See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/338195279

An overview of solar photovoltaic panels' end-of-life material recycling

Article in Energy Strategy Reviews · January 2020

DOI: 10.1016/j.esr.2019.100431

CITATIONS READS

532 21,611

9 authors, including:

Md shahariar Chowdhury Kazi Sajedur Rahman

Prince of Songkla University Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
96 PUBLICATIONS 2,198 CITATIONS 124 PUBLICATIONS 2,474 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Tanjia Chowdhury Narissara Nuthammachot

Southern University Bangladesh Prince of Songkla University
16 PUBLICATIONS 784 CITATIONS 31 PUBLICATIONS 1,390 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Md shahariar Chowdhury on 27 December 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Energy Strategy Reviews 27 (2020) 100431

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Strategy Reviews

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/esr

Review

An overview of solar photovoltaic panels’ end-of-life material recycling

Md. Shahariar Chowdhury a, b, 1, Kazi Sajedur Rahman c, 1, Tanjia Chowdhury f,
Narissara Nuthammachot a, Kuaanan Techato a, d, e, *, Md. Akhtaruzzaman b, Sieh Kiong Tiong c,
Kamaruzzaman Sopian b, Nowshad Amin b, c
a
Department of Sustainable Energy, Faculty of Environmental Management, Prince of Songkla University, 90110, Songkhla, Thailand
b
Solar Energy Research Institute, The National University of Malaysia, 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
c
Institute of Sustainable Energy, Universiti Tenaga Nasional (@The National Energy University), Jalan IKRAM-UNITEN, 43000, Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
d
Environmental Assessment and Technology for Hazardous Waste Management Research Center, Faculty of Environmental Management, Prince of Songkla University,
90110, Songkhla, Thailand
e
Center of Excellence on Hazardous Substance Management (HSM), Bangkok, 10330, Thailand
f
Department of Computer Science and Information Technology, Southern University Bangladesh, Chittagong, Bangladesh

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: End-of-life (EOL) solar panels may become a source of hazardous waste although there are enormous benefits
Photovoltaic technology globally from the growth in solar power generation. Global installed PV capacity reached around 400 GW at the
Solar panels end of 2017 and is expected to rise further to 4500 GW by 2050. Considering an average panel lifetime of 25
Recycling
years, the worldwide solar PV waste is anticipated to reach between 4%-14% of total generation capacity by
Waste generation
End-of-life
2030 and rise to over 80% (around 78 million tonnes) by 2050. Therefore, the disposal of PV panels will become
c-Si a pertinent environmental issue in the next decades. Eventually, there will be great scopes to carefully investigate
Thin film on the disposal and recycling of PV panels EOL. The EU has pioneered PV electronic waste regulations including
PV-specific collection, recovery and recycling targets. The EU Waste of Electrical and Electronic Equipment
(WEEE) Directive entails all producers supplying PV panels to the EU market to finance the costs of collecting and
recycling EOL PV panels in Europe. Lessons can be learned from the involvement of the EU in forming its reg­
ulatory framework to assist other countries develop locally apposite approaches. This review focused on the
current status of solar panel waste recycling, recycling technology, environmental protection, waste manage­
ment, recycling policies and the economic aspects of recycling. It also provided recommendations for future
improvements in technology and policy making. At present, PV recycling management in many countries en­
visages to extend the duties of the manufacturers of PV materials to encompass their eventual disposal or reuse.
However, further improvements in the economic viability, practicality, high recovery rate and environmental
performance of the PV industry with respect to recycling its products are indispensable.

1. Introduction wind power, which occupy the first and second position, respectively
[1]. Moreover, PV energy sources generate power with low levels of
Solar photovoltaic (PV) energy technologies, which were first carbon emissions that cause global warming [2]. In addition, fossil
applied in space, can now be used ubiquitously where electricity is fuel-generated electricity accounts for CO2 emissions of between 400 g
required. Photovoltaic (PV) energy production is one of the most and 1000 g CO2 eq/kWh, whereas CO2 emission from silicon-based solar
promising and mature technologies for renewable energy production. panels are negligible [3].
PV technology is environmentally friendly and has become a popular Solar power is safe, efficient, non-polluting and reliable. Therefore,
means of generating power. Solar energy technology is currently the PV technology has a very exciting prospect as a way of fulfilling the
third most used renewable energy source in the world after hydro and world’s future energy needs. During the past several decades, the

* Corresponding author. Environmental Assessment and Technology for Hazardous Waste Management Research Center, Faculty of Environmental Management,
Prince of Songkla University, 90110 Songkhla, Thailand.
E-mail address: [email protected] (K. Techato).
1
These authors have contributed equally to this work.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esr.2019.100431
Received 27 April 2019; Received in revised form 15 October 2019; Accepted 23 November 2019
2211-467X/© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Md.S. Chowdhury et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 27 (2020) 100431

