and ecosystems encounter plastic pollution in various and causing stagnant waters); or promoting waterborne diseases
ways, such as through ingestion, entanglement, smothering, and through generation of stagnant waters (Maquart et al., 2022).
the transportation of invasive species (Gregory, 2009; Seif, 2018; Bidashimwa (2023) also highlight the role of plastic pollution in
Alexiadou et al., 2019; Høiberg et al., 2022). These forms of the transmission of vector-borne infectious diseases (Bidashimwa,
exposure can lead to adverse effects on individual organisms 2023). While this pathway is far less studied than the exposure
through physical pathways. Ingestion of plastic can block an to chemicals present in plastic, and it is difficult to quantify its
organism’s digestive tract or cause false satiation, impairing its overall effect on the burden on human health, the widespread
ability to feed (Gregory, 2009; Seif, 2018; Alexiadou et al., presence of mismanaged plastic in areas with poor or non-existing
2019). This can lead to starvation, reduced fitness, and negative plastic waste management could represent a significant impact on
impacts on growth, reproduction, and predator avoidance, or human health.
even death. Ingesting plastic fragments can also cause internal It is worth noting that the incidence for all these pathways is
injuries, increasing the risk of infection. Entanglement in plastic likely to be more closely affected by the likelihood of the polymer
debris can result in death from starvation or injury, increased risk to leak into the environment than by any intrinsic properties of
of infection, compromised mobility, behavioral changes, reduced the polymer, with only density and biodegradation rate likely to be
growth, and impaired reproduction (Seif, 2018; Høiberg et al., playing an effect as discussed. In this sense, the application of the
2022). These effects, which exclude toxic effects associated with polymer is likely to be a stronger determinant than its composition.
associated chemicals or unpolymerized monomers, are caused by
the physical effect of the plastic item and is mostly independent of
the type of polymer constituting it, but rather dependent on the
shape and strength of the item (Corella-Puertas et al., 2023). 2.2.3 Circularity
For smaller size particles (micro- and nano-plastics), the Estimates indicate that only about 9% of plastics produced are
microplastic release potential and plastic degradation rate and being recycled globally, indicating a large room for improvements
density, which vary across polymers, are important parameters (Geyer et al., 2017; OECD, 2022). The limited circularity of plastics
in quantifying their impacts on both human environments and poses challenges at multiple fronts as studies show that circularity

