ASIAN JOURNAL OF FORESTRY

Volume 6, Number 2, December 2022 E-ISSN: 2580-2844

Pages: 91-96 DOI: 10.13057/asianjfor/r060205

Vertical distribution of soil properties and soil organic carbon in

community managed forest of Siwalik Hill, Nepal

UCHITA LAMICHHANE1,♥, PRAMOD GHIMIRE2

1College of Natural Resources Management, Katari. Udayapur, Nepal. Tel./Fax.: +977-35-450273, email: [email protected]
2Agriculture and Forestry University, Faculty of Forestry. Hetauda, Nepal

Manuscript received: 29 August 2022. Revision accepted: 13 October 2022.

Abstract. Lamichhane U, Ghimire P. 2022. Vertical distribution of soil properties and soil organic carbon in community managed forest
of Siwalik Hill, Nepal. Asian J For 6: 91-96. Nepal's Community Forestry (CF) approach is globally recognized as an innovative and
successful approach to forest resource management. Shorea robusta Gaertn. is the dominant tree species of Nepal's forest which covers
19.28% of the total stem volume of the country's forest area. Soil represents a significant terrestrial Carbon (C) pool and can play a
significant role in mitigating global warming. Therefore, analyzing soil physicochemical properties and Soil Organic Carbon (SOC)
stock is essential because they are key parameters for evaluating land use management systems. The present study was conducted in the
Durga Mai Community Forest (DMCF) of Makawanpur District, Nepal, to assess the vertical distribution of soil physicochemical
properties and SOC stock. Soil samples within a 1 m profile in five depth layers (0-20 cm, 21-40 cm, 41-60 cm, 61-80cm, and 81-100
cm) were collected and analyzed for Bulk Density (BD), soil texture, soil pH, soil carbon content, Total Nitrogen (TN), Available
Phosphorous (AP), Available Potassium (AK) and SOC stock. Sandy loam was the dominant soil textural class reported throughout the
study area. Average BD, soil pH, TN, AP, and AK in the S. robusta forest's soil in 1 m soil profile depth were found to be 1.16 ±0.07
gmcm-3, 5.78 ±0.62, 0.14 ±0.04 %, 5.94 ±1.04 kgha-1, and 104.20 ±19.66 kgha-1, respectively. The results estimated 107.57 ±3.06 tha-1
of SOC stock in 1 m soil profile, with 0.93 ±0.21% average SOC content. Further, average TN, AP, and AK were found to be decreased
with an increase in soil profile depths. Similarly, soil profile depths significantly affected SOC stock and soil properties like BD, soil pH, TN,
AP, and AK.

Keywords: Community forest, soil organic carbon, soil profile, soil properties

INTRODUCTION global biogeochemical cycle of the terrestrial ecosystem

and are vital for enhancing plant productivity, reducing
Carbon (C) sequestration through forest soil has been land degradation, and mitigating global warming (Lal
reported to be a cost-effective means for mitigating global 2004; Ghimire et al. 2019; Yunanto et al. 2022).
climate change. Soil can store three times more C than the Additionally, they are the focus of a study on the global C
amount in the atmosphere and 3.8 times more than in the balance and climate change. Soil C and soil properties have
biotic pool (Brown et al. 1996; FAO 2001; Lal 2004). strong spatial variability (Zhao et al. 2000), and various
Environmental degradation due to continuing land use and factors such as forest types, land use types, and topography
land cover changes is a major worldwide issue that has can influence soil C and soil properties at various scales
attracted the attention of global soil science studies (Twongyirwe et al. 2013; Fusaro et al. 2019; Ngaba et al.
(Ayoubi et al. 2011). The sustainability and functions of 2020). For example, Sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn.) is the
soil depend on dynamic symmetry among its most dominant tree species in the Terai and Chure
physicochemical and biological properties, and the types ecological region of Nepal (Jackson 1994; DFRS 2016).
and patterns of land constantly influence these uses This species shares the highest tree stem volume (i.e.31.76
(Shrestha et al. 2004; Ghimire et al. 2018;). Soil properties m3ha-1), which is 19.28% of the tree stem volume of the
and soil C are often influenced by land use practices and country (DFRS 2016). The total C stock in Nepal's forests
have been reported to differ with the change in land use has been estimated as 1054.57 million tonnes (176.96 tha-
1
systems. In addition, forested land uses can largely ), out of which forest soils constitute 37.80% (DFRS
influence the quality of the soil, which could be essentially 2016). Therefore, forest land is one of the most important
linked to the sustainable functioning and production of elements that regulate the SOC and soil properties build up
forests and agroecosystems (Kotowska et al. 2015; because SOC and soil properties are greatly influenced by
Manpoong and Tripathi 2019). Studies have reported a vegetation through the organic matter intake (Shi et al.
significant decline in soil properties and soil C due to forest 2015).
conversion to plantations (van Straaten et al. 2015; Forest ecosystems are the world's largest terrestrial C
Guillaume et al. 2016). Those have raised serious concerns sinks, and their significance for the global C cycle and
regarding the sustainability of such land use types in the climate regulation cannot be ignored (Brown and Pearce
tropics, particularly in Nepal (Lal 2010). 1994; Lal 2005). Community Forestry has been regarded as
Soil C and soil properties are important factors in the the highest priority of Nepal's forestry sector and is widely
92 ASIAN JOURNAL OF FORESTRY 6 (2): 91-96, December 2022