utilization of solar PV power has increased. There is now a large market in parallel with the swift commercialization of these new technologies.
for PV panels which have the potential to globally produce clean energy. Recently, the European Union (EU) has included PV waste into the
Moreover, it is expected that within the current century, PV-generated new Waste of Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) directive to
electricity will become the primary global energy source [4]. The year limit the negative influence of the persistent growth in PV waste volume
2017 was especially notable for solar PV sector, with the level of solar PV and to implement solar module recycling [18]. This directive
generation capacity globally installed, rivalling other energy production (2012/19/EU) is now applicable to the management of waste solar
technologies [5]. In fact, solar power has added more new capacities panels, both household and industrial in Europe [4,7,8]. The natural
than both nuclear and fossil fuel energy-generation capacity as shown in resources used in manufacturing solar PV panels qualify as auxiliary raw
Fig. 1. The installed capacity of solar and wind power technology has materials within the applicable regulations [9]. However, PV waste must
almost doubled, with an additional of 99.1 GWh of solar PV energy that be properly disposed and treated. In Europe, the export of waste is
became grid-connected in 2017 [5]. prohibited. Quite apart from the economic, environmental and social
Large-area solar PV installations help to reduce production costs. implications of this prohibition, it promotes the recycling of solar PV
Saudi Arabia put out tenders for a 300 MW plant in February 2018, components [1]. Besides, in line with the EU policy on the treatment of
which would produce solar energy at the world’s lowest price of 0.0234 waste, it gives priority to the recovery and recycling of materials.
USD/kWh [6]. Solar energy prices have rapidly reduced because of Therefore, solar PV panel EOL management is an evolving field that
developments in solar technologies. China led the world in solar power requires further research and development. The key aim of this study is
production in 2017 and installed 50% of the world’s new solar power to highlight an updated review of the waste generation of solar panels
generation capacity [5]. On the other hand, in the same year, Europe and a sketch of the present status of recovery efforts, policies on solar
had a slower rate of increase in its solar generation capacity, which grew panel EOL management and recycling. The review also anticipates the
by only 30% as compared to the previous year [5]. Nevertheless, by the base of solar panel recycling recommending future directions for public
end of 2022, global solar energy generation capacity may grow to as policymakers.
much as 1270.5 GW and solar generated power will therefore exceed 1
TW (TWh) [6]. 2. Overview on large-scale PV installations
However, with the increase in installations, the number of solar
panels reaching their EOL stage will rise steadily [3]. Solar panels will There are various types of solar PV cells, whereby the c-Si solar cell
become a form of hazardous waste when the useful life is over and may dominates 80% of the market globally [1,7,8]. Thin film solar cells are
harm the environment if they are not recovered or disposed of properly. second generation, semiconductor-controlled solar cells made from
The recycling of waste panels was not a concern during the first 25 years materials such as cadmium telluride (CdTe), and copper indium gallium
of development [4]. However, a sound management of solar panels EOL (di) selenide (CIGS). In 2017, the total newly installed capacity was 99.1
is gradually becoming an important environmental issue. Therefore, an GW globally, which was approximately the same as the total installed
appropriate recycling of PV waste will become gradually more signifi­ capacity up until the end of 2012 (100.9 GW) [5]. By the end of 2017,
cant, considering the growing number of installations and extension of the total installed capacity exceeded 400 GW, with the capacity in
production [8,18]. The utilization of valuable resources and the poten­ 2015–2016 rising from around 200 GW–300 GW [5]. The cumulative
tial for waste generation at the EOL cycle of PV technologies has installed solar power capacity increased by 32% between 2016 and 2017
imposed a proper planning for a PV recycling infrastructure [4]. To from 206.5 GW to 404.5 GW, as shown in Fig. 2. In 2007, Germany was
certify the sustainability of PV in large scales of deployment, it is crucial the first country to sanction the commercial connection of solar power to
to establish low-cost recycling technologies for the evolving PV industry their national grid commencing a tariff scheme [6]. In 2007, the

Fig. 1. Power generating capacity installed in 2017 [5,6].

2
Md.S. Chowdhury et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 27 (2020) 100431

Fig. 2. Global growth of solar PV capacity [5,6,9–11].

installed global capacity was 9.2 GW. At the end of 2017, the cumulative its share from around 25% in the previous year, followed by Japan and
installed capacity increased by around 43% [6]. USA. In 2017, USA overtook Japan although the share of the total world
In 2017, the Asia-Pacific region became the leading area for solar capacity of both countries were reduced [7].
power having increased its capacity by 73.7 GW to reach a total installed Based on their share of worldwide capacity, Japan’s 49.3 GW was
capacity of 221.3 GW [5,6]. It represented a 55% share of the global reduced to 12.2% in 2017, as compared to 13.8% in 2016 [6]. None of
capacity as visible in Fig. 3 [6]. Meanwhile the European nations were the European individual nations was among the top three solar power
the solar power pioneers and still together occupy second position in the generating nations. Only Germany had the fourth largest capacity
world’s capacity ranking based on a cumulative PV capacity of 114 GW, achieving a double-digit global share, due to a low new-installation of
while their share has slipped to 28%. The United States of America are in 1.8 GW in 2017, which resulted in a drop-in global share to 10.6% from
third position with a total installed capacity of 59.2 GW, or around 15% 13.4% in 2016 [6]. Further, for the first time in 2017, India was among
[5]. The share of Africa and the Middle East was reduced in 2017. Even the top five countries, having added more than 10 GW of solar genera­
after adding 2.1 GW, the total solar capacity of 6.9 GW represented only tion capacity to increase its share of global installed capacity by 4.7%,
1.7% of the global capacity [5]. Almost one third (32.3%) of the world’s and doubling its total PV capacity in 2017 to 19 GW [5]. At the end of
solar power generation capacity was operated by China based on a 2017, the United Kingdom and Italy were the only other two countries
substantial increase from 2016 [11]. China for the first time became the with more than 10 GW of installed solar capacity, with Italy at 19.4 GW
world’s largest solar power generating nation in 2017, having increased and the United Kingdom at 12.7 GW [11]. Based on the current

Fig. 3. The top 10 countries worldwide by total installed solar PV capacity at the end of 2017 [6].

3
Md.S. Chowdhury et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 27 (2020) 100431

estimates, it is unlikely in 2018, that any other countries will increase 2034 than the year before 2020 [21]. China with a larger number of
their installed capacities to 10 GW with Australia (7.3 GW), France (8 solar plants, currently operates around two times as many solar panels as
GW) and Spain (5.6 GW) some way below that level in 2017 [6]. USA and has no proposals for the dumping of the whole old panels.
Despite the presence of environmental awareness, California, another
3. Global photovoltaic market and waste generation world leader in solar panels, also has no waste disposal plan. At the end
of their useful lives, only Europe requires the manufactures of solar
The market share of solar panels by technology group is shown in panels to collect and dump solar waste. Although solar panels were
Fig. 4. Currently, the volume of comprehensive connected PV panels is disposed of on regular sites, it is not advisable because the modules can
rising sharply. Rapid growth is anticipated in the coming years with the degrade, and harmful chemicals can leach into the ground causing
typical useful life of a solar panel of 25 years [1,12]. However, it is drinking water contamination [22].
expected that the total quantity of PV panels EOL will reach 9.57 million The lifetime of PV modules has been estimated for 25 years. There­
tonnes by 2050 [4]. In 2014, the market was dominated by silicon-based fore, it can be assumed that the installed PV power (MW) becomes waste
c-Si panels, which accounted for a 92% share of the market with those after that period. To identify the time shifting, the years of installation
based on CdTe technology at 5%, copper indium gallium (di) selenide and the years of waste generation may be denoted as x and y, respec­
(CIGS) at 2%, with 1% accounted for by those manufactured from other tively where y ¼ xþ25 [1].
materials (dye-sensitized, CPV, organic hybrids) [4,14,15]. The market Currently, two types of PV recycling technology are commercially
share of c-Si PV panels is projected to decrease from 92% to 44.8% available but other technologies are also under research. Panels manu­
between 2014 and 2030 [13,14]. The third-generation PV panels are factured by using c-Si technology occupy the major market share with
predicted to reach 44.1%, from a base of 1% in 2014, over the same thin film technology by using either CdTe or CIGS technology as the
period [4,13–15]. second largest market sector [13,19,23]. The recycling processes for c-Si
Solar PV panels will probably lose efficiency over time, whereby the PV panels are different from those applied to thin film PV panels because
operational life is 20–30 years at least [7,13,16]. The International of their different module structures [5]. One important distinction is that
Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) estimated that at the end of 2016, the aim of disposing of the encapsulant from the layered structure of
there were around 250,000 metric tonnes of solar panel waste globally compound PV modules is to recover the quilted glass and the substrate
[12]. The solar panels contain lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd) and many other glass that contain the semiconductor layer [19,23]. Therefore, the pur­
harmful chemicals that could not be removed if the entire panel is pose for recycling c-Si modules is to divide the c-Si glass and to recover
cracked [17–19]. In November 2016, the Environment Minister of Japan the Si cells and other metals. The method incorporated in recycling
advised that Japan’s production of solar panel waste per year is expected Si-based PV panels is to separate the layers, which necessitates removing
to rise from 10,000 to 800,000 tonnes by 2040 and the country has no the encapsulant from the panel and the Si cells to recover the metals
plans to dispose of them safely and effectively [17,20]. A recent state­ [23]. The removal of the encapsulant from the laminated structure is not
ment found that the Toshiba Environmental Solutions will take straightforward and many possible approaches exist, including thermal,
approximately 19 years for reprocessing all solar massive waste of Japan mechanical, and chemical process. Chemical methods recapture metals
produced by 2020 [21]. The yearly waste will be 70–80 times higher by from Si cells, for instance, by etching and other processes. The substrate