Suh et al. 10.3389/frsus.2024.1399431
of plastics is crucial not only for resource conservation and (Plastic Footprint Network, 2023). It is notable that the amount of
waste minimization but also for achieving various environmental plastics entering the environment depends not only on the type
objectives within planetary boundaries (Schwarz et al., 2021; of plastics and their domain of application, but also on various
Bachmann et al., 2023; Chu et al., 2023; UNEP, 2023c). Analyses geospatial and policy variables, including the effectiveness of waste
show that, for example, improving circularity plays an integral role management system in place, leading to a wide spatial variability
in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions from plastics’ life cycle (Meijer et al., 2021; OECD, 2022).
(Zheng and Suh, 2019; Meys et al., 2021; Stegmann et al., 2022).
A recent analysis also suggests that increasing recycling within a
region can reduce the leakage of plastics to ocean environment, as a
substantial portion of the post-consumer plastics exported is poorly
managed (Bishop et al., 2020). 2.3 Proposed approach
On the one hand, many thermoplastic polymers can be
re-molded and re-shaped through heating while keeping their 2.3.1 Proposed method for identifying polymers
molecular structure, thereby being technically recyclable (Kulkarni, of concern
2018; British Plastics Federation, 2021). Furthermore, progresses First, it became clear that not only the type of polymer material
are being made in both mechanical and chemical recycling but also the context of how the polymer in question is utilized,
technologies (Rahimi and García, 2017; Kulkarni, 2018; Rosa et al., which determines not only the functionality of the polymer and its
2018; Marson et al., 2021; Schyns and Shaver, 2021; Lehr et al., potential alternatives but also the magnitude and type of polymer
2022; Goevert, 2024). On the other hand, plastics are largely not emissions to human and natural environments and the nature of
recyclable in practice and at scale due to technological, behavioral, interactions between the polymer and its environments, is crucial
economic and social constraints. Ellen MacArthur Foundation, in defining polymers of concern. A type of plastic used for rapidly
for example, defines being “recyclable in practice and at scale” discarded packaging, for example, does not affect the environment
as recycling “at least 30% of post-consumer rate [. . . ] achieved and human health the same way that the same type of plastic used
in multiple regions collectively representing at least 400 million as a building material does. As another comparison, polypropylene
inhabitants” (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2020). The ability to used in car bumpers poses little risk of microplastic shedding,
recycle plastics in practice at scale is determined not only by the while the same polymer used for car carpeting creates a higher
intrinsic properties of plastics and additives, but also by various risk of microplastic shedding and exposure in the environment of
factors including socio-economic and regulatory drivers as well a small car interior, potentially impacting human health. Second,
as the context in which plastics and plastics products are utilized the literature clearly shows that the environmental and human
and the ability to access the infrastructure needed for recycling health impacts of plastics are materialized through both plastic and
(Hopewell et al., 2009; Mwanza and Mbohwa, 2017; Baldassarre non-plastic emissions throughout the life cycle, and therefore the
et al., 2022; Fogt Jacobsen et al., 2022; Lee and Wong, 2023). overall life-cycle impacts of the polymer type and its application in
combination should serve as the basis of determining the polymers
of concern. Without the full life-cycle perspective, focusing on only
one stage of the life cycle or one environmental problem may lead to
2.2.4 Risk of leakage a problem-shifting or regrettable substitutions (Fantke et al., 2020;
Despite the recent progresses, the fate and behavior of plastics Kouloumpis et al., 2020; Ren et al., 2020; Miller, 2022; Qadeer et al.,
emitted to the environment is still poorly understood (Zhu, 2021; 2022).
Roebroek et al., 2022). Therefore, reducing the magnitude of This general principle, however, has limitations in practice,
plastics leakage to the environment as much as possible would be because (1) our understanding of the life cycle environmental and
prudent, while our understanding of their behavior and impacts, human health impacts of polymers is limited due e.g., to data
including the fate, transport, exposure, and effects of plastics in the limitation, nascent stage of research, and unknown unknowns; (2)
environment, matures. there are uncertainties in the measurements and models used for
Various factors affect the rate of plastics entering the LCAs; and (3) the use of multiple impact categories in LCA often
environment. Lau et al. (2020) distinguish three plastic leads to a trade-off situation with no unequivocally superior or
product categories to differentiate waste management fates: inferior choices. Some of these issues have been pointed out as
rigid monomaterial, flexible monomaterial, and multimaterial or a limitation of LCA when evaluating plastics and polymer-based
multilayer (Lau et al., 2020). It is expected that polymers with materials (Plastic Soup Foundation, 2019; Miller, 2022; Tabuchi,
very low density (such as XPS or EPS) may also be more prone to 2022; Oberschelp et al., 2023).
being blown into the environment, and thus contribute more to In the presence of these limitations, the use of precautionary
impacts related to presence of macroplastics in the environment. principles and a broader set of metrics, in addition to LCA-based
The Plastic Footprint Network identifies a series of factors that metrics is necessary in defining polymers of concern (Foster et al.,
will influence the likelihood of a plastic item to end-up in the 2000; Kriebel et al., 2001). For example, minimizing the amount
environment: the weight/density, the targeted use (whether of plastics entering the human and natural environment targeting
“on-the-go” or at home), the residual value of the item (which will the most impactful plastic types, applications, and geographies,
make it more or less likely to be picked up by waste pickers), the while our understanding of their environmental and human health
effectiveness of the local waste management system in place, and impacts is still maturing, would be desirable. Wagner et al. (2024)
the environmental conditions (wind, proximity to a waterway, etc.) also consider a broad range of criteria to identify polymers of

