PHILOSOPHY REVIEWER:  Plato's lasting contribution to learning was his

LESSON 1 founding of the Academy, an institution of

What is Philosophy? higher learning which was the first of its kind in
Philos - love the Western World.
Sophia - wisdom Aristotle (384 BCE to 322 BCE) - attended the
Philosophy - “love of wisdom” Academy, and was a prominent student of Plato.
- study or discipline that uses human reason to - disagreed with Plato's theory of forms and took a
investigate the ultimate causes, reasons, and different stance in interpreting reality. For him, all
principles which govern all things. ideas and views are based on perception and our
- philosophy is an important field of study as it reality is based on what we can sense and perceive.
touches upon a diverse array of topics and - Aristotle was involved in a great variety of
disciplines. disciplines such as zoology, psychology, ethics, and
- study that uses human reason to investigate the politics.
ultimate causes, reasons, and principles which - proposed a system for the classification of plants
govern all things. and animals
Philosophers - “lovers of wisdom”  Deductive reasoning - the process by which
- people who engages in philosophy specific statements are analyzed to reach a
Pythagoras (570 BCE to 495 BCE) - Mathematician conclusion or generalization
and Scientist, credited formulating the Phythagorean Western philosophy - started in ancient Greece,
theorem. became more systematic and specialized in its
Heraclitus (535 BCE to 475 BCE) - proposed that approach.
everything that exists is based on a higher order or Eastern Philosophy - emerged from the communities
plan which he called logos. and civilizations in Asia. More fluid and places
- “No man ever steps in the same river twice” greater emphasis on social relations, the family, and
Democritus (460 BCE to 370 BCE) - study the causes community.
of natural phenomena MAN'S NEED TO PHILOSOPHIZE:
- first to propose that matter is composed of tiny  Plato - Greek philosopher, sense of wonder
particles called atom.  Rene Descartes - 15th-century French
Diogenes of Sinope (412 BCE to 323 BCE) - advocate philosopher, to doubt
of living a simple and virtuous life.  Karl Jaspers - 20th-century Swiss-German
- said to have lived like a beggar philosopher, because of experience
- vocal critic of well-known philosophers; Plato and - Jaspers called these experiences limit situations,
Aristotle. and these are often accompanied by feelings of
- Cynicism and Stoicism; development of schools of helplessness, anxiety, or dread
philosophy. - For Jaspers, philosophy provides us a means to
Epicurus (341 BCE to 270 BCE) - believed that understand adverse or challenging conditions, and to
philosophy could enable man to live a life of rise above them and gain new knowledge and
happiness. perspectives.
 Epicureanism - a school of philosophy which  Socrates - driven by the love for wisdom
believes that wisdom and simple living will result - famous for having said "I know that I do not
in a life free of fear and pain. know..." and it is in accepting this state of ignorance
Socrates (470 BCE to 399 BCE) - considered the that one can begin to learn and understand.
foremost philosopher of ancient times - Socrates is also recognized for his motto: "The
- made great contributions to the field of ethics. unexamined life is not worth living."
 credited with formulating the Socratic Method - Framework - a way of thinking about the world and
a means of examining a topic by devising a is composed of the views and beliefs of a person.
series of questions that let the learner examine Internal questions - Questions dealing with our own
and analyze his knowledge and views regarding correctness and values, which can be addressed
the topic. using our own personal frameworks.
Plato (427 BCE to 347 BCE) - student of Socrates, he External questions - seek to question the very
wrote down his mentor's teachings and incorporated frameworks upon which people base their own
some of his own ideas into them. beliefs and views.
- His teachings and writings were considered the PHILOSOPHY CAN ALSO BE THOUGHT OF AS AN
foundation of Western philosophy. EXAMINATION OF A PARTICULAR AREA OF
 Theory of Forms, which proposes that KNOWLEDGE:
everything that exists is based on an idea or  Philosophy of science - which seeks to
template that can only be perceived in the mind; understand the fundamental principles that
these nonphysical ideas are eternal and guide scientific thought.
unchanging.  Philosophy of religion - which examines the
 known for his Dialectic - a method of inquiry basic tenets of any faith.
where two opposing ideas are discussed in an  Philosophy of education
attempt to arrive at new knowledge.  Political philosophy
 Philosophy of history
 PHILOSOPHY ITSELF IS A DISTINCT AREA OF - Usually stated as short statements or sentences.
KNOWLEDGE WITH ITS OWN GOALS, CONCERNS, Facts - propositions or statements which are
AND WAYS OF DOING THINGS: observed to be real or truthful.
1. Aesthetics - The philosophy which deals with Claim - whether true or false/determine their
beauty and what makes things "beautiful" truthfulness
2. Logic - is the branch of philosophy which deals Truthful statements - considered as based on facts
with correct reasoning - Science considers truth as observable and
3. Epistemology - discusses the nature of knowledge empirical.
and knowing. Doubt - very important purpose in philosophy, it
4. Ethics - is the branch which deals with moral drives to discover truth.
questions and dilemmas Systematic Doubt - employed to help determine
5. Political Philosophy - studies governments and truth.
deals with questions of justice, power and the rights Persperctive on truths:
and obligations of citizens - “A belief is true if it can be justifies or proven
6. Metaphysics - is a branch of philosophy which through the use of one’s senses.”
deals with questions regarding reality and existence. - “A belief or statement is true if it is based on facts.”