Fig. 4. Market share of PV panels by technology type (2014–2030) [4,13,14].

4
Md.S. Chowdhury et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 27 (2020) 100431

glass and the metals in the semiconductors are separated, recovered and 4. Existing methods of the recycling process
can be isolated and purified [5,13].
Most of the waste is typically generated during four primary life cycle 4.1. Recycling process
phases of any given PV panel. These are 1) panel production 2) panel
transportation 3) panel installation and use, and 4) EOL disposal of the Nowadays, Japan, Europe and the US are focused on research and
panel [13]. The following waste forecast model covers all life cycle development related to solar module recycling [28–32]. Most efforts
stages except for production. This is because it is assumed that pro­ related to solar panel recycling concentrate on Si panels and aim to
duction waste is easily managed, collected and treated by waste treat­ recover and recycle the most important parts. As stated above, there are
ment contractors or manufacturers themselves and thus not a societal presently three different types of recycling process applied to solar PV
waste management issue. panels which are physical, thermal and chemical as illustrated in Fig. 6
[4].
3.1. Causes of solar PV panel failure
4.2. Physical separation
There are relatively few defects found in new solar panels, with light
erosion (0.5%–5%), with poor design and defects arising during manu­
In this process, panels are primarily dismantled by removing the
facture being the main causes [13,19,22]. From Fig. 5, other causes of
surrounded Al frame, as well as the junction-boxes and embedded cables
panel failure have been claimed to be due to electrical equipment, such
[25,26]. The single part of the PV modules (panel, junction-box and
as junction boxes, fuse boxes, charge controllers and cabling as well as
cables) are shredded and crushed to inspect the individual toxicity of
issues with grounding [24,25]. In the early years of production, solar
each part and total toxicity of the module for disposal [25]. Frame is the
panels suffered from degradation of the anti-reflective coating layer of
last component to be attached to the module. It serves as a bonding
colourless ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) applied onto the glass, as well as
component, isolates the module edges from the exterior (to avoid water
incoherency due to cracked solar cells [26]. During the first 12 years of
infiltration, for instance) and provides a mechanical strength while
use, failures were caused by repeated load cycles due to, for instance to
keeping the overall structure light [23,35,36]. After the frame compo­
wind or snow, as well as temperature changes which caused degrada­
nent is separated from the module, it can be recovered through a sec­
tion, contact defects in junction boxes, glass breakage, burst frames,
ondary metallurgy. Other elements present in small quantities (iron,
breakage of cell interconnections and problems with the diodes associ­
silicon, and nickel) are typical components of aluminium alloys [23,35].
ated with a higher rate of cell degradations and interconnectors [13,21].
The replacement of elements in solar cells to repair systems is
Previous research has shown that 40% of PV panel failures were due to
confined to replace electrical components and does not include material
microscopic cracks and failures [21]. This reason has been the most
separation or cell treatment [37,38]. There are two widely used types of
common in newer panels manufactured after 2008 when the production
process to check for and repair the junction box faults. By repairing the
of thin cell panels began [13,21].
junction box faults, it can help to increase the output power of the older
solar panels. However, this method can only be used for external junc­
tion boxes located outside the main body of the solar panel.

Fig. 5. PV panel failure rates according to customer complaints [21,27].

5
Md.S. Chowdhury et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 27 (2020) 100431

Fig. 6. Different types of solar PV recycling processes [33,34].

Fig. 7. PV wafers during heating procedure: (a) before heating; (b) after heating; (c) reverse side before heating and (d) reverse side after heating [3].

6
Md.S. Chowdhury et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 27 (2020) 100431

4.3. Thermal and chemical treatment process. The research tested different solvent combinations, tempera­
tures, ultrasonic power and radiation times. After 1 h, the EVA layer was
Fiandra et al. [8] applied thermal treatment to recover the poly­ fully dissolved in 3 mol/L of toluene at a temperature of 70 � C with
crystalline silicon by using a high temperature Lenton tubular furnace. exposure to ultrasound at a power of 450 W. However, a problem was
Samples were taken from the PV module by manual dismasting of the noted with this process in which lead was resulted as a hazardous
external Al frame. Each sample was obtained by cutting a piece of about by-product.
10 � 10 cm by using a diamond blade for glass cutting, followed by Marwede et al. [42] reviewed the available means of treating EOL PV
panel cutting. The gas supply flow rates for the furnace were managed materials and noted that the pH value changed during three periods
by two flow meters to get nitrogen/oxygen mixtures at different ratios. when sodium hydroxide was used for metal recovery [43,44]. In other
The gas was supplied at a flow rate of 24 L/h. Then the reactor was research works, 5 N Plus recovered metals by evaporation in a thick­
heated up to the process temperature (500 � C) at a heating rate of 450 ening tank and the metals were recovered by filtering during
�
C/h and the temperature was finally held for 1 h [18]. dewatering.
Pagnanelli et al. [39] used mechanical crushing to reduce the glass to First Solar announced 95%–97% recovery rate for both Cd and Te
>1 mm and further crushing was done to recover different grades of the which were capable of being reused in First Solar products [46,47].
glass fraction, all of which were <1 mm. Thermal treatment, with an air Wang and Fthenakis [48] conducted Cd and Te separation by using
flux of 30 L/h was then applied to recover the glass and metal fractions. various ion-exchange resins on the metals in a sulphuric acid solution
The heating rate was gradually increased until it reached 650 � C at a rate over different time periods [49–51]. The recovered metals were eluted
of 10 � C/min. The furnace was then maintained at that temperature for from their ion-exchange/acid solutions, and a high recovery rate of
1 h. An overall glass recovery rate of 91% was achieved by this means. above 90% was recorded. In another study, the recovery of Te from
Meanwhile, Orac et al. [38] used thermal pretreatment followed by solution was noted to be accelerated by the use of sodium carbonate and
acid leaching to recover copper and tin from the used circuit boards. sodium sulphide.
Shin et al. [3] recycled 60 multi-crystalline Si wafers (156 mm � 156 Dattilo [52] reported the wet-chemical extraction of metals from
mm) which was manufactured in South Korea by JSPV Co. Ltd. Thermal CIGS panels. The method dependent on desalinizing of composites,
treatment was first applied to separate the layers of the solar panels [33, recovering the Cu and separating other metals such as In and Ga. CIGS
40] as shown in Fig. 7. The thermal treatment was conducted in a materials were directly decomposed by electrolysis with the Cu and Se
K-Tech. Co (South Korea) furnace (1500 mm wide x 1700 mm high x settling on the cathode plate, which were then removed and separated
2000 mm long). The wafers were first coated with a phosphoric acid by oxidization and distillation to produce Cu, Se with ZnO and InO being
paste and then heated for 2 min at five temperatures ranging from 320 compounded by exhalation.
�
C to 400 � C. The resulting recovered wafers were successfully used in Table 1 and Table 2 summarizes the currently available solar panel
manufacturing solar panels and the efficiency of the cells was found to recycling technologies. While many of these methods have been the
be similar to that of the original product. subject of laboratory-based research, there are currently only two
Doi et al. [31] applied various organic solvents to crystalline-silicon commercially available treatments. The US-based solar manufacturer
solar panels to remove the EVA layer, which was found to be melted by First Solar applies both mechanical and chemical treatment methods to
diverse types of organic solvents, of which trichloroethylene was found thin film solar panels. On the other hand, c-Si solar-panel modules have
to be the most effective. The solar panels (125 mm � 125 mm) were been recycled by a company in Germany [6,61]. China has limited fa­
treated in a process by using mechanical pressure, which was essential to cilities for recycling involving component repair and panel separation
suppress the swelling of EVA during soaking in trichloroethylene for 10 and hires an external technology to conduct the separation and recycling
days at 80 � C. The reclaimed Si panels could be used efficiently after the of individual materials. Similarly, other countries have problems in
recycling process. applying recycling technologies. Physical or mechanical processes
Kim and Lee [41] reported on enhancing the rate of EVA layer generate a huge amount of dust which contains glass. Therefore, it is
dissolution by using different types of organic solvents (trichloroethy­ toxic, and the processes are also a source of noise pollution. The sepa­
lene, O-dichlorobenzene, benzene, and toluene) aided by an ultrasonic ration of the EVA layer by inorganic solvents leads to nitrogen oxide

Table 1
Silicon solar module recycling processes.
Technology Process Advantages Disadvantages Ref.

Delamination Physical disintegration ➢ Efficient waste handling ➢ Other materials mix with EVA. [3,53,
➢ Solar cells damage. 54]
➢ Apparatus decomposition.
Thinner dissolution (Organic ➢ Organic layer removal from glass ➢ Time necessary for delamination depends [31,55]
Chemistry) ➢ Waste chemical reuse on area.
➢ Simple removal of EVA ➢ Expensive equipment.
➢ Hazardous for human health.
Nitric acid dissolution ➢ Complete removal of EVA and metal layer from the ➢ Dangerous emissions. [56]
wafer ➢ Cell defects due to inorganic acid.
➢ Possible recovery of the whole cell
Thermal treatment ➢ EVA fully eliminated. ➢ Involves high energy consumption. [47,57,
➢ By reusing wafers, possible to regain whole cell ➢ Dangerous emissions 58]
Ultrasonic irradiation ➢ Used as a supplementary process to accelerate ➢ Very costly process. [41]
dissolution process ➢ Waste solution treatment.
➢ Simplified removal of EVA.
Material Dry and wet mechanical process ➢ Non-chemical process. ➢ No removal of dissolved solids [45]
Separation ➢ Simple process.
➢ Requires low energy.
➢ Equipment available.
Etching ➢ Simple and effective process. ➢ High energy demand because of high [59]
➢ Recovery of high purity materials temperatures.
➢ Use of chemical.

7
Md.S. Chowdhury et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 27 (2020) 100431

Table 2
Thin film solar module recycling methods.
Technology Process Advantages Disadvantages Ref.

Delamination Physical disintegration ➢ Feasible to obtain various wastes by treatment (Split ➢ Mixing of the various material fractions. [3,53,
modules, submodules and laminated modules). ➢ Loss from each material fraction. 54]
➢ Glass still partly combined with the EVA.
➢ Breakage of solar cells.
Thinner dissolution (Organic ➢ Organic layer removed from glass. ➢ Time necessary for delamination depends [31,54]
Chemistry) ➢ Reprocessing solutions. on area.
➢ Simple removal of EVA. ➢ Cannot be dissolved fully and EVA still
adheres to glass surface.
Thermal treatment ➢ Complete elimination of EVA. ➢ High energy consumption. [32,41,
➢ Possible to recover whole cell by reusing wafers. ➢ Hazardous emissions. 42]
Radiotherapy ➢ Easy to eliminate EVA ➢ Slow procedure [34,47]
➢ Very expensive process.
Material Erosion ➢ No chemicals required ➢ Additional treatment of pre-purification [60]
Separation ➢ Glass can be recovered is necessary
Vacuum blasting ➢ Removal of semiconductor layer without chemical ➢ Emission of metallic fractions [42,61]
dissolution. ➢ Relatively long processing time.
➢ Glass can be recovered
Dry and wet mechanical ➢ Non-chemical process. ➢ No removal of dissolved solids [45]
process. ➢ Simple procedure.
➢ Needs low energy.
➢ Apparatus usually available.
Tenside chemistry ➢ Tensides are reusable. ➢ Emulsions must be adapted to different [49,51]
➢ Metals fully removed from glass. cell technologies
➢ Delamination time depends on the area.
Leaching ➢ Complete elimination of metal from glass. ➢ Very high use of chemicals. [49,62]
➢ Further extraction of metal solutions possible. ➢ Complicated control of the chemical
reactions.
Flotation ➢ Comparatively easy method. ➢ Material separated at various stages of [54,60]
➢ Limited use of chemicals flotation
➢ Inadequate purity of materials.
Etching ➢ Recovery of high purity materials. ➢ High energy demand because of high [59]
➢ Low cost and effective process temperatures.
➢ Chemical usage.
Material Hydrometallurgical ➢ Commercially applicable. ➢ Many separation and absorption steps. [47,49,
purification ➢ Low and controllable emissions ➢ Chemical process steps must be adapted 60]
➢ Easy water management to respective technology.
Pyrometallurgical ➢ Established industrial process. ➢ High throughput necessary. [47,49,
➢ Feedstock can contain different materials ➢ Some materials are lost in slag. 55,60]
➢ Heavy metals or unwanted materials