Suh et al. 10.3389/frsus.2024.1399431
concern, broadly grouped under “hazards” related to the polymers (Table 2). The data shows that fibers are produced in high volume
and the polymer’s “compatibility with circularity.” and their characterized impacts are sizable as compared to other
Finally, the availability and cost, as well as the life-cycle applications, calling for an attention. These higher environmental
environmental consequences of the potential alternatives should be impacts are mainly representative for the polyamide, a polymer
carefully evaluated to avoid “regrettable substitutions.” used in, for instance, nylon. This polyamide supply chain includes
Overall, determining polymers of concern should consider (1) several energy-intensive production steps to produce intermediate
the magnitude and severity of the impacts throughout the life cycle, products such as caprolactam or adipic acid, which additionally
(2) the volume of the plastics emitted to the human and natural lead to nitrous oxide emissions. These nitrous oxide emissions, in
environment, and (3) the availability and cost of alternatives, return, increase the overall environmental impacts of polyamide-
as well as the criticality of the service the particular polymer based fibers.
application renders. Please note that the information provided on the
From the following section, we attempt to map these criteria to environmental impacts of each polymer is not sufficient for
high volume plastics based on the information and data available. comparative assertions regarding their overall sustainability or
environmental impacts.
It should be noted that these datasets are far from complete or
3 Mapping the concern criteria with perfect. For example, conventional incineration of some plastics
high-volume plastics are known to generate toxic pollutants such as furans, dioxins,
and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) due to incomplete
Tables 1–4 attempt to map these criteria to high volume plastics combustion and the lack of adequate pollution control (Wang
based on the information and data available. Table 1 provides et al., 2003; Buekens and Cen, 2011; Zhang et al., 2016). However,
information for criterion 1 (health and safety issues) for high- allocating such pollutants to each input materials from a multi-
volume polymers. The intention is to provide an initial appraisal input, multi-output process, such as incineration, is cumbersome,
of the issues reported in the literature rather than providing an and existing databases often fall short in providing fully allocated
exhaustive list. emissions from such processes. Furthermore, LCA results and the
LCAs of various polymers and their application types have main contributors of life-cycle impacts may widely vary depending
been reported in the literature (Plastics Europe, 2013; Laurent on the domain of application and location of application,
et al., 2014; Rikhter et al., 2022). Harmonizing the differences in which affects various key aspects of plastics’ life-cycle including
the assumptions, system boundaries, and underlying datasets used underlying energy mix, waste management options, and feedstock
for those individual LCAs, however, is beyond the scope of this choices. Therefore, the information presented in Table 2 should be
study. Therefore, we have used a recent dataset, cm.chemicals, interpreted with caution.
which covers a wide range of plastic types and applications Table 3 provides an initial assessment of criterion 3 (circularity)
(Stellner et al., 2023). The life cycle inventory data from for high-volume polymers and their main areas of application,
cm.chemicals are representative for the life cycle until the polymer based on available evidence of recycling “in practice and at scale”
is produced (i.e., cradle-to-gate) and are characterized using of different applications of each of the polymers (Ellen MacArthur
ReCiPe 2016 methodology for conventional impact categories Foundation., 2024). For many of these applications, alternatives
(Table 2) (Huijbregts et al., 2017). The regional variation in are available as shown in the table, while the information on their
feedstock, underlying energy mix, and uncertainties in raw data costs and life-cycle environmental impacts is sparse; the intention
result in a large variability between minimum and maximum values here is to provide a sample of possible alternatives found in the
(Table 2). literature rather than proposing them as definitive alternatives with
Overall, polyurethane (PUR) exhibits relatively large life-cycle superior environmental, technical and economic qualities; further
environmental impacts per kg, while its volume of production assessments are needed for each to ensure affordability, safety and
is relatively small as compared to other types of polymers. environmental and technical superiority, if any. Please note that
Furthermore, PUR’s main domains of application are generally the information provided about the environmental impacts of each
more durable uses compared to other large-volume polymers. polymer is not sufficient for comparative assertions regarding their
Characterized impacts for conventional impact categories of other overall sustainability or environmental impacts. It should also be
polymer types are within similar ranges (Table 2). In terms of the noted that substantial information gaps remain to be filled in these
physical impacts caused by the polymers emitted to the marine tables.
environment, we used the characterization factors developed by Table 4 shows the annual release of polymers to the
MariLCA project (Corella-Puertas et al., 2023), together with environment based on Hoseini and Bond (2022) and OECD
the estimated emissions to marine environment using Hoseini (2022). Among the polymer types, polyethylene (LDPE, LLDPE,
and Bond (2022) and OECD data (last columns in Table 2) and HDPE), PET and PP are identified as the key contributors,
(OECD, 2022). According to these estimates, polyethylene (LDPE, while fibers and elastomers release substantial amount of polymers
LLDPE, and HDPE) stood out as the major cause of physical to the environment among the major application types (Table 4).
impacts to aquatic ecosystem, followed by polystyrene (PS) and It is notable that some of the major domains of application
polypropylene (PP). for large-volume polymers such as LDPE, LLDPE, HDPE, PET, PP,
In addition, polymers are grouped by their main application and PS are prone to pose the risk of leakage to the environment
types such as elastomer, fibers, marine coatings, and road markings (Table 4). Packaging, for example, is the largest domain of