7. Philosophy of the Human Person - is an area in - “Getting a consensus or having people agree on a
philosophy that understands the human person from common belief.”
a philosophical perspective - integrating and - “Determining truth requires a person to prove a
synthesizing the different branches of philosophy statement through an action.”
and other fields of study to know the truth about the - “Claims and beliefs should also be subjected to
human person. tests to determine truth.”
2 IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT PHILOSOPHIZING: - “Discovering truth about oneself”
1. Philosophy is a reflective and meditative activity, Opinions - go beyond providing facts.
and it has no designated subject matter of its own. - provide conclusions or perspectives regarding
2. It is also a method of mental exercise on any type certain situations.
of experience. - bases for making arguments and convincing people
Holistic thinking - refers to a perspective that that a certain claim is a fact.
considers large-scale patterns in systems. Conclusion - judgement based on certain facts.
- looking at the "big picture" when describing and Beliefs - statement that expresses convictions that
analyzing a situation or problem. are not
Partial thinking - focuses on specific aspects of a easily and clearly explained by facts.
situation. Explanations - statements that assume the claim to
- important component of analytical thinking, as an be true and provide reasons why the statement is
individual focuses on certain areas or aspects of a true.
problem in order to understand it. Arguments - series of statements that provide
Reflection - requires a person to be willing to reasons to convince the reader or listener that a
examine one's thoughts, feelings, and the things claim or opinion is truthful.
actions and to learn more about one's life and Logic - branch of Philosophy that focuses on the
experiences. One can reflect on almost any subject. analysis of arguments.
WHAT ARE THE PRACTICAL USES OF PHILOSOPHY IN Fallacies - arguments that are/may be based on
OUR LIVES? faulty reasoning.
 Philosophy enables a person to engage in critical TYPES OF FALLACY
analysis and interpretation of concepts, Ad hominem - attacking the person
definitions, arguments, and problems. Appeal to force - using the threat of force
 Philosophy also improves problem-solving and Appeal to emotion - using pity or sympathy
decision making. Appeal to the popular - the idea is presented as
 A philosopher is a good communicator who can acceptable because a lot of people accept it.
clearly and adequately present his or her ideas. Appeal to tradition - idea is acceptable because it
 Knowledge of Philosophy can contribute to self- has been true for a long time.
development. Begging the question - assuming the thing or idea to
Wisdom - is one intended product of philosophizing, be prevented is true; “circular argument”
and this refers to a person's ability to apply Cause-and-effect - assuming a “cause-and-effect”
knowledge to daily life particularly in making sound relationship between unrelated events.
choices and judgment. Fallacy of composition - assuming true of a part is
LESSON 2 true for the whole
Truth - lies at the heart of any inquiry. Fallacy of division - assuming true for the whole is
Knowledge - must be truthful to gain validity and true for its parts
acceptance Bias - personal views of the person
- the clear awareness and understanding of - refer to the tendencies or influences which affect
something. the views of people.
Propositions - statements about the world or reality
- May or may not carry the truth.
 TYPES OF BIAS Consequence - is the result or effect of an action or
Correspondence bias or attribution effect - judge a condition.
person’s personality by his or her actions, without Human action - a way to reveal a person's true
regard for external factors or influences. nature.
Confirmation bias - look for and readily accept Dignity - or the innate right to be valued and
information respected.
Framing - focusing on a certain aspect of a problem Spirit - which enables us to exercise thought, possess
while ignoring other aspects. awareness, interiority, and the capacity to reach out
Hindsight - tendency to see past events as to the outside world and other persons.
predictable “The human person is an embodied spirit.”
Conflict of interest - person or group is connected Not only are the body and spirit united, but they are
issue also integrated with each other. This means that we
Cultural bias- analyzing an event based on cultural cannot separate the two and they go hand-in-hand
standard. in making us who we are.
LESSON 3 Human body - also stands as the mediator between
Man - is the general term commonly used to refer to the material world and the spiritual world.
the entire human race. Embodied spirit - the person is able to encounter
- other terms include humanity, mankind, and the world of objects (including other personal
humankind. subjects) in a manner that transcends the physical.
Human being - is also used to distinguish man from - This feature of the person allows him or her to
other animals. form an intimate relationship with those outside him
- human being is recognized not only as a distinct or her.
species - Homo sapiens sapiens, but as a unique Human embodiment - allows persons to attach
being, an individual person possessing awareness of certain feelings or ideas not only to people, but also
the self. to objects.
Person - is a much more complex term which Transcendence - ability to surpass limits
generally refers to a human being granted Mind - is an important tool that allows us to go
recognition of certain rights, protection, beyond many of our physical limits.
responsibilities, and dignity, above all. LESSON 4
Human person - as the totality of an individual, "No man is an island, entire of itself; every man is a
possessing awareness, self- determination, and the piece of the continent, a part of the main." - English
capacity to interact with others and with himself or poet John Donne
herself - means that as human persons, we interact not only
Personhood - refers to the state of being a person. with our fellow human beings but also with the
Human nature - refers to the characteristics that other living and non- living elements in our
distinguish humans from all other creatures. environment.
Form the essence of humanity - include thinking, Humankind - part of the world, and we significantly
feeling, and acting. affect our environment in the same way that
TRAIT THAT DEFINES A PERSON: changes in our environment affect us.
Self-awareness - refers to the person having a clear Environmental philosophy or environmental ethics -
perception of oneself, including his or her thoughts, is the discipline in philosