Global Ecology and Conservation 48 (2023) e02723

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Global Ecology and Conservation

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/gecco

Integrating community insights into leopard and tiger

conservation: Lessons from the Indian sub-Himalayan forest
Pritha Datta a, *, 1, Dil Bahadur Rahut b, 2, Bhagirath Behera c, 3, Tetsushi Sonobe b, 4
a
Department of Policy and Management Studies, TERI School of Advanced Studies, New Delhi, India
b
Asian Development Bank Institute, Tokyo, Japan
c
Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The coexistence of humans and wildlife often leads to conflicts that could create negative atti­
Coexistence tudes toward predators like tigers (Panthera tigris) and leopards (Panthera pardus), resulting in
Conflict retaliatory killings or a lack of support for conservation efforts. However, human-wildlife
Human
cohabitation is critical for the long-term conservation of several endangered species. Effective
Wildlife
Buxa Tiger Reserve
conservation in this setting demands an understanding of local perspectives toward wildlife. This
India study surveyed forest villagers in India’s Buxa Tiger Reserve regarding their opinions on leopard
and tiger conservation. Attitudes of 345 households across 10 forest villages were analyzed using
a five-point Likert scale and a Generalized Ordered Logistic model, revealing predominant pos­
itive inclinations toward conservation, particularly for leopards. Positive views on leopard con­
servation were common among men, non-tribal communities, larger households, and Buxa East
Division residents. Besides, positive attitudes toward tiger conservation were prevalent among
men, villagers belonging to the Hindu religion, larger households, higher annual incomes, and the
residents of Buxa East Division. The study proposes gender-specific approaches, alternative
livelihoods, awareness campaigns, and spatial planning to bolster the conservation of leopards
and tigers. The findings of this study hold global significance in promoting co-habitation stra­
tegies, fostering a landscape where both humans and apex predators can coexist harmoniously
while enabling local residents to take an increased responsibility for biodiversity conservation.

1. Introduction

The Eastern Himalayas contain a diverse and important landscape that provides crucial habitat for various endangered and
threatened species, including tigers (Panthera tigris) and leopards (Panthera pardus) (Sharma et al., 2020). These big cats are facing
significant challenges due to factors like habitat loss, fragmentation, reduced availability of prey, illegal hunting, and conflicts between
humans and wildlife (Naha et al., 2020; Dhungana et al., 2022). Tigers, which are classified as endangered, have experienced a drastic
95 % decrease in their range, and some remaining areas are at risk of local extinction (Wolf and Ripple, 2017). Despite leopards’

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (P. Datta).
1
ORCID: 0000-0002-6563-8561.
2
ORCID: 0000-0002-7505-5271.
3
ORCID: 0000-0001-9413-5675.
4
ORCID: 0000-0002-9961-9764.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2023.e02723
Received 9 August 2023; Received in revised form 6 November 2023; Accepted 7 November 2023
Available online 8 November 2023
2351-9894/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
 P. Datta et al.
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Global Ecology and Conservation 48 (2023) e02723

Fig. 1. Location of the Buxa Tiger Reserve; (a) Buxa East and West Division and the location of the study villages; (b) Physiography of the reserve.
P. Datta et al. Global Ecology and Conservation 48 (2023) e02723