Suh et al. 10.3389/frsus.2024.1399431
TABLE 1 Major polymer types and their potential health and safety issues (criterion 1).
Polymer type Potential health and safety issues over the polymer life cycle
LDPE, LLDP PE is found as most common type of microplastic in several media1,2,3 including in human bodies; microplastics are linked to
several potential health risks4,5,6
HDPE
PET Microfibre shedding during washing7 and drying4 , linked to lung injury4 ; PET is commonly found among microplastics
in environment3,8 and microplastics are linked to several potential health risks4,5,6
PP PP is easily weathered to microplastics under UV radiation9 and microplastics are linked to several potential health
impacts.4,5,6
PS Styrene is emitted to the environment over the life cycle of PS; PS is easily weathered to microplastics9,11 and
microplastics are linked to several potential health impacts4,5,6
PVC 1,1,1-Trichloroethane used in PVC’s life cycle10 ; linked to emissions of dioxins and furans if burnt; risks of vinyl chloride
spill (monomer)
PUR Phosgene is used for the synthesis of isocyanate-based PUR12

1 Jiao et al. (2021); 2 Tibbetts et al. (2018); 3 Wang et al. (2022); 4 Li et al. (2023); 5 Yuan et al. (2022); 6 Marfella et al. (2024); 7 Gavigan et al. (2020); 8 O’Brien et al. (2020); 9 Zhang et al. (2021);
10 Andersen et al. (2021); 11 Duan et al. (2018); 12 Heath (2017).
TABLE 2 Annual production volumes and characterized life-cycle impacts of major polymers and application types (criterion 2)∗ .
∗ Marked by gray background ( ): information gap. 1 The data were taken from the OECD statistics (OECD, 2022). 2 The data presented were obtained from the cm.chemicals database
by Carbon Mind (Stellner et al., 2023). Climate change impacts are based on the latest GWP100 values in the IPCC Assessment Report 6 (Pörtner et al., 2022). For all other environmental
impacts than ‘physical effects on aquatic ecosystem,’ the characterization factors of Recipe 2016 are used (Huijbregts et al., 2017). The range of environmental impacts are determined based on
the production mix of the respective plastic, except for polystyrene and polyurethane. For polystyrene and polyurethane, the ranges are determined by the various forms of the plastics. The
maximum and minimum values take into account the varying supply chains, feedstock types, energy sources, and auxiliary materials that can be used. 3 For the physical effect ecosystems, min
values correspond to the characterization factors of 1 µm spheres, and max values correspond to 5,000 µm films as they represent the lower and upper boundaries of the range of effect for
these polymers, which is affected by size and shape. Initial compartment of emission assumed was marine water (Corella-Puertas et al., 2023). The characterization factors were multiplied by
the fraction of plastics emitted to the environment as estimated in Table 4. 4 Values represent various forms of polystyrene, such as general-purpose, high-impact and expanded polystyrene.
5 Polyurethane values are based on an approximation derived from thermoplastic polyurethanes that are either polyester or polyether-based. However, the broad variance of raw materials
applied in their supply chain and the actual chemical composition of polyurethanes suggests that the potential range of environmental impacts can vary significantly. 6 Characterized results
of elastomer tires are based on styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), a major synthetic rubber material used for tires. 7 Characterized results of fibers are approximated as a range between PET,
polyamide 6, and polyamide 66. The three polymers represent major fiber raw materials.
application for LDPE, LLDPE, PET, PP, and PS, and their in-use health impacts from the pollutants generated throughout the life
lives are relatively short and the risk of leakage to the environment cycle of polymers as the main criteria for determining PoC.
are reported to be high (Table 4). In addition, the importance of recycling in practice at scale in
addressing multiple concerns around plastics and our limited
knowledge and understanding of the behavior and impacts of the
4 Summary and conclusions plastics in the environment and the uncertainties and data gaps
in life cycle metrics and data warrant two additional criteria, (3)
4.1 Summary of findings circularity, and (4) the volume of plastics entering the environment.
The criteria are mapped to the available datasets highlighting the
In this study, the environmental and health impacts of polymers areas that need additional research.
have been reviewed with the particular attention to the criteria The large variability in life-cycle impacts of polymers, which
that could be considered when identifying Polymers of Concern are often over one order of magnitude between minimum and
(PoC). Based on the literature reviewed, we identified (1) the maximum, suggests that not only the polymer types but also
health and safety issues associated with the chemicals used or various underlying factors, such as the production technology used,
incorporated in polymers and (2) the environmental and human underlying energy mix, and feedstock composition, determine