emissions and other harmful gases [56], and their inhalation constitutes with the problem of EOL panels [63]. Currently, the Czech company,
a health risk. In addition, the process of reusing the silicon wafers in­ Retina offers both reprocess and advisor service in relation to the
volves frame removal and it is difficult to dispose of the remaining reprocessing management. In Europe, the WEEELABEX organization
liquid. Furthermore, the time required for EVA dissolution by familiar which operates out in Czech Republic is responsible for the preparation
organic solvents is long, but it can be accelerated by using ultrasound. of standards and the awarding of certification in respect to collection,
However, the process also produces a very large amount of storage, processing and reprocessing of WEEE and the monitoring of
organic-melted waste, which is difficult to treat. The thermal and waste-processing companies [65]. In Italy, a significant drive towards
chemical methods are therefore a combined and advanced technology the accountable management of the EOL PV modules were the Legisla­
but with the disadvantage that they produce toxic gases and consume tive Decree No. 49 of 14 March 2014 that implements the Directive on
high amounts of energy. WEEE (Directive 2012/19/EU) [66]. According to this decree, decom­
missioned PV panels were involved in the types of household and pro­
5. Recycling approaches fessional WEEE for boosting the exploitation of secondary raw materials
to endorse a more efficient use of the natural resources used in their
Within the European Union, the first country to adopt the EU’s WEEE production. The Decree also states the minimum aims assuring that at
directive that relate to the disposal and recycling of solar PV materials least 75% (by weight) of the modules be recovered, and that at least 65%
was the UK [63]. Then, the second EU country to ratify the directive was (by weight) undergo the recycling process. Subsequently, recovery of
Germany, which now also follows the WEEE regulations [64]. Under the 80% and recycling of 70% is projected. The public body member for
directive, all producers or importers of solar PV materials, including monitoring the accomplishment of the objectives set is the Italian Na­
solar panels, have to register under a product consent scheme in which tional Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA)
all data about the panels must be provided by the manufacturers [63, [66]. It annually transmits a detailed report to the Ministry of the
65]. In addition, the producers and importers have to accept re­ Environment and Protection of the Territory and the Sea notifying about
sponsibility for the EOL treatment of their products or they are subjected the quantities and categories of electrical and electronic equipment
to large fines. Moreover, the European Union and the Czech Republic located on the market, prepared for reuse, recycled, and recovered.
have entered into a joint venture for the recycling and recovery of solar Outside of Europe, a few countries have addressed the issue of solar
PV panels EOL, following the WEEE directive [65]. Worldwide, the panel waste regulations. Some developing countries, for instance, India,
recycling of PV products requires producers to employ waste manage­ North Korea, Thailand etc. are yet to consider any waste management
ment techniques or employ the service of companies or non-profit or­ regulation for solar PV waste recycling [13]. South Korea has just
ganizations and solar PV waste management advisors to help them deal initiated the discussion about PV waste. PV waste is included as one of

8
Md.S. Chowdhury et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 27 (2020) 100431

industrial wastes in Annex Table 4 of Article 4.2 of South Korea’s creation of a logistical network to support the productive technology
Enforcement Rule of Wastes Control Act (Act No. 14783). Article 4.2 and to create links in an environmentally friendly supply chain [79].
outlines complete classifications of waste and possible recyclables [67].
In 2017, the Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Energy decided to establish 6. Social and environmental advantages
a facility to recycle PV module waste in North Chungcheong Province,
South Korea [67]. In Japan, solar panel waste recycling is under the At the end of 2016, various estimates of the volume of solar PV waste
control of the Japanese environment ministry and solar panel manu­ was ranged between 43,000 and 250,000 tonnes worldwide. Compara­
facturers participate with local companies in research on recycling tively, the small amount that is currently being produced renders
technology that relates to recycling technology in Europe [13]. More­ reprocessing not economically viable with the projected growth of waste
over, the European PV organization and Shell Oil Company (Japan) have PV panels up to 2050 with different projections based on regular and
entered into an association. NPC, a solar-panel and equipment manu­ early loss scenarios [14]. Based on the increase in the installed PV
facturer, has entered into a joint venture with Hamada (an industrial generation capacity in the current decade, the number of EOL panels
waste-processing company), to recycle solar panels. In 2016, the two will necessitate a strategy for recycling and recovery. The worldwide
companies jointly established a PV processing improvement project ratio of solar PV waste to new installations is expected to increase
through the New Energy Industrial Technology Development Organi­ considerably over time as shown in Fig. 8. It will reach between 4% and
zation (NEDO) [4,68]. In USA, the state of California Department of 14% of total generation capacity by 2030 and approximately rise over
Toxic Substances Control (DTSC) offered to take responsibility for solar 80% by 2050. Based on literature, analysing the expected rates of panel
waste treatment, when European facilities’ capacity decreased and the installation and solar panels EOL, most of those will be c-Si over the next
DTSC has now increased its recycling capacity and upgraded their fa­ several years [43,59,80]. Therefore, the methods of dealing with solar
cilities for the disposal of hazardous materials after treatment [69]. PV waste material, principally by recycling need to be established by
USA-based solar panel manufacturing company, First Solar has estab­ 2040. By recycling solar PV panels EOL and reusing them to make new
lished factories in the United States, Germany and Malaysia, which also solar panels, the actual number of waste (i.e., not recycled panels) could
employ recycling methods with recovery rates of 95% for Cd and 90% be considerably reduced. Scenarios that involve recycling were analysed
for glass [13,70]. Even China does not yet have strong policies relating by Cucchiella and Rosa [81] based on net present value and discounted
to recycling and even its environmental protection authority has not yet payback period rubrics with the aim of supporting management strate­
focused on waste recycling [64,71]. However, Both Yingli Solar and gies in respect to recycling plants, with particular reference to the eco­
Trina Solar are studying solar PV development and recycling. Moreover, nomic viability of plants of various sizes. A 2.6 MW conventional power
the state of Victoria (Australia) government have established the station causes an annual volume of 1480–2220 tonnes CO2 eq emissions
consequence of ensuring that procedures are in place to deal with the and this could be saved by recycling 186 tonnes solar PV waste [14].
issues related to solar PV waste [72]. The decision of Australian ministry Such a saving would have a considerable positive impact on the envi­
would lead pioneering systems reducing the environmental impact ronment and would reduce emissions from power generation by around
caused during the lifecycle of solar PV techniques [24,72]. These at­ 49470 tonnes CO2 eq over the 20-life of a power station [14]. It has been
tempts are part of an industry-led charitable invention organization estimated that the output from a 1903 MW conventional generating
composition to focus on the capability developing dangers of solar PV facility would be equivalent to recycle 1480 tonnes solar PV waste. It
structure and their waste. The solar PV components are listed under the would reduce emissions by around 11840–17760 tonnes CO2 eq over the
National Product Administration Act as a signal to the objective to lifetime of the plant, a saving that equate to 396770 tonnes CO2 eq [13,
believe a programme in contracting solar waste [24,73]. 14]. Moreover, Te recovery is important from both the environmental
Different types of waste, particularly electronic waste, are being and economic perspectives. CdTe modules can be produced from recy­
regarded as a liability which should be managed by the manufacturer of cled Te, and thus reducing the need to extract more of this limited
the products [13]. Making manufacturers liable for PV panels EOL natural resource.
would encourage a sustainable management of PV materials [74–77].
Moreover, manufacturers should be encouraged to adopt environmen­ 7. Conclusion
tally friendly designs by enforcing appropriate regulations. This would
help to reduce the environmental impact of PV products. It can also be Based on the swift growth in the installed PV generation capacity, we
aided by conserving resources through the collection and recycling of propose that the number of EOL panels will necessitate a strategy for
EOL products as well as promoting the manufacture of new solar panels recycling and recovery which need to be established by 2040. CO2
by using recycled materials [78]. Finally, strict laws should be passed in emissions could also be reduced by recycling solar PV waste which will
relation to the collection and recycling process, which will help the consequently pose substantial positive impact on the environment.