acclaimed as a successful forest management approach. District, Nepal (27° 32′ N, 85° 21′ E) (Figure 1). The forest
About 40% of the national forest in Nepal is under covers 496.85 ha of the area. It consists mainly of natural S.
Community Forestry, where more than 3 million robusta vegetation and other associated species such as
households are beneficiary users (DoF 2017; Ghimire and Terminalia tomentosa, T. bellerica, Lagerstroemia
Lamichhane 2020). Recently, the opportunity for parviflora, Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia catechu, and Michelia
management of forests for enhancement of biomass and champaca. The study area is characterized by a tropical
soil carbon sequestration and as a sink of greenhouse gases climate with an average temperature of 16 to 30 degrees
(GHGs) has emerged as a potential benefit for local Celsius and rainfall of 220 mm. The forest area represents
communities participating in carbon trading under REDD+ sandstones, claystone, and conglomerates with quartz,
agreements (Shrestha et al. 2013; Pandey et al. 2016). feldspar, and opaque minerals of the lower and middle
Furthermore, vertical patterns of SOC and soil properties Chure range (DMCFUG 2017).
can be used as an input or an independent validation for
biogeochemical models, which can help understand how Soil sampling
terrestrial ecosystems respond to climate change (Eswaran Due to homogenous topography and forest cover
et al. 1993; Kern 1994; Mi et al. 2008). Previous research density, soil samples were collected from 13 plots within
mainly concentrated on the topsoil C stock; however, the the S. robusta forest following the simple random sampling
dynamics of C in deeper soil layers and the underlying technique. A W-type sample frame was used to represent
mechanisms that govern vertical distributions of SOC and all possible locations (Figure 1). Bulk samples were
soil properties are still poorly understood (Jobbagy and collected from a soil pit of 30 cm diameter by a cylindrical
Jackson 2000; Dahal and Kafle 2013). Only recently has core sampler (5.5 cm diameter and 20cm length) for each
the study of SOC in subsurface profiles attracted significant incremental depth. The depth increment was 20 cm for the
scientific attention due to the realization that subsoil carbon upper to lower soil profile (0-20 cm, 20-40 cm, 40-60 cm,
plays a significant role in the overall C storage within a soil 60-80 cm, and 80-100 cm) down to 1 m soil profile. The
profile (Batjes 1996). In Nepal, very few studies cover the fresh soil collected from each depth was kept in polythene
vertical distribution of soil properties and SOC in forest bags and transported to the laboratory for further analysis.
ecosystems. Therefore, this study addresses this issue by The selection of a 1 m soil profile was based on the
addressing questions such as "What are the overall vertical literature that soil C studies usually consider a fixed soil
patterns of SOC in S. robusta forest?" How much SOC is depth, typically 1 m. In addition, global soil surveys based
stored by the biosphere in the deep soil profile layers, and on vegetation units (Post et al. 1982) and soil taxonomic
what impact do soil characteristics have on the soil C pool? units indicate that the soil stores; 1500-1600 Pg of C in this
first meter (Eswaran et al. 1993; Batjes 1996). Further,
samples were sieved through a 2 mm mesh sieve to
MATERIALS AND METHODS differentiate roots, stones, and debris, if any, and made
ready for soil physicochemical analyses.
Study area
The study was conducted in the Durga Mai Community
Forest of Bakaiya Rural Municipality of Makawanpur