Suh et al. 10.3389/frsus.2024.1399431
TABLE 3 Major polymer types, their main applications, their circularity (criterion 3), and sample of available potential alternatives∗ .
Polymer % usage1 Main application areas (illustrative Recyclability, in Availability of potential

application examples, practice and at alternatives and substitutes
non-exhaustive)1 scale2 (still to be assessed)
LDPE, LLDPE 70% Packaging (packaging film, cling-film, bags/sacks, Only in business-to-business Reusable shopping bags3
etc.) context
13% Consumer & institutional Products (lids, toys,

coatings, flexible containers)
4% Building & construction (tubing, pipes, etc.) (NO)
HDPE 61% Packaging (packaging film, industrial film, bottles, YES (rigid packaging) Reusable bottles3
tubs, cups, closures, etc.)
18% Building & construction (pipes and tanks, drums, (NO)

cable insulation, etc.)
8% Consumer & institutional products (toys, (NO) A range of durable materials, e.g.
containers, seating and household goods, etc.) wooden materials
PET 65% Textiles (fibers) (NO) Sustainable natural fibers
35% Packaging (rigid packaging, bottles, tubes, etc.) YES (bottles only) Reusable bottles3
PP 52% Packaging (rigid packaging: pots and tubs; plastic YES (bottles only) Reusable bottles3
tape, bottles/caps, etc.)
24% Consumer & institutional Products (electrical (NO)

components, carpet pile)
10% Transportation - other (bumpers; tanks; panels, (NO) PP derived from utilized cooking oil4
automotive battery cases, parts and body
components)
8% Building & construction (NO)
PS 34% Building & construction (NO) Natural fibers for insulation5
31% Packaging (packaging applications, dairy product Mainly in Reusable packaging options3
containers, cups, etc.) business-to-business for EPS
19% Consumer & institutional Products (coat hangers, (NO) Metal and other durable materials
electrical appliances, etc.)
PVC 68% Building & construction (pipes, frames, flooring, (NO) Durable building materials, including
etc.) wood
2% Electrical/electronics (cabling insulation, window (NO) Wood Plastic composites using PLA in
frames, roof sheeting, etc.) place of PVC for flooring6
PUR 32% Building & construction (insulation, foams, (NO) Insulation from natural fibers based
adhesives, etc.) woven/non woven/textile wastes5
19% Transportation - other (e.g., cushioning material (NO)