Fig. 8. The estimated cumulative worldwide solar PV module waste (tonnes) 2016–2050 [13,14].

9
Md.S. Chowdhury et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 27 (2020) 100431

Therefore, this review scrutinized the necessity for solar PV recycling [13] I. IRENA, End-Of-Life Management: Solar Photovoltaic Panels, International
Renewable Energy Agency and the International Energy, 2016.
policies by analysing the existing recycling protocols. Recent studies
[14] D. Sica, O. Malandrino, Lucchetti, M C, Management of end-of-life photovoltaic
have found it difficult to assess the future consequences of current panels as a step towards a circular economy, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. (2018).
research, development and testing efforts for PV panel recycling tech­ [15] L.L. Barnes, Environmental Impact of Solar Panel Manufacturing and End-Of-Life
niques. There are currently not enough indications on policies to handle Management: Technology and Policy Options, 2017.
[16] E. Briese, K. Piezer, I. Celik, D. Apul, Ecological network analysis of solar
these problems. Particularly in China, there is a lack of regulations on photovoltaic power generation systems, J. Clean. Prod. 223 (2019 Jun 20)
solar panel recycling. Furthermore, in Asia, countries should help to 368–378.
protect their natural environments by developing an environmentally [17] V. Fiandra, L. Sannino, C. Andreozzi, G. Graditi, End-of-life of silicon PV panels: a
sustainable materials recovery process, Waste Manag. 84 (2019) 91–101.
friendly recycling industry and enforcing regulations to encourage [18] I. D’Adamo, M. Miliacca, P. Rosa, Economic feasibility for recycling of waste
reprocessing and the safe disposal of waste. This study contributes to crystalline silicon photovoltaic modules, Int. J. Photoenergy (2017), 2017.
literature on evaluating the sustainability of EOL management of PV [19] Y. Smith, P. Bogust, Review of solar silicon recycling, Energy Technol. (2018),
2018, 463 470.
panels, and paves the way for future researchers to comprehend the is­ [20] Y.K. Yi, H.S. Kim, T. Tran, S.K. Hong, M.J. Kim, Recovering valuable metals from
sues involved in the sustainable development of the PV sector. We recycled photovoltaic modules, J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 64 (7) (2014) 797–807.
recommend that recycling should be made commercially necessary by [21] K. Komoto, J.S. Lee, J. Zhang, D. Ravikumar, P. Sinha, A. Wade, G. Heath, End-of-
Life Management of Photovoltaic Panels: Trends in PV Module Recycling
making manufacturers responsible for recovering materials from solar Technologies. IEA PVPS Task 12, International Energy Agency Power Systems
PV panels EOL. In summary, the management of panels EOL and other Programme, Report IEA-PVPS T12, 2018, p. 10.
hazardous waste is obligatory. Additionally, governments must adopt [22] R. Frischknecht, G. Heath, M. de Wild Scholten, Methodology Guidelines on Life
Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaic Electricity, third ed., International Energy
hard-line policies to enforce the manufacturers of solar PV materials to
Agency Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme - Task 12, 2016. IEA-PVPS-TASK
consider the consequence of their products on the environment. It is also 12.
essential to gain the support of the mass-media, social media, public, and [23] P. Dias, H. Veit, Recycling crystalline silicon photovoltaic modules, in: Emerging
non-governmental organizations. It is indispensable to put pressure on Photovoltaic Materials: Silicon & beyond, John Wiley & Sons, 2018, pp. 61–102.
[24] M.M. Lunardi, J.P. Alvarez-Gaitan, J.I. Bilbao, R. Corkish, A review of recycling
manufacturers to act responsibly and to extend the responsibilities of processes for photovoltaic modules, in: Solar Panels and Photovoltaic Materials,
producer not only in the solar PV manufacturing sector, but also IntechOpen, 2018.
throughout the entire energy industry, to be responsible for the eventual [25] V. Savvilotidou, A. Antoniou, E. Gidarakos, Toxicity assessment and feasible
recycling process for amorphous silicon and CIS waste photovoltaic panels, Waste
disposal or reuse of the products. All in all, it is expected that the pace of Manag. 59 (2017) 394–402.
R&D will accelerate permitting researchers to resolve issues and [26] P. Dias, S. Javimczik, M. Benevit, H. Veit, A.M. Bernardes, Recycling WEEE:
contribute to the PV module recycling schemes, as well as for the end-of- extraction and concentration of silver from waste crystalline silicon photovoltaic
modules, Waste Manag. 57 (2016) 220–225.
life management of PV modules. [27] reportBursa malaysia Berhad, 2014. 2014 Annual Report. annual report 2014
1–93. doi:10.1017/S0001972000001765.
Acknowledgements [28] Conference record of the, IEEE Electron Devices Society., & Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers, IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, New York,
1970. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers).
The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of Thai­ [29] E.P.S.E. Conference, 20th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference :
land’s Education Hub for Southern Region of ASEAN Countries Project Proceedings of the International Conference Held in Barcelona, WIP-Renewable