Figure 1. Map representing the study area n the Durga Mai Community Forest of Bakaiya Rural Municipality, Makawanpur District, Nepal
 LAMICHHANE & GHIMIRE – Soil properties and soil organic carbon in community 93

Analysis of SOC and soil properties be 1.16 gmcm-3 which ranged from 1.03 ± 0.09 gmcm-3 (0-
The core sampling method was used to determine soil 20 cm depth) to 1.29 ± 0.07 gmcm-3 (80-100 cm depth)
bulk density (Blake and Hartge 1986). Then, soil texture (Table 1). BD increased with increasing depths throughout
was determined by the Bouyoucos hydrometer method the 1 m soil profile.
(Bouyoucos 1962). Next, the textural classification, ANOVA test showed a significant difference of soil BD
according to the United States Department of Agriculture (p = 0.001) between different soil layers at a 5% level of
(USDA), was followed to give the textural class of soil. significance.
Further, soil pH was measured by a digital pH meter Soil texture and BD were the physical properties under
(McLean 1982), total nitrogen (TN) by the Kjeldahl investigation in the study area. Sandy loam texture was
method (Bremner and Mulvaney 1982), available observed in the S. robusta forest. The result is in line with
phosphorus (AP) by Olsen's and Somers method (Olsen Bajracharya et al. (2007), who reported that the textural
and Sommers 1982), available potassium (AK) by flame class of forest soil of Makawanpur district is sandy loam to
photometer method (Thomas 1982) and SOC content by silt loam. The study found that BD in S. robusta forest was
the colorimetric method (Anderson and Ingram 1993). increased with an increase in soil profile depths with an
Then, the total SOC stock was estimated by using the average BD of 1.16 gmcm-3 throughout 1 m soil profile
following formula recommended by Chhabra et al. (2003): depth. The mean value is in line with the result of 1.17
gmcm-3 as reported by Ghimire et al. (2018) in the S.
SOC (tha-1) = Organic carbon content % x soil bulk density (gm robusta dominated forest in Makawanpur district, Nepal.
cm-3) × thickness of soil horizon (cm) Similarly, Kafle (2019) estimated that the mean value of
BD was 1.28 gmcm-3 in the S. robusta dominated
The one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used community forests in Chitwan, Nepal. Furthermore, the BD
to test the effects of different soil profile layers on soil depended on various factors such as compaction,
physicochemical properties (such as bulk density, SOC consolidation and amount of organic matter present in the
content, soil pH, TN, AP, and AK), and SOC stock at a 5% soil but was negatively correlated to the organic carbon
level of significance. Further, the Pearson correlation test content (Morisada et al. 2004).
was applied to find the relationship between the studied
variables.
Soil chemical properties
The average soil pH in the study area was 5.78, with pH
throughout the soil profile ranging from 4.65 ± 0.77 to 6.5±
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 0.46. The maximum soil pH was recorded in the lower soil
profile layer (i.e., 80-100 cm depth) and the minimum in
Soil physical properties the top soil profile layer (i.e., 0-20 cm depth). With the
Sandy loam was the dominant soil textural class increase in depth, there was a gradual increase in soil pH
reported throughout the study area. However, the silt loam (Table 2). The average TN, AP, and AK in 1 m soil profile
textural class was also found in the sub-soil layer. The depth in the S. robusta forest were 0.14 %, 5.94 kgha-1, and
overall mean of the sand, silt, and clay fraction was found 104.20 kgha-1, respectively (Table 2). The highest amount
to be 54.40± 5.07%, 30.14± 5.33%, and 15.46± 3.01% in S. of average TN, AP, and AK were recorded in 0-20 cm, and
robusta forest (Table 1). Similarly, the average BD of the the lowest was found in 80-100 m depth (Table 2).
S. robusta forest soil in 1 m soil profile depth was found to