in automotives)
∗ Marked by gray background ( ): information gap; 1 Based on OECD (2022); 2 Based on Ellen MacArthur Foundation. (2024); 3 UNEP (2018); 4 Moretti et al. (2020); 5 Murmu (2022);
6 Brunnhuber et al. (2023).
the magnitude of these impacts. In addition, some polymers comparing 1 kg PUR against 1 kg PS does not render a
exhibit higher impacts than others, although not for all impact proper comparison when choosing the material for building
categories are presented in Table 1. For instance, PUR and insulation application.
PVC tend to have higher impacts than other polymers, except Both elastomer and fiber applications of polymers are shown
energy resources depletion in the case of PVC and physical to generate substantial polymer emissions to the environment
effect on aquatic ecosystems for both polymers. In terms of (Table 2). Large-volume emissions are associated with polyethylene
the physical impacts to the aquatic ecosystem, polyethylene materials (LDPE, LLDPE and HDPE), PET and PS (Table 2).
materials including LDPE, LLDPE, and HDPE stand out followed However, the risk of leakage to the environment is often determined
by PS and PP. by the domain of application rather than the type of polymer
It is notable, however, that the information on environmental (Table 4). This is also the case for the potential for recyclability
impacts per kg polymers does not offer a sufficient ground (Table 3).
for comparing between polymers. For example, PUR and One important dimension worth noting is the uncertainty of
EPS exhibit different thermal insulation properties, so that these values. Freshwater eutrophication and Marine eutrophication

Suh et al. 10.3389/frsus.2024.1399431
TABLE 4 Annual production and environmental accumulation of polymers (criterion 4, “leakage”)∗ .
∗ Marked by gray background ( ): information gap; The figures in the table were drawn from Hoseini and Bond (2022) and OECD (2022) emission fractions were derived by dividing the
annual environmental accumulation figures from Hoseini and Bond (2022) by the annual production values from OECD (2022) ignoring the delay between production and emissions to the
environment, and therefore the values should be regarded as an approximation.
categories, in particular, show 2–3 orders of magnitude difference • Understanding the volume of plastics leaked to environment
between min and max. Physical effects on aquatic ecosystems by region, plastic types and their applications;
show a similar issue. Some of them show 4 orders of magnitude • The effects that associated chemical, including fillers,
difference, while PS only shows 2 orders of magnitude difference, colorants, plasticizers, and non-intentionally added
making PP look worse than others when we look at the minimum substances have on the life-cycle environmental impacts
impact values; as mentioned above this is likely caused by of polymers;
the extremely low density of many PS applications. While this • Understanding the composition of the
uncertainty also indicates where future research efforts should additives/contaminants, which exist in the polymer
be directed to, the current level of knowledge coupled with the matrix after the polymers’ intended first use and while
precautionary principle already offer basis for regulating them on recycling, to limit the migration of non-intentionally added
a start-and-strengthen approach. substances (NIAS).
• Emission factors of other air pollutants emitted when various
plastic products are incinerated at their end of life and the
associated human and ecosystem health impacts;
4.2 Identification of the gaps and future • The life-cycle environmental impacts, costs, and availability of
works substitutes and alternatives for plastics; and
• Allocation method based on physical causality for the
The environmental and health impacts of plastics emitted emissions from multi-input process such as incineration.
to the environment are the subject of active research. The first
sets of characterization factors for plastics emissions have been
developed recently, while further refinements and expansions in
characterization modeling are on-going (Woods et al., 2021; Lavoie 4.3 Policy implications
et al., 2022; Maga et al., 2022; Corella-Puertas et al., 2023). The areas
that need further research include: Despite the limitations in the current knowledge and
understanding as discussed in the previous section, urgent actions
• The method to quantify the impacts of plastics through e.g., are needed to minimize further damages by polymers to the
entanglement, entrapment, and suffocation and integrating environment. To that end, the concept of polymers of concern
it into life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) methods for (PoC) provides a focus for global regulatory efforts by highlighting
ecosystem health; intrinsic and extrinsic properties of the polymers that can be used
• Empirically backed models for the fate, transport, and effects to prioritize regulation on those that cause more concern.
of polymers emitted to human and natural environments We recommend policymakers to examine not only hazard-
including their fragmentation, degradation, leaching, and based criteria but also life-cycle-based criteria in the context of
toxicological characteristics; polymer type and the domain of applications. We believe that
• Better quantitative evaluation of the micro- and nano-plastic regulatory targets should be defined by the polymer types and
release potential from plastic products, how their sizes and corresponding domain of applications that most adversely affect
shapes affect human exposure potential to the polymers the environment and human health throughout the life cycle.
themselves as well as the associated chemicals embedded However, given the presence of uncertainties and information gaps,
within, and the resulting human health impacts; we believe that additional criteria should be considered following