Energies, Spain, 2005, 6-10 June 2005.
(THE-AC) with code number THE-AC 062/2017. The authors admit and [30] O H A, A. J€ ager-Waldau, P. Helm (Eds.), E.C. Photovoltaic Solar Energy
appreciate the contribution of The Solar Energy Research Institute of Conference, 21st European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference Proceedings of
The National University of Malaysia (UKM) through the research grant the International Conference Held in Hamburg, 2006. Germany, 4-6 September
2006.
number GUP-2017-031. Due appreciation is also credited to the Institute [31] T. Doi, I. Tsuda, H. Unagida, A. Murata, K. Sakuta, K. Kurokawa, Experimental
of Sustainable Energy (ISE) of the Universiti Tenaga Nasional (@The study on PV module recycling with organic solvent method, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol.
National Energy University) of Malaysia for their valuable support Cells 67 (1–4) (2001) 397–403.
[32] W. Palitzsch, U. Loser, Economic PV waste recycling solutions -Results from R&D
through the BOLD2025 Programme.
and practice, in: Conference Record of the IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists
Conference, 2012, pp. 628–631.
References [33] E. Klugmann-Radziemska, P. Ostrowski, Chemical treatment of crystalline silicon
solar cells as a method of recovering pure silicon from photovoltaic modules,
Renew. Energy 35 (8) (2010) 1751–1759.
[1] A. Paiano, Photovoltaic waste assessment in Italy, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 41
[34] S. Kang, S. Yoo, J. Lee, B. Boo, H. Ryu, Experimental investigations for recycling of
(2015) 99–112.
silicon and glass from waste photovoltaic modules, Renew. Energy 47 (2012)
[2] International Energy Agency, Energy Technology Perspectives: Mobilising
152–159.
Innovation to Accelerate Climate Action 2015, 2015, https://doi.org/10.1787/
[35] P. Dias, L. Schmidt, L.B. Gomes, A. Bettanin, H. Veit, A.M. Bernardes, Recycling
energy_tech-2014-en.
waste crystalline silicon photovoltaic modules by electrostatic separation,
[3] J. Shin, J. Park, N. Park, A method to recycle silicon wafer from end-of-life
J. Sustain. Metall. 4 (2) (2018) 176–186.
photovoltaic module and solar panels by using recycled silicon wafers, Sol. Energy
[36] J. Pern, Module Encapsulation Materials, Processing and Testing (Presentation)
Mater. Sol. Cells 162 (2017) 1–6.
(No. NREL/PR-520-44666), National Renewable Energy Lab.(NREL), Golden, CO
[4] Y. Xu, J. Li, Q. Tan, A.L. Peters, C. Yang, Global Status of Recycling Waste Solar
(United States), 2008.
Panels: A Review, Waste Management, 2018.
[37] Lin, W., Chen, E., Sun, Y.L., n.d. Analysis of old photovoltaic component junction
[5] S. Of, G. Photovoltaic, The International Energy Agency (IEA) - Photovoltaic Power
box disassembling mode. Sol. Energy Volume 7, Pages 26-29.
Systems Programme - 2018 Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 1–16, 2018.
[38] D. Orac, T. Havlik, A. Maul, M. Berwanger, Acidic leaching of copper and tin from
[6] Michael Schmela, SolarPower Europe, Global Market Outlook for Solar Power:
used consumer equipment, J. Min. Metall. B: Metallurgy 51 (2) (2015) 153–161.
2018 - 2022, 2018.
[39] F. Pagnanelli, E. Moscardini, G. Granata, T.A. Atia, P. Altimari, T. Havlik, L. Toro,
[7] S. Mahmoudi, N. Huda, Z. Alavi, M.T. Islam, M. Behnia, End-of-life photovoltaic
Physical and chemical treatment of end of life panels: an integrated automatic
modules: a systematic quantitative literature review, Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 146
approach viable for different photovoltaic technologies, Waste Manag. 59 (2017)
(2019) 1–16.
422–431.
[8] V. Fiandra, L. Sannino, C. Andreozzi, F. Corcelli, G. Graditi, Silicon photovoltaic
[40] B. Jung, J. Park, D. Seo, N. Park, Sustainable system for raw-metal recovery from
modules at end-of-life: removal of polymeric layers and separation of materials,
crystalline silicon solar panels: from noble-metal extraction to lead removal, ACS
Waste Manag. 87 (2019) 97–107.
Sustain. Chem. Eng. 4 (8) (2016) 4079–4083.
[9] EUPV Technology Platform, A Strategic Research Agenda for Photovoltaic Solar
[41] Y. Kim, J. Lee, Dissolution of ethylene vinyl acetate in crystalline silicon PV
Energy Technology, 2007 (Technology).
modules using ultrasonic irradiation and organic solvent, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol.
[10] G. Masson, M. Brunisholz, IEA Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme, 2015
Cells 98 (2012) 317–322.
Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets, 2016. Iea Pvps T1-29:2016 1–19. doi:
[42] M. Marwede, W. Berger, M. Schlummer, A. M€ aurer, A. Reller, Recycling paths for
978-3-906042-58-9.
thin-film chalcogenide photovoltaic waste–Current feasible processes, Renew.
[11] M.F. Azeumo, C. Germana, N.M. Ippolito, M. Franco, P. Luigi, S. Settimio,
Energy 55 (2013) 220–229.
Photovoltaic module recycling, a physical and a chemical recovery process, Sol.
[43] K. Sander, Study on the Development of a Take Back and Recovery System for
Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 193 (2019) 314–319.
Photovoltaic Products, Brussels: Belgium: PV Cycles, 2007, https://doi.org/
[12] W.H. Huang, W.J. Shin, L. Wang, W.C. Sun, M. Tao, Strategy and technology to
10.2314/GBV:59163323X.
recycle wafer-silicon solar modules, Sol. Energy 144 (2017) 22–31.