Table 1. Soil physical properties in Shorea robusta forest

Soil physical properties Fraction (%)

Texture Sand Silt Clay
54.40± 5.07 30.14± 5.33 15.46± 3.01
BD Depths (cm) P value
(gmcm-3) 0-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100
1.03± 0.09 1.12± 0.07 1.18± 0.06 1.20± 0.05 1.29± 0.07 0.001*
Note:*p < 0.05 is considered statistically significant at a 5% level of significance

Table 2. Soil chemical properties in Shorea robusta forest

Soil chemical Depths (cm) P

properties 0-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100 Value
pH 4.65± 0.77 5.34± 0.80 6.02± 0.60 6.38 ± 0.48 6.50± 0.46 0.001*
TN (%) 0.21± 0.06 0.18± 0.05 0.13± 0.04 0.10± 0.04 0.07± 0.02 0.001*
AP(kgha-1) 10.62± 1.40 8.20± 0.90 5.70± 1.02 3.38± 1.09 1.80± 0.78 0.001*
AK(kgha-1) 166.84± 36.30 125.22± 24.96 98.90± 16.60 74.18± 8.78 55.85±11.68 0.001*
Note:*p < 0.05 is considered statistically significant at a 5% level of significance
94 ASIAN JOURNAL OF FORESTRY 6 (2): 91-96, December 2022

Table 3. Correlation analysis of different variables

Variables SOC stock pH BD TN AP AK

SOC stock 1 -0.664* -0.301* 0.601* 0.854* 0.793*
pH -0.664* 1 - - - -
BD -0.301* - 1 - - -
TN 0.601* - - 1 - -
AP 0.854* - - - 1 -
AK 0.793* - - - - 1
Note:*p < 0.05 is considered statistically significant at a 5% level of significance

Table 4. SOC content % and SOC stock in different soil layers

Soil depths (cm) SOC content (%) P Value SOC stock (t/ha-1) P Value
0-20 1.24± 0.11 25.78 ± 3.90
20-40 1.01± 0.09 22.86 ± 2.51
40-60 0.92± 0.11 0.001* 21.75± 3.24 0.001*
60-80 0.78± 0.09 19.10 ± 1.94
80-100 0.69± 0.07 18.08 ± 2.90
Total 107.57± 3.06
Note:*p < 0.05 is considered statistically significant at a 5% level of significance