adaptable characteristics, such as their ability to survive in various habitats, versatile hunting behaviors, and physical attributes that
aid their survival, they still face significant threats that affect their conservation status (Rajaratnam et al., 2016). It is important to note
that, on average, leopards now occupy only 25–37 % of their historical range (Jacobson et al., 2016).
Conservation of leopards and tigers is important as these are the apex predators in many ecosystems (Puri et al., 2020). Their
presence influences the behavior and distribution of their prey species, which helps maintain a balanced predator-prey relationship
and ensures the proper functioning of ecological processes (Ripple et al., 2014). Besides that, a recent study conducted in India
revealed that when forests were given enhanced protection for tiger conservation, 24 % of the forests effectively reduced deforestation
rates and provided climate benefits (Lamba et al., 2023). Additionally, these big cats might indirectly contribute to seed dispersal and
forest regeneration while providing economic opportunities through nature-based tourism (Hämäläinen et al., 2017; Bhattarai et al.,
2021; Sarasola et al., 2016; Braczkowski et al., 2018; Rubalcava-Castillo et al., 2021). Moreover, Thinley et al. (2018) discovered that
conserving tigers can mitigate crop loss and livestock predation by wild animals, including leopards, which are the primary predators
of livestock in the Eastern Himalayan landscape. When tigers are present, other wild predators are displaced from deep forests and
move closer to cropland boundaries, where they prey on herbivores that damage crops, thus reducing crop loss and predation on
unattended livestock (Thinley et al., 2018).
Considering the future challenges of increasing human resource demands and climate change, the conservation of both the tiger
and leopard are crucial for maintaining ecosystem resilience and preventing the loss of their irreplaceable ecological functions (Ripple
et al., 2014). However, to a large extent, the conservation of these wild animals requires the support and cooperation of local com­
munities residing in the forested landscape. Although carnivores have shown the ability to adjust to densely populated human areas
and limited prey availability (Gehr et al., 2017), humans must adapt to carnivores and be willing to tolerate certain conflicts, like
livestock depredation, to foster a successful coexistence between humans and carnivores (Lute et al., 2018). Leopards and tigers often
come into conflict with humans due to competition for space and resources (Sharma et al., 2020). The coexistence of humans and
wildlife often leads to attacks on livestock or, in some cases, on humans themselves (Rajaratnam et al., 2016; Dhungana et al., 2018).
Such conflicts can foster negative attitudes regarding predators, which can lead to retaliatory killings or a lack of support for con­
servation initiatives (Aryal et al., 2014; Vasudeva et al., 2021). Thus understanding the forest villagers’ attitudes towards conservation
initiatives is essential for devising effective strategies that engage and empower local communities in preserving these iconic species.
Against this backdrop, this study was conducted in the Buxa Tiger Reserve of India to (i) assess the attitudes of forest villagers
towards the conservation of leopards and tigers and (ii) identify and analyze the factors affecting such attitudes. In recent years, there
has been a growing concern over the increasing incidents of livestock depredation and loss of human life by leopards in this Tiger
reserve (Kshettry et al., 2017). Leopards are distributed quite uniformly throughout the reserve since anthropogenic disturbances do
not seem to have a direct impact on their presence (TCP, 2016). Additionally, plans are underway to reintroduce tigers into the Buxa
Tiger Reserve from the neighboring state of Assam as part of efforts to restore the ecosystem (The Telegraph, 2022; The Times of India,
2021). Remarkably, there had been no concrete proof of the tigers’ existence in the reserve since 1998; however, in December 2021, a
camera trap successfully captured an image of an adult male tiger (Guha, 2022). It is believed that the scarcity of herbivore prey has led
tigers to move away from Buxa, and as a result, more than 85 spotted deer (Axis axis) were released into the reserve in 2023 to augment
the prey population (The Telegraph, 2023a, 2023b).
In recent times, the opposition from local communities, however, has presented a significant obstacle to India’s initial efforts to
relocate tigers between reserves, as evidenced in the Satkosia Tiger Reserve in Odisha (Jhala et al., 2021). This highlights the crucial
need to understand the perspectives of forest villagers in the Buxa Tiger Reserve regarding the conservation of leopards and tigers. The
reserve already experiences leopard attacks on humans and livestock (Naha et al., 2018), and the reintroduction of tigers after many
years could elicit negative sentiments among the villagers, potentially leading to the failure of the initiative. Past studies suggest that
concerns related to potential livestock loss and fear of tiger movement in and around the village have a negative impact on people’s
attitudes (Gray et al., 2017; Hiroyasu et al., 2019). Unfortunately, there is currently a lack of studies addressing the attitudes of forest
villagers in this context. Hence, the findings of this study will assist conservationists in devising more effective strategies that consider
the needs and concerns of the local communities, ultimately aiming to promote positive attitudes towards conservation and mitigate
conflicts between humans and wildlife.

2. Study area

The Buxa Tiger Reserve is situated in the northeastern region of West Bengal, India. It is nestled in the southern part of the Eastern
Himalayas and shares borders with Bhutan in the north and Assam in the east (Fig. 1). It is characterized by a wide range of forest types,
including northern dry deciduous, east Himalayan moist mixed deciduous forest, eastern sub-montane semi-evergreen forest, northern
tropical evergreen forest, and moist sal savannah (Wildlife Wing, 2023). The reserve is also known for its remarkable wildlife, with
notable species such as the Tiger (Panthera tigris), Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), Leopard (Panthera pardus), Clouded leopard
(Neofelis nebulosa), and Indian bison (Bos gaurus) being present.
The establishment of the Buxa Tiger Reserve (BTR) took place in 1983 (Das and Behera, 2023). The reserve covers a total area of
760.87 km2, with 390.58 km2 designated as a Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park and the remaining 370.29 km2 as Reserved
Forests and Other Protected Forests (TCP, 2016). The Buxa Tiger Reserve is administratively divided into two main sections, namely
the East Division and the West Division. Within the boundaries of the reserve, there are 37 forest villages (TCP, 2016). In order to
address the need for labor in teak plantations and fire prevention in forests, the British created these forest villages in this region,
relocating indigenous populations from Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, and the Chotanagpur plateau (Das and Behera, 2023). As a
result, these forest villages are often populated by indigenous or tribal groups, such as Rava, Garo, Mechia, Oraon, Santhal, Bhutia, and

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so on. The livelihoods of these communities are deeply connected to the natural resources of the area (Datta and Behera, 2022a). They
rely on activities such as subsistence farming, gathering non-timber forest products and firewood, and raising livestock (Datta and
Behera, 2022b; Datta and Behera, 2023). They also participate in eco-tourism initiatives, providing services such as guided tours,
homestays, and handicraft production.