10
Md.S. Chowdhury et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 27 (2020) 100431

[44] A. Mezei, M. Ashbury, M. Canizares, R. Molnar, H. Given, A. Meader, K. Squires, [61] N.C. McDonald, J.M. Pearce, Producer responsibility and recycling solar
F. Ojebuoboh, T. Jones, W. Wang, Hydrometallurgical Recycling of the photovoltaic modules, Energy Policy 38 (11) (2010) 7041–7047.
Semiconductor Material from Photovoltaic Materials-Part One: Leaching, [62] W. Palitzsch, U. Loser, Systematic photovoltaic waste recycling, Green 3 (1) (2013)
Hydrometallurgy, 2008, p. 209. 79–82.
[45] L. Krueger, January. Overview of first solar’s module collection and recycling [63] E. The, I. Of, I.N. Europe, SOLAR WASTE & WEEE DIRECTIVE, 2014.
program, in: EPIA 1st International Conference on PV Module Recycling, vol. 26, [64] M. Ding, Z. Xu, W. Wang, X. Wang, Y. Song, D. Chen, A review on China‫ ׳‬s large-
2010. scale PV integration: progress, challenges and recommendations, Renew. Sustain.
[46] K. Weimann, F.-G. Simon, Resolved - recovery of solar valuable materials, Enrich. Energy Rev. 53 (2016) 639–652.
Decontamination (2007) 1–4. [65] P. Leroy, The WEEE Forum and the WEEELABEX project, in: Waste Electrical and
[47] M. Suys, January. Recycling valuable metals from thin film modules, in: 1st Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Handbook, Woodhead Publishing, 2012, pp. 66–77.
International Conference on PV Module Recycling, vol. 26, 2010. [66] O. Malandrino, D. Sica, M. Testa, S. Supino, Policies and measures for sustainable
[48] W. Wang, V. Fthenakis, Kinetics study on separation of cadmium from tellurium in management of solar panel end-of-life in Italy, Sustainability 9 (4) (2017) 481.
acidic solution media using ion-exchange resins, J. Hazard Mater. 125 (1–3) (2005) [67] H. Kim, H. Park, PV waste management at the crossroads of circular economy and
80–88. energy transition: the case of South Korea, Sustainability 10 (10) (2018) 3565.
[49] V.M. Fthenakis, W. Wang, Extraction and separation of Cd and Te from cadmium [68] JPEA, Guidelines for Providing Information for Proper Treatment of Used Solar
telluride photovoltaic manufacturing scrap, Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 14 (4) Cell Modules, 2017.
(2006) 363–371. [69] USA. Senate Bill No. 489 State of California, Hazardous Waste: Photovoltaic
[50] R. Deng, N.L. Chang, Z. Ouyang, C.M. Chong, A techno-economic review of silicon Modules, 2015, p. 68.
photovoltaic module recycling, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 109 (2019) 532–550. [70] FirstSolar, 2017. Available from: http://www.firstsolar.com/. (Accessed 3 January
[51] V. Fthenakis, W. Wang, System and method for separating tellurium from cadmium 2018).
waste, U.S. Patent Appl. 12/756 (2010) 507. [71] Y.W. Zhao, China photovoltaic industry development status and prospects, in: 22nd
[52] M. Dattilo, February. CI (G) S PV modules: recycling technology status, in: 2nd International Photovoltaic Science and Engineering Conference, 2012, pp. 1–8.
International Conference on PV Module Recycling, vol. 25, 2011. Hangzhou.
[53] G. Granata, F. Pagnanelli, E. Moscardini, T. Havlik, L. Toro, Recycling of [72] The Australian Government 2017, Product Stewardship Act, 2011.
photovoltaic panels by physical operations, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 123 [73] T. Perinotto, 12 Agenda Items from State and Territory Enviro Pollies and Why
(2014) 239–248. They Matter, The Fifth Estate, 2017.
[54] W. Berger, F.G. Simon, K. Weimann, E.A. Alsema, A novel approach for the [74] C. Eberspacher, V.M. Fthenakis, January. Disposal and recycling of end-of-life PV
recycling of thin film photovoltaic modules, Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 54 (10) modules, in: Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 1997., Conference Record of the
(2010) 711–718. Twenty-Sixth IEEE, IEEE, 1997, pp. 1067–1072.
[55] A. Maurer, M. Schlummer, Good as New-Recycling Plastics from WEEE and [75] L. Frisson, Cost effective recycling of PV modules and the impact on environment,
Packaging Wastes, Waste management world, 2004, pp. 33–44. life cycle, energy payback time and cost, in: 2nd World Conference and Exhibition
[56] T.M. Bruton, Re-cycling of high value, high energy content components of silicon on Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion, 1998, pp. 2210–2213.
PV modules, in: In Proc. of 12th EC-PVSEC, 1994, pp. 303–304. [76] V.M. Fthenakis, End-of-life management and recycling of PV modules, Energy
[57] T.Y. Wang, J.C. Hsiao, C.H. Du, June. Recycling of materials from silicon base solar Policy 28 (14) (2000) 1051–1058.
cell module, in: Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), 2012 38th IEEE, IEEE, [77] V.M. Fthenakis, H.C. Kim, E. Alsema, Emissions from photovoltaic life cycles,
2012, 002355-002358. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42 (6) (2008) 2168–2174.
[58] A. Doni, F. Dughiero, June. Electrothermal heating process applied to c-Si PV [78] J.L. Schnoor, Extended Producer Responsibility for E-Waste, 2012.
recycling, in: Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), 2012 38th IEEE, IEEE, [79] Y. Qu, Study on Legal Issue of Electronic Waste in EU, North China Power
2012, 000757-000762. University, 2015.
[59] C.E. Latunussa, F. Ardente, G.A. Blengini, L. Mancini, Life cycle assessment of an [80] T.A.N.G. Shao-jun, Discussion on confusion and correction for the concept of
innovative recycling process for crystalline silicon photovoltaic panels, Sol. Energy extended producer responsibility regime, J. Chongqing Univ. (Soc. Sci. Ed.) (2009),
Mater. Sol. Cells 156 (2016) 101–111. 4, p.018.
[60] J. Tao, S. Yu, Review on feasible recycling pathways and technologies of solar [81] F. Cucchiella, P. Rosa, End-of-Life of used photovoltaic modules: a financial
photovoltaic modules, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 141 (2015) 108–124. analysis, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 47 (2015) 552–561.

11

View publication stats