The studied chemical properties (pH, TN, AP, and AK) Soil organic carbon stock
of the soil were found to be significantly different Soil depth (p < 0.05) had a significant effect on both
(p=0.001) between different soil layers at a 5% level of SOC content % and the SOC stocks in the S. robusta forest
significance (Table 2). Furthermore, the study also revealed soil (Table 4). The average SOC content in S. robusta
a significant relationship between the calculated variables. forest was recorded highest at the top soil layer, i.e., 0-20
The pH of the forest soil was negatively correlated with cm depth with 1.24 ±0.11%, whereas the lowest was at 80-
SOC stock (r = -0.664; p = 0.001). However, SOC stock 100 cm depth with 0.69 ±0.07% (Table 4). Accordingly,
had strong positive correlation with TN (r = 0.601; p = the total SOC stock within 1 m soil profile depth in S.
0.001), AP (r = 0.854; p = 0.001) and AK (r = 0.793; p = robusta forest was 107.57 ±3.06 tha-1 (Table 4). Both SOC
0.001). Those indicate that SOC stock has a negatively content and SOC stock were found higher at the upper
strong correlation with soil pH. In contrast, TN has a layer of soil in all depth intervals. The greater the depth,
moderate positive correlation, while AP and AK have a the lower the organic carbon content and SOC stock in all
positively strong correlation with SOC stock (Table 3). depth intervals of S. robusta forest. For example, in 0-20
The soils in the study area were acidic, with an average cm soil profile depth, SOC content and SOC stock were
pH of 5.78. Kafle (2019) reported average soil pH of 5.30 found to be 1.24 ±0.11% and 25.78 ±3.90 tha-1,
in the S. robusta dominated forest of Chitwan district, respectively; whereas in 80-100 cm soil depth, it was
Nepal. Previous studies also revealed that moderately reported 0.69 ±0.07% % and 18.08 ±2.90 tha-1 respectively
acidic soils dominate Nepal due to parent material (such as (Table 4).
sandstone, siltstone, quartzite, and shale) and the ANOVA test showed that both SOC content and SOC
atmospheric nature of aluminum in these soils (Ghimire stock were significantly higher (p≤0.001) in the topsoil
and Bista 2016; Pandey et al. 2018). Similarly, the average compared to the subsoil in the S. robusta forest (Table 3).
TN, AP, and AK in the study area were in the range of 0.07 Furthermore, the study found that BD of the forest soil was
% to 0.21%, 1.80 to 10.62 kgha-1, and 55.85 to 166.84 kgha- strongly negatively correlated with SOC stock (r = -0.301;
1
, respectively (Table 2). With the increase in soil depth, p = 0.001). Those suggest that SOC stock negatively
there was a gradual reduction in TN, AP, and AK correlates weakly with soil pH (Table 3).
throughout the soil profile depth. That could be attributed Forest soils are natural reserves and sinks of C and play
to increased uptake and less contribution of nitrogen, an important role in sequestrating atmospheric carbon to
phosphorous, and potassium nutrients by the litters mitigate global climate change (Wang et al. 2004; Lewis et
(Shrestha et al. 2004; Twongyirwe et al. 2013; Manpoong al. 2009; Ghimire et al. 2018). The variables investigated
and Tripathi 2019;). The higher amount of soil nutrients for the analysis of SOC stock were soil BD and SOC
like nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium in the top soil content percentage (%). Significant variations in all tested
profile can be accounted for by a considerable amount of variables were found among all the soil profile depths in
litter decomposition and higher inputs of organic matter the S. robusta forest (Table 3). The mean value of SOC
through litter fall (Manpoong and Tripathi 2019). content (0.93%) reported in the study was in line with that
of Ghimire et al. (2018) and Kafle (2019), who reported
SOC content of 0.99% and 0.95%, respectively, in S.
robusta dominated community forest in Chitwan and
 LAMICHHANE & GHIMIRE – Soil properties and soil organic carbon in community 95