Suh et al. 10.3389/frsus.2024.1399431
the precautionary principle including the volume of polymer Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review &
emissions to the environment. We believe that cost, availability and editing. A-MB: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation,
environmental impacts of polymer alternatives should be carefully Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review &
examined before a ban or phasing down of a polymer application editing. PF: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation,
is implemented. Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review &
It is also important to consider local and regional capacities editing. DL: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation,
(i.e., analytical facilities, institutional setup etc.) when regulating Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review &
polymers (as well as chemicals or products). For example, if editing. DM: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation,
restrictions on certain polymers are imposed only in some regions, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review &
those polymers may be diverted to the regions with less capacity to editing. RM: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation,
monitor, assess or regulate them. Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
In addition, there is a need for harmonized information LM: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition,
disclosure and reporting and international cooperation. In Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources,
particular, policymakers should consider labeling and information Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
disclosure on chemical constituents and associated chemicals used
in plastics and plastics products.
Lastly, we recognize the challenges of phasing out a polymer
Funding
or chemical (Ujaczki et al., 2022), and therefore we believe that
it is important for policy makers to consider the whole suite
The author(s) declare financial support was received for
of approaches to mitigating the adverse impacts of plastics, not
the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
just ban and phase-out. They include, but are not limited to:
PF was supported by the Partnership for the Assessment of
(1) economic incentives / disincentives to correct the market
Risks from Chemicals (PARC) project (grant 101057014) funded
failure that makes environmentally worse products appear cheaper
under the European Union’s Horizon Europe Research and
(e.g., regulation to favor reusable over single-use products);
Innovation program.
(2) alternative design of product applications (such as single-
material bottles or shoes for easier recycling or mandating the
one-stroke peelable labels on PET bottle), (3) regulatory and
economic incentives for better collection and recycling of end-of- Conflict of interest
life plastics, (4) intercepting plastics in major riverine that feed
plastics to ocean, and (5) alternative disposal system for wastewater SS was employed by Watershed Technology Inc. RM was
treatment facilities. employed by Carbon Minds GmbH.
The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted
in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that
Author’s note could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
The author(s) declared that they were an editorial board
A shorter version of this document will be published as a Policy member of Frontiers, at the time of submission. This had no impact
Brief by the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP). on the peer review process and the final decision.
The current article is intended to provide the full context and
references in support of the Policy Brief. The views expressed in this
article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those Publisher’s note
of the United Nations Environment Programme.
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the
authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated
Author contributions organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the
reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or
SS: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or
Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, endorsed by the publisher.
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Conceptual Framework For Identifying Polymers of C

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Conceptual Framework For Identifying Polymers of C

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PUBLISHED 23 April 2024

Conceptual framework for

life cycle assessment, polymers of concern, precautionary principle, regrettable

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PUR Phosgene is used for the synthesis of isocyanate-based PUR12

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Polymer % usage1 Main application areas (illustrative Recyclability, in Availability of potential

13% Consumer & institutional Products (lids, toys,

4% Building & construction (tubing, pipes, etc.) (NO)

18% Building & construction (pipes and tanks, drums, (NO)

PET 65% Textiles (fibers) (NO) Sustainable natural fibers

24% Consumer & institutional Products (electrical (NO)

8% Building & construction (NO)

PS 34% Building & construction (NO) Natural fibers for insulation5

19% Transportation - other (e.g., cushioning material (NO)

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TABLE 4 Annual production and environmental accumulation of polymers (criterion 4, “leakage”)∗ .

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