3. Data and methods

3.1. Sampling and primary data collection

The study utilized primary data collected from 345 households from ten forest villages of the Buxa tiger reserve (namely, Sankosh,
Indubasti, Garo Basti, Garam (West), Santrabari, 28 Mile, Raimatang, Nimati, Tiyamari, and Gadadhar) (Fig. 1) through face-to-face
interviews conducted from April to May 2023. To ensure representation from both administrative divisions of the reserve (East and
West), five villages were randomly selected from each division. The chosen villages were distributed across the reserve to minimize any
spatial bias.
To determine the appropriate sample size, the study employed the formula developed by Cochran (1977), which is presented as Eq.
(1).

z2 ab
N= (1)
e2
In this equation, N represents the estimated sample size, z is the critical value corresponding to the desired confidence level, a is the
estimated proportion of the attribute in the population, b is equal to 1 − a, and e denotes the allowable error. In this study, assuming
the maximum variability at 50 % (a = 0.5) and a confidence level of 95 % with an allowable error of 5.27 % (0.0527 as a decimal), the
estimated sample size was determined to be 345 households.
The households from each forest village were selected using simple random sampling. The survey primarily targeted the heads of
households as respondents. In cases where the household heads were not available, the interviews were conducted with the second
head of the household. Additionally, the objective of the study was explained to each respondent, and their consent was obtained. The
interviews were then conducted in Bengali and Hindi, as per the agreement and consent of the interviewees.
The interviews were conducted using semi-structured schedules developed by incorporating inputs from various sources, including
a key informant survey, a review of relevant literature (e.g., Bhattarai and Fischer, 2014; Mir et al., 2015; Hariohay et al., 2018;
Dhungana et al., 2022; Sharma and Neupane, 2023), and pre-testing. The key informants who contributed to this process comprised
2–3 older forest villagers (aged 55 and above) from each village, two forest officials from the Forest Department of the Government of
West Bengal, and two forest guards. To ensure the effectiveness and appropriateness of the interview schedule, a pilot survey was also
carried out with eight respondents from the Sankosh village (from the Buxa East division) and Nimati village (from the Buxa West
division). The interview schedules contained questions on forest villagers’ socio-economic conditions, the experience of livestock
predation, cultural background, as well as their attitude towards leopard and tiger conservation.
Forest villagers’ viewpoints on the conservation of leopards and tigers were assessed using a 5-point Likert scale, which ranged
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Participants were asked to express their level of agreement with two statements
concerning the significance of conserving leopards (“To what extent do you agree that leopard conservation is important in Buxa Tiger
Reserve?”) and tigers (“To what extent do you agree that tiger conservation is important in Buxa Tiger Reserve?”). Before inquiring
about their attitudes towards tiger conservation, the respondents were briefed about the official decision to reintroduce tigers into the
Buxa area. This background information was provided to ensure respondents were informed before expressing their attitudes toward
tiger conservation. Each interview lasted approximately 50–55 min, allowing ample time for the respondents to freely express their

Table 1
Choice of explanatory variables for analyzing the factors influencing the conservation attitude of forest villagers towards the conservation of leopards
and tigers.
Variables Description Source

Age Continuous, age of the respondent in years Dhungana et al. (2022); Sharma and Neupane (2023)
Gender Dummy, 1 =Male, 0 =Female Mir et al. (2015);Hariohay et al. (2018);Doubleday
and Rubino (2022)
Religion Dummy, 1 =Hindus, 0 =Non Hindus Bhattarai and Fischer (2014)
Ethnicity Dummy, 1 =Tribal, 0 =Non-tribal Roy et al. (2022); Dhungana et al. (2022)
Education Continuous, years of formal education of the respondent Dhungana et al. (2022); Sharma and Neupane (2023)
Household size Continuous, the total number of the household members Mir et al. (2015);Roy et al. (2022)
Migration Continuous, the total number of the migrated members in the household Field experience
Landholding size Continuous, the landholding size of the household in hectares Mir et al. (2015)
Annual income Continuous, log of the total annual income of a household in Rs. Hariohay et al. (2018)
Livestock size Continuous, total number of livestock in the household Mir et al. (2015); Hanson et al. (2019)
Livestock Continuous, total number of livestock depredation by leopard during the last two Mir et al. (2015); Hanson et al. (2019); Sharma and
depredation years in the household Neupane (2023)
Division Dummy, 1 =Respondent from the Buxa East division, 0 = Respondent from the Field experience
Buxa West division

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views and opinions.