Makawnpur districts of Nepal respectively. Total SOC Bajracharya RM, Sitaula BK, Sharma S, Jeng A. 2007. Soil quality in the
Nepalese context: An analytical review. Intl J Ecol Environ Sci 33:
stock in 1 m soil profile depths of S. robusta was estimated 143-158.
to be 107.57 tha-1. The finding was in line with the value Batjes NH. 1996. Total carbon and nitrogen in the soils of the world. Eur J
96.53 tha-1 and 110 tha-1 of SOC stocks in the S. robusta Soil Sci 47: 151-163. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2389.1996.tb01386.x.
forest in Nepal, as reported by Gurung et al. (2015) and Blake GR, Hartge KH. 1986. Bulk density. In: Page AL (eds). Methods of
Soil Analysis Part 1. 2nd ed. Physical and Mineralogical Methods
Ghimire et al. (2019), respectively.
Agronomy Monographs. ASA; SSSA. Maidson, Wisconsin, USA.
Similarly, Kafle (2019) estimated a SOC stock of Bouyoucos GJ. 1962. Hydrometer method improved for making particle
122.36 tha-1 in the 1 m soil profile depth in S. robusta size analysis of soils. Agron J 54: 464-465. DOI:
dominated community forest in Chitwan, Nepal. The 10.2134/agronj1962.00021962005400050028x.
Bremner JM, Mulvaney CS. 1982. Nitrogen total. In: Page AL (eds).
modest range of variation could be due to difference in Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2, 2nd ed. Chemical and
forest conditions, soil properties, soil sampling techniques, Microbiological Properties, ASA. Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
and management practices (Spurgeon et al. 2013; Kafle Brown K, Pearce D. 1994. The economic value of non-timber benefits of
2019). The higher concentration of SOC content and SOC tropical forests: Carbon storage. In: Weiss J, Elgar E (eds). The
Economics of Project Appraisal and the Environment; New Horizons
stock were observed in the top soil layer, which could be in Environment Economics. Aldershot Publishing, Chelttenham, UK.
attributed to higher soil organic matter content and less Brown S, Sathaye J, Cannell M Kauppi PE. 1996. Mitigation of carbon
influence of parent materials (Dhakal et al. 2010). Pandey emissions to the atmosphere by forest management. Commonw For
and Bhusal (2016) reported the declining trend of SOC Rev 75: 80-91.
Chhabra A, Palria S, Dadhwal VK. 2003. Soil organic carbon pool in
stocks with the increase in soil depth in S. robusta
Indian forests. For Ecol Manag 173: 187-199. DOI: 10.1016/S0378-
dominated forests of hills and Terai regions of Nepal. 1127(02)00016-6.
Gautam and Mandal (2013) also reported a decreasing SOC Dahal KN, Kafle G. 2013. Organic carbon in soil and biomass of an Alnus
content and SOC stock trend with increased soil depth in a nepalensis forest in Kathmandu, Nepal. Intl J Agric For 3: 240-243.
DFRS. 2016. Forest Resource Assessment (2010-2014), Nepal.
tropical moist forest in eastern Nepal. Land use types and
Department of Forest Research and Survey (DFRS), Babarmahal,
management practices significantly impact SOC and soil Kathmandu, Nepal.
properties (Spurgeon et al. 2013; Ghimire et al. 2018; Dhakal S, Koirala M, Sharma E, Subedi NR. 2010. Effect of Land Use
Ghimire et al. 2019). Change on Soil Organic Carbon Stock in Balkhu Khola Watershed
Southwestern Part of Kathmandu Valley, Central Nepal. Conference
In conclusion, this study was mainly focused on Paper: World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology.
analyzing the vertical distribution of SOC stock and soil DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.4383.0243
physicochemical properties within a 1 m soil profile depth DMCFUG. 2017. Operational Plan of Durga Mai Community Forest User