3.2. The generalized ordered logit regression model

To analyze the factors influencing the attitudes of forest villagers towards the conservation of leopards and tigers, the generalized
ordered logistic regression was conducted using the Stata program ‘gologit2’. Since the dependent variable (i.e., attitude towards
leopards and tigers) was in an ordered scale, the ordered logistic model was most appropriate. However, an important assumption
underlying the ordered logistic model is that the relationship between each pair of outcome groups is identical. This assumption is
referred to as the proportional odds assumption or the parallel regression assumption. In cases where this assumption is violated, a
more appropriate model to use would be the generalized ordered logistic model (Williams, 2006). The explanatory variables used in
the analysis are detailed in Table 1, derived from previous research and the uniqueness of the study area.
In our case, as per the test of parallel lines, the proportional odds assumption has not held, since the Chi-Square statistic was 0.003
and 0.000 for the models for leopard and tiger conservation attitude, respectively. Both of the values are < 0.05, therefore, the
generalized ordered logit regression is the most appropriate. It offers a flexible modeling approach that relaxes the restrictions of the
proportional odds or parallel lines models used in ordinary ordered logit regression. It also provides a balance between model
simplicity and interpretability compared to non-ordinal methods like multinomial logistic regression (Abegunde et al., 2019). The
model can be represented by Eq. (2):
exp(αj + Xi βj )
P(Yi > j) = g(Xβj ( )], j = 1, 2, ……., M − 1 (2)
1 + [exp αj + Xi βj

Here, M refers to the number of categories in the ordinal dependent variable. From the above equation, we can determine the
probabilities of Y taking on each value from 1 to M:
( )
P(Yi = 1) = 1 − g Xi βj (3)
( ) ( )
P(Yi = j) = g Xi βj − 1 − g Xi βj j = 2, ……, M − 1P(Yi = M) = g(Xi βM − 1) (4)

Yi = β0 + β1 X1 + β2 X2 + …βn Xn + μi (5)
The dependent variable Yi represents the dependent variable, which denotes the level of agreement ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The X1 ….Xn are the explanatory variables, and the β1 …βn are the parameters associated with the
explanatory variables. The intercept is represented by β0 ; and μi stands for the error term.
The generalized ordered logistic regression can be considered equivalent to the logistic regression model when M = 2, but when M
> 2, it requires estimating a series of M - 1 binary logit regressions (Williams, 2006). For instance, regarding attitudes towards the
importance of leopard and tiger conservation, with M = 5, four binary logit regressions are performed, sequentially combining the
categories of the dependent variable. In the first regression (indicated as Y > 1 in the results tables), category j = 1 is recoded as zero,
while all other categories j = 2,.,5 are recoded as one. In the second binary regression (Y > 2), the initial two categories (j = 1 and

Table 2
Demographic and socio-economic details of the sample forest villagers (n = 345) residing in the Buxa Tiger Reserve.
Particulars Min (Max) Mean (St. Dev)
Age 18 (84) 45.03 (13.12)
Education 0 (17) 4.71 (4.52)
Household size 1 (10) 4.19 (1.31)
Migrated household members 0 (3) 0.36 (0.61)
Landholding size (hectare) 0.01 (8.27) 1.15 (0.86)
Annual income (Indian Rupee) 12,500 (842,000) 131,481.04 (96,899.31)
Livestock size (no.) Cattle 0 (25) 2.57 (3.29)
Bufalo 0 (13) 0.16 (1.15)
Goat 0 (60) 2.20 (4.36)
Sheep 0 (1) 0.01 (0.11)
Pig 0 (8) 0.50 (1.06)
Chickens 0 (150) 4.31 (10.06)
Livestock depredation during last 2 years (no.) 0 (19) 1.41 (2.76)
Particulars Category Count ( %)
Religion Hindus 214 (62.03)
Buddhists 16 (4.64)
Christians 115 (33.33)
Gender Male 259 (75.07)
Female 86 (24.93)
Ethnicity Tribal 213 (61.74)
Non-tribal 132 (38.26)
Landholding size (hectare) <1 198 (57.39)
1–2 108 (31.30)
2–9 39 (11.31)

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j = 2) are transformed into zeros, while the rest of the categories are converted into ones. Likewise, in the third regression (Y > 3),
categories 1–3 are set as zeros, and in the fourth regression (Y > 4), categories 1–4 are designated as zeros, respectively.
Higher values on the explanatory variable are indicated by positive coefficients, suggesting an increased likelihood of the
respondent belonging to a higher category of Y. On the other hand, negative coefficients indicate that higher values on the independent
variable raise the likelihood of being in the current category or a lower category (Abegunde et al., 2019). However, a limitation of the
Generalized Ordered Logistic model is that it releases all variables from the parallel-lines constraint, even though only a few may
violate the assumption (Williams, 2006).
To address this issue, we utilized the ‘autofit’ option in ‘gologit2’, and the global Wald test revealed that in the final model for
attitude towards leopard conservation, twenty-four constraints were imposed, while for attitude towards tiger conservation, twenty-
seven constraints were imposed. This corresponds to eight variables (education, livestock, household size, migration, gender, age, age
square, and income) in the leopard conservation model and nine variables (age, age square, gender, landholding size, migration,
livestock, division, income, ethnicity) in the tiger conservation model, ensuring their effects adhere to the parallel-lines assumption.