in the S. robusta dominated community forest of Nepal. Group. Makawanpur District, Nepal.
DoF. 2017. Hamro Ban. Annual Report of Fiscal Year 2016-2017,
The study revealed the potential of S. robusta dominated
Department of Forest. Kathmandu, Nepal.
community forest in C storage and enhancing soil Eswaran H, Van den Berg E, Reich P. 1993. Organic carbon in soils of the
physicochemical properties. The total SOC stock of the world. Soil Sci Soc Am J 57: 192-194. DOI:
forest soil in 1 m soil profile depth was 107.57 tha -1. 10.2136/sssaj1993.03615995005700010034x.
FAO. 2001. Soil Carbon Sequestration for Improved Land Management.
Average TN, AP, and AK gradually decreased with
World Soil Resources Report 96. Food and Agriculture Organization,
increased soil profile depth. Soil profile depth had a Rome, Italy.
significant effect on both SOC stock and soil Fusaro C, Sarria-Guzman Y, Chávez-Romero YA. Luna-Guido M,
physicochemical properties in forest soil. Muñoz-Arenas LC, Dendooven L, Estrada-Torres A, Navarro-Noya
YE. 2019. Land use is the main driver of soil organic carbon spatial
distribution in a high mountain ecosystem. PeerJ 7: e7897. DOI:
10.7717/peerj.7897.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Gautam TP, Mandal TN. 2013. Soil characteristics in moist tropical forest
of Sunsari District, Nepal. Nepal J Sci Technol 14: 35-40. DOI:
10.3126/njst.v14i1.8876.
We would like to acknowledge the Durga Mai Ghimire P, Bhatta B, Pokhrel B, Kafle G, Paudel P. 2019. Soil organic
Community Forest User Group, Makawanpur, Nepal, for carbon stocks under different land uses in Chure region of
providing this study's working environment and facilities. Makawanpur District, Nepal. SAARC J Agric 16: 13-23. DOI:
In addition, the authors are thankful to the Regional Soil 10.3329/sja.v16i2.40255.
Ghimire P, Bhatta B, Pokhrel B, Sharma B, Shrestha I. 2018. Soil quality
Laboratory, Hetauda, Nepal, for extending laboratory assessment of different land uses in the Chure region of Central
facilities. The authors declare no conflicts of interest Nepal. J Agric Nat Res 1: 32-42. DOI: 10.3126/janr.v1i1.22220.
affecting the publication of this paper. Ghimire P, Lamichhane U. 2020. Community based forest management in
Nepal: Current status, successes and challenges. Grassroots J Nat
Resour 3: 16-29. DOI: 10.33002/nr2581.6853.03022.
Ghimire R, Bista P. 2016. Crop diversification improves pH in acidic
REFERENCES soils. J Crop Improv 30: 657-667. DOI:
10.1080/15427528.2016.1219894.
Anderson JM, Ingram JSI. 1993. Total organic carbon in soil: Guillaume T, Maranguita D, Murtilaksono K, Kuzyakov Y. 2016.
Colorimetric method. In: Anderson JM, Ingram JSI (eds). Tropical Sensitivity and resistance of soil fertility indicators to land-use
Soil Biology and Fertility: A Handbook of Methods. 2nd ed. CAB changes: New concept and examples from conversion of Indonesian
International, Wallingford, UK. rainforest to plantations. Ecol Indic 67: 49-57. DOI:
Ayoubi S, Khormali F, Sahrawat KL, Rodrigues de Lima AC. 2011. 10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.02.039.
Assessing impacts of land use change on soil quality indicators in a Gurung MB, Bigsby H, Cullen R, Manandhar U. 2015. Estimation of
loessial soil in Golestan Province, Iran. J Agric Sci Technol 13: 727- carbon stock under different management regimes of tropical forest in
742. the Terai Arc Landscape, Nepal. For Ecol Manag 356: 144-152. DOI:
10.1016/j.foreco.2015.07.024.
96 ASIAN JOURNAL OF FORESTRY 6 (2): 91-96, December 2022