4. Results

4.1. General information on the sample forest villagers

Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics of 345 forest villagers and their households who were part of the sample. The observed
ages ranged from 15 to 84 years, with a mean age of 45.03 years, indicating that the majority of the villagers were in their working age.
The sample consisted of 259 males, representing 75.07 % of the participants, and 86 females, accounting for 24.93 % of the sample.
This gender disproportion can be attributed to the fact that household heads, who were primarily interviewed, are predominantly men,
aligning with the sociocultural norms of the villages. The sample also included a significant proportion of tribal communities, such as
Rabha, Dukpa, Garo, Oraon, Munda, Mech, Khariya, and Nagesia, comprising approximately 61.74 % of the forest villagers. The
respondents had an average of 4.71 years of schooling, with a maximum of 17 years. More than 36 % of the sample villagers had no
formal education, while only 7.25 % and 5.80 % had completed secondary education (10 years) and higher secondary education (12
years), respectively. This can be attributed to a lack of local educational facilities, poor financial circumstances, early involvement in
earning activities, and a devaluation of formal education, all contributing to low educational attainment.
The average number of people living in each household within the surveyed village was four, with the largest household consisting
of ten individuals (Table 2). On average, the villagers owned 1.15 ha of land. The majority of respondents belonged to the marginal
landholder group (below 1 hectare) at 57.39 %, followed by the small landholder group (1–2 ha) at 31.30 %. The remaining villagers
possessed land ranging from over 2–9 ha. Common crops cultivated by the farmers in these forest villages included paddy (Oryza
sativa), maize (Zea mays), potato (Solanum tuberosum), areca nut (Areca catechu), banana (Musa), and seasonal vegetables.
Approximately 30.14 % of the households had 1–3 members who migrated to other states, such as Tamilnadu, Sikkim, and Kerala, for
employment. When asked open-ended questions about the work type of the migrated members, the respondents mentioned different
non-farm occupations such as day laborers, drivers, army personnel, and hotel workers.
Livestock rearing was also a significant part of the villagers’ livelihoods, with an average of 10 livestock per household and a

Fig. 2. Forest villagers’ (n = 345) level of agreement regarding the importance of conserving leopard and tiger in the Buxa Tiger Reserve.

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maximum of 154. Over the past two years (2021–2022), the villagers experienced an average loss of one livestock, with a maximum
loss of 19. Most of these losses occurred during nighttime, according to the villagers’ reports. The average annual income of the
surveyed households amounted to Rs. 131,481.04, ranging from Rs. 12,500 to Rs. 842,000, with a standard deviation of Rs. 96,899.31.
Apart from income derived from livestock and agriculture, various government programs such as old age pensions, basic income
assistance for women (Lakshmi Bhandar Scheme), off-farm activities (e.g., wage labor, income from eco-tourism), and remittances
from migrants also played a significant role in supplementing the villagers’ income (Table 2).

4.2. Attitude of forest villagers toward leopard and tiger conservation

The analysis reveals that a considerable majority of the villagers demonstrated a positive outlook toward conservation efforts
(Fig. 2). Specifically, when asked about their level of agreement regarding leopard conservation, 47.54 % of the sample villagers
expressed a slight agreement, while a slightly lower proportion of 46.96 % showed a similar level of support for tiger conservation.
Moving on to stronger levels of agreement, approximately 22.61 % of the surveyed villagers exhibited a strong agreement towards
conserving leopards, while 20.00 % showed an equivalent level of strong agreement towards tiger conservation.
On the contrary, a small percentage of the respondents, 9.28 %, expressed strong disagreement with tiger conservation, whereas
slightly less, 8.70 %, displayed strong disagreement with leopard conservation. In addition to the above, several respondents,
comprising 13.91 % for leopards and 14.78 % for tiger conservation, exhibited a slight disagreement with the conservation efforts for
these felines. Overall, the findings of this study signifiy that the majority of forest villagers possess a positive inclination towards the
conservation of both leopards and tigers, with higher proportions expressing a slight agreement compared to strong agreement and a
relatively smaller percentage expressing disagreement with conservation efforts (Fig. 2).