Jackson JK. 1994. Manual of Afforestation in Nepal, Volume 2 (2 nd Pandey HP, Bhusal M. 2016. A comparative study on carbon stock in Sal
edition). Forest Survey and Research Division, Babarmahal, (Shorea robusta) forest in two different ecological regions of Nepal.
Kathmandu, Nepal. Banko Janakari 26: 24-31. DOI: 10.3126/banko.v26i1.15498.
Jobbagy EG, Jackson RB. 2000. Vertical distribution of soil organic Pandey SS, Cockfield G, Maraseni TN. 2016. Assessing the roles of
carbon and its relation to climate and vegetation. Ecol Appl 10: 423- community forestry in climate change mitigation and adaptation: a
436. DOI: 10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[0423:TVDOSO]2.0.CO;2. case study from Nepal. For Ecol Manag 360: 400-407. DOI:
Kafle G. 2019. Vertical distribution of soil organic carbon and nitrogen in 10.1016/j.foreco.2015.09.040.
a tropical community forest of Nepal. Intl J For Res 2019: 3087570 . Post WM, Emanuel WR, Zinke PJ, Stangenberger AG. 1982. Soil carbon
DOI: 10.1155/2019/3087570. pools and world life zones. Nature 298: 156-159. DOI:
Kern JS. 1994. Spatial patterns of soil organic carbon in the contiguous 10.1038/298156a0.
United States. Soil Sci Soc Am J 58: 439-455. DOI: Shi Z, Li X, Zhang et al. 2015. Impacts of farmland conversion to apple
10.2136/sssaj1994.03615995005800020029x. (Malus domestica) orchard on soil organic carbon stocks and enzyme
Kotowska MM, Leuschner C, Triadiati T, Meriem S, Hertel D. 2015. activities in a semiarid loess region. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci 178: 440-
Quantifying above-and belowground biomass carbon loss with forest 451. DOI: 10.1002/jpln.201400211.
conversion in tropical lowlands of Sumatra (Indonesia). Glob Change Shrestha BM, Sitaula BR, Bajracharya RM. 2004. Soil organic carbon
Biol 21: 3620-3634. DOI: 10.1111/gcb.12979. stocks in soil aggregates under different land use systems in Nepal.
Lal R. 2004. Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change Nutr Cycl Agro-ecosyst 70: 201-213. DOI:
and food security. Science 304: 1623-1627. DOI: 10.1023/B:FRES.0000048472.25373.7e.
10.1126/science.1097396. Shrestha S, Karky BS, Gurung A, Bista R, Vetaas OR. 2013. Assessment
Lal R. 2005. Forest soils and carbon sequestration. For Ecol Manag 220: of carbon balance in community forests in Dolakha, Nepal. Small-
242-258. DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2005.08.015. Scale For 12: 507-517. DOI: 10.1007/s11842-012-9226-y.
Lal R. 2010. Enhancing eco-efficiency in agroecosystems through soil Spurgeon DJ, Keith AM, Schmidt O, Lammertsma DR, Faber JH. 2013.
carbon sequestration. Crop Sci 50: 120-131. DOI: Land-use and land-management change: Relationships with
10.2135/cropsci2010.01.0012. earthworm and fungi communities and soil structural properties.
Lewis SL, Lopez-Gonzalez G, Sonke B, Affum-Baffoe K, Baker TR. BMC Ecol 13: 46. DOI: 10.1186/1472-6785-13-46.
2009. Increasing carbon storage in intact African tropical forests. Thomas GW. 1982. Exchangeable cations. In Page AL (eds). Methods of
Nature 457: 1003-6. DOI: 10.1038/nature07771. Soil Analysis. Chemical and Microbiological Properties. ASA &
Manpoong C, Tripathi SK. 2019. Soil properties under different land use SSSA, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
system of Mizoram, North East India. J Appl Nat Sci 11: 121-125. Twongyirwe R, Sheil D, Majaliwa JGM, Ebanyat P, Tenywa MM, Heist
DOI: 10.31018/jans.v11i1.1999. MV, Kumar L. 2013.Variability of soil organic carbon stocks under
McLean EO. 1982. Soil pH and lime requirement. In: Page AL (eds). different land uses: A study in an afro-montane landscape in
Methods of Soil Analysis. Chemical and Microbiological Properties. southwestern Uganda. Geoderma 193-194: 282-289. DOI:
ASA and SSSA, Madison, Wisconsin, USA. 10.1016/j.geoderma.2012.09.005.
Mi N, Wang S, Liu J, Yu G, Zhang W, Jobbagy E. 2008. Soil inorganic Van Straaten O, Corre MD, Wolf K, Tchienkoua M, Cuellar E, Matthews
carbon storage pattern in China. Glob Change Biol 14: 2380-2387. RB, Veldkamp E. 2015. Conversion of lowland tropical forests to tree
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01642.x. cash crop plantations loses up to one-half of stored soil organic
Morisada K, Ono K, Kanomata H. 2004. Organic carbon stock in forest carbon. PNAS 112: 9956-9960. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1504628112.
soils in Japan. Geoderma 119: 21-32. DOI: 10.1016/S0016- Wang S, Shao M, Mickler R, Ji KJ. 2004. Vertical distribution of soil
7061(03)00220-9. organic carbon in China. Environ Manag 33: 200-209. DOI:
Ngaba M, Ma XQ, Hu YL. 2020. Variability of soil carbon and nitrogen 10.1007/s00267-003-9130-5.
stocks after conversion of natural forest to plantations in Eastern Yunanto T, Amanah F, Wulansari AR, Wisnu NP. 2022. Effect of soil
China. PeerJ 8: e8377. DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8377. properties on plant growth and diversity at various ages of coal mine
Olsen SR, Sommers LE. 1982. Phosphorus. In: Page AL (eds). Methods reclamation in Indonesia. Biodiversitas 23: 459-468. DOI:
of Soil Analysis. Part 2, 2nd ed. Chemical and Microbiological 10.13057/biodiv/d230149.
Properties, ASA and SSSA, Madison, Wisconsin, USA. Zhao Z, Li P, Wang NJ. 2000. Distribution patterns of root systems of
Pandey D, Maharjan B, Chalise D, Shrestha RK, Twanabasu B. 2018. main planting tree species in Weibei Loess Plateau. Chinese J Appl
Digital soil mapping in the Bara District of Nepal using Kriging tool Ecol 11: 37-39.
in ArcGIS. PloS ONE 13 (10): e0206350. DOI:
10.1371/journal.pone.0206350.