4.3. Factors influencing forest villagers’ attitude toward leopard and tiger conservation

Among the selected explanatory variables, five factors were found to have a significant influence on forest villagers’ attitudes
toward leopard conservation (Table 3), specifically regarding more positive attitudes (Y>3 and Y>4). These factors include gender,
ethnicity, household size, migration, and Buxa division. The analysis revealed that forest villagers were more likely to exhibit a positive
attitude towards leopard conservation if they were male, had larger household sizes, and resided in the Buxa East Division (Table 3).
Conversely, individuals who were from the tribal communities as well as had greater numbers of family members who migrated to
other states for work, had a more negative attitude toward leopard conservation. Notably, no significant associations were observed
between forest villagers’ age, religion, education, landholding size, annual income, total livestock size, and livestock depredation with
their positive attitudes toward leopard conservation.
Regarding tiger conservation, six variables were identified as statistically significant predictors of more positive attitudes (Y>3 and
Y>4). These variables include gender, religion, household size, migration, annual income, and division (Table 4). The analysis
revealed that men exhibited a greater propensity for positive attitudes toward tiger conservation when compared to females. Addi­
tionally, forest villagers belonging to the Hindu religion, residing in households with larger family sizes, higher annual incomes, and
located in the East division of Buxa displayed an increased likelihood of holding positive attitudes toward tiger conservation.
Conversely, respondents from households with a higher number of family members who had migrated were found to be less likely to
hold positive attitudes toward tiger conservation (Table 4).

Table 3
Generalized ordered logistic regression analysis results of variables affecting forest villagers’ (n = 345) attitude towards the importance of leopard
conservation in the Buxa Tiger Reserve.
Variables Y> 1 Y> 2 Y> 3 Y> 4

Coeff. Std. err. Coeff. Std. err. Coeff. Std. err. Coeff. Std. err.

Age -0.0132 0.0476 -0.0132 0.0476 -0.0132 0.0476 -0.0132 0.0476

Age Sq. 0.0003 0.0005 0.0003 0.0005 0.0003 0.0005 0.0003 0.0005
Gender 1.1638*** 0.2568 1.1638*** 0.2568 1.1638*** 0.2568 1.1638*** 0.2568
Religion -0.2356 0.5408 0.9462 0.3801 -0.4072 0.3135 0.2058 0.3243
Ethnicity -1.7437** 0.8312 0.8779** 0.4050 -0.7498** 0.3402 -0.2803 0.3210
Education 0.0145 0.0280 0.0145 0.0280 0.0145 0.0280 0.0145 0.0280
Household size 0.1604* 0.0884 0.1604* 0.0884 0.1604* 0.0884 0.1604* 0.0884
Migration -0.4741*** 0.1930 -0.4741*** 0.1930 -0.4741*** 0.1930 -0.4741*** 0.1930
Landholding size -0.7121** 0.3390 -0.6159** 0.2531 0.2473 0.1997 -0.0848 0.1644
Log annual income 0.3508 0.5202 0.3508 0.5202 0.3508 0.5202 0.3508 0.5202
Log livestock size 0.1633 0.2810 0.1633 0.2810 0.1633 0.2810 0.1633 0.2810
Livestock depredation -0.3972*** 0.0952 -0.5070*** 0.0942 0.0712 0.0736 -0.0480 0.0546
Division -0.3210 0.5939 1.0362*** 0.3334 0.7472*** 0.2892 0.5384* 0.2936
Pseudo R2 = 0.1398

* = p < 0.1; ** = p < 0.05 and *** = p < 0.01.

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Table 4
Generalized ordered logistic regression analysis results of variables affecting forest villagers’ (n = 345) attitude towards the importance of tiger
conservation in the Buxa Tiger Reserve.
Variables Y> 1 Y> 2 Y> 3 Y> 4

Coeff. Std. err. Coeff. Std. err. Coeff. Std. err. Coeff. Std. err.

Age -0.0362 0.0471 -0.0362 0.0471 -0.0362 0.0471 -0.0362 0.0471

Age Sq. 0.0004 0.0005 0.0004 0.0005 0.0004 0.0005 0.0004 0.0005
Gender 0.7301*** 0.2474 0.7301*** 0.2474 0.7301*** 0.2474 0.7301*** 0.2474
Religion 0.0497 0.4278 0.4224 0.3282 -0.3987 0.2927 0.9395*** 0.3634
Ethnicity -1.2091** 0.5954 0.2205 0.3284 -0.3082 0.3050 -0.1868 0.3235
Education 0.0011 0.0280 0.0011 0.0280 0.0011 0.0280 0.0011 0.0280
Household size 0.1581* 0.0861 0.1581* 0.0861 0.1581* 0.0861 0.1581* 0.0861
Migration -0.3992** 0.1883 -0.3992** 0.1883 -0.3992** 0.1883 -0.3992** 0.1883
Landholding size -0.0479 0.1346 -0.0479 0.1346 -0.0479 0.1346 -0.0479 0.1346
Log annual income -1.0304 0.9423 -0.7972 0.7525 1.3173** 0.6501 1.2609* 0.6703
Log livestock size 0.0835 0.2754 0.0835 0.2754 0.0835 0.2754 0.0835 0.2754
Livestock depredation -0.3409*** 0.0765 -0.2926*** 0.0690 0.0307 0.0555 -0.0633 0.0557
Division 0.8766*** 0.2389 0.8766*** 0.2389 0.8766*** 0.2389 0.8766*** 0.2389
Pseudo R2 = 0.3334

* = p < 0.1; ** = p < 0.05 and *** = p < 0.01.

5. Discussion

Our study revealed that forest villagers generally exhibit a positive inclination toward conserving leopards and tigers. Interestingly,
the respondents showed a slightly stronger preference (0.58–2.61 %) for leopard conservation over tiger conservation. These findings
align with the prior research conducted in India (Reddy and Yosef, 2016; Krishnakumar and Nagarajan, 2020) and Nepal (Dhungana
et al., 2022), showing positive attitudes toward leopard and tiger conservation among respondents. However, attitudes as to which
feline is considered might not be always positive since studies have also found negative attitudes of the majority towards the con­
servation. For instance, Uduman et al. (2022) revealed a prioritization of livelihoods over leopard conservation in Sri Lanka, including
a willingness to resort to leopard killing, while Vasudeva et al. (2021) found just 35 % of the villagers in Odisha, India, support for tiger
conservation.
The positive attitudes among the forest villagers in the Buxa Tiger Reserve can be attributed to several factors. Living in close
proximity to the forest allows communities to develop a deeper understanding of the ecosystem’s importance and biodiversity
(Muhamad et al., 2014; Mavhura and Mushure, 2019). Studies have revealed that villagers residing in the same landscape with
leopards and other wildlife for a prolonged duration, interacting with them regularly, acknowledge the vital roles these predators play
(Kumbhojkar et al., 2019). Since the forest villages within Buxa Tiger Reserve have a history dating back to colonial times, the long
coexistence with wildlife across generations could be an important factor shaping the positive attitude observed among the villagers.
Some respondents, while expressing their attitude towards the leopard and tiger conservation, also highlighted that these big cats play
a vital role in cleaning the environment by scavenging on wild animal carcasses inside the forest. Moreover, the villagers’ compre­
hension of the complexities of the food web was evident, as they reasoned that the absence of tigers could lead to unchecked growth in
herbivore populations, resulting in greater agricultural damage to their farmlands. Such understanding of the ecological value of these
species might have contributed to the positive attitude among the forest villagers, as also observed in the study by Reddy and Yosef
(2016) in central India.
In addition to the above, some respondents even mentioned that conservation efforts can have a positive impact on eco-tourism.
The presence of tigers and leopards in the area can attract tourists who are interested in observing these creatures in the natural setting
(TCP, 2016). This tourism activity could bring income and employment opportunities to the local communities through homestays,
guided wildlife tours, and other related activities (Bhattarai and Fischer, 2017). Furthermore, the preference for leopard conservation
over tiger conservation may be influenced by the perception that tigers pose a greater threat to human safety due to their larger size, as
expressed by forest villagers during the interviews. This suggests that some villagers may perceive the risks associated with tigers to
outweigh the perceived benefits of their conservation. It is important to note that these opinions can be shaped by experiences with
wildlife, as well as various demographic, social, and economic factors (Shrestha and Alavalapati, 2006; Kumbhojkar et al., 2019;
Dhungana et al., 2022).
Several South Asian studies (Mir et al., 2015; Dhungana et al., 2022) have indicated that gender plays a significant role in
determining the level of support for leopard and tiger conservation, with women displaying lower levels of support compared to men.
Our research aligns with these findings, but are contrary to the findings of Vasudeva et al. (2021), who found women to be more
supportive of tiger conservation as compared to men in Eastern India. The gender disparity in conservation attitude as observed in our
study may be attributed to women’s heightened fear of losing family members to big cat attacks, as such incidents can lead to social
stigma and economic burdens (Datta et al., 2023). Furthermore, it is worth noting that in developing countries, women are often
assigned the role of gathering firewood, fiber, fruits and other timber and non-timber forest products, which holds true in our research
as well. This can result in women being disproportionately exposed to risks associated with wildlife, such as physical safety concerns
(Doubleday and Rubino, 2022). On the other hand, men in our survey frequently emphasized the economic advantages of tigers and
leopards, likely due to their labor roles, as they often highlighted the increased employment opportunities through eco-tourism

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stemming from the presence of wildlife in Buxa.

A positive attitude towards conservation of the leopards and tigers was found among the individuals from larger households
possibly due to the increased sense of security they experience in forested areas, stemming from the presence of numerous family
members. However, this finding contradicts the results of Shrestha and Alavalapati (2006) and Dhungana et al. (2022) in Nepal. As per
these studies, a greater number of family members can result in heightened reliance on forest resources to meet the expanded family’s
requirements, consequently increasing the likelihood of encounters with wildlife. Besides, households with more members having
migrated to other states in our study area tend to show decreased support for leopard and tiger conservation, possibly due to safety
concerns due to decreased members in the household.
Notably, respondents belonging from the Hindu religion exhibited a significant positive attitude toward tiger conservation, and non
significant positive towards the leopard conservation. This could be attributed to the fact that in Hinduism, the tiger is associated with
the goddess Durga and is considered her ‘vahana’ (vehicle) (Panda and Mohanty, 2021). The cultural and religious significance of tigers
within Hinduism may influence positive attitudes toward their conservation (Bhattarai and Fischer, 2014). Also, forest villagers with
higher incomes exhibit a stronger affinity towards the conservation of tigers, in line with previous research by Vasudeva et al. (2021) in
India and Dhungana et al. (2022) in Nepal. This association may be linked to wealthier families who can bear the loss associated with
wildlife damage compared to economically disadvantaged ones, who bear a higher burden of such incidents. Our study also revealed
that tribal communities, typically considered marginalized, display a lower likelihood of supporting leopard conservation initiatives.
In the case of tiger conservation, a negative attitude was also prevalent among them, however not significant. This finding could be
attributed to their precarious financial conditions, making it more challenging for them to endure losses resulting from leopard attacks.
Unlike many other studies (Mir et al., 2015; Hanson et al., 2019; Sharma and Neupane, 2023), we did not find any significant
association between the size of livestock owned by the sample villagers and the occurrence of livestock losses due to predation by
leopards over the past two years with the individual’s attitudes towards the conservation of these big cat species. Since depredation
incidents are quite common in reserve (TCP, 2016; Naha et al., 2018), the villagers might have adjusted their preferences or desires
based on their limited opportunities, social circumstances, or external constraints, which Sen (2000) referred to as “adapted prefer­
ences”. Besides, education and age are also not significant in both models (Tables 3 and 4). Therefore, education and age might not
necessarily lead to changes in deeply ingrained cultural or traditional beliefs, as evidenced in this study. Therefore, attitudes towards
conservation can be shaped by local customs and practices that may not be easily altered by age and/or formal education (Reddy and
Yosef, 2016; Dhungana et al., 2022).

6. Conclusion and policy implication

This study examined the attitudes of 345 villagers from ten forest villages within the Buxa Tiger Reserve, India, towards leopard
and tiger conservation. Overall, most villagers demonstrated a favorable attitude towards conservation efforts, with a slightly stronger
inclination towards leopard conservation. The results further indicated that for both the leopard and tiger conservation, positive at­
titudes were more common among male respondents, individuals from larger households, residents of the Buxa East Division, and
those having less migrated members in the family. Whereas forest villagers from the Hindu religion and having higher annual income
showed a significant positive attitude towards tiger conservation, which was not present in the case of leopard conservation.
Furthermore, non-tribal people were in favor of leopard conservation; but no such association was found for the tiger conservation
attitude.
Based on the findings of this study, several policy recommendations can be proposed to enhance leopard and tiger conservation
efforts in the Buxa Tiger Reserve: (i) Developing targeted initiatives to engage women and villagers residing in the Buxa-West division
in leopard and tiger conservation through awareness campaigns, and education programs highlighting the ecological importance of
leopards and tigers; (ii) implementing livelihood support programs and promoting alternative income generation activities for forest
villagers, especially those from tribal communities and households with higher migration rates; and (iii) considering the geographic
distribution of positive attitudes towards leopard and tiger conservation, especially in the Buxa East Division, allocating the resources
and prioritizing conservation initiatives in this area with higher local community support would be beneficial. This can involve habitat
restoration initiatives and enhancing community-based conservation models.
These policy measures should be implemented in a holistic and integrated manner, considering the interplay of various factors
influencing attitudes toward leopard and tiger conservation. Collaboration with local communities, continuous monitoring and
evaluation, and adaptive management are crucial for the success of conservation efforts. Therefore, future studies could conduct
longitudinal studies to track attitudes over time to provide insights into the dynamics of attitude formation and changes. This would
help identify the long-term effectiveness of conservation interventions and assess the impact of socio-economic and environmental
changes on attitudes towards leopard and tiger conservation. In conclusion, the findings of this study have relevance far beyond the
boundaries of the Buxa Tiger Reserve. By shedding light on the complex interplay between human communities and apex predators,
the research contributes to developing effective and culturally sensitive conservation strategies that can be adapted and applied in
diverse ecosystems worldwide.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

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P. Datta et al. Global Ecology and Conservation 48 (2023) e02723

Data Availability

Data will be made available on request.

Acknowledgment

This study was conducted as part of the Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI) project titled “Climate change, human-wildlife
interactions, and local livelihoods: A study of the forested landscape in sub-Himalayan India”, and we are grateful for the generous
support from ADBI staff. We extend our sincere appreciation to the local communities and individuals who actively participated in the
study, as well as to the research assistant, enumerators, and Mr. Uttam Das for their dedicated contributions, as well as the Editor and
Reviewers for valuable suggestions that improved the paper’s quality. We also express gratitude to the Forest Department, Government
of West Bengal, for granting permission to conduct household survey in the Buxa Tiger Reserve, and we are immensely grateful to Dr.
Basavraj for his generous support in this matter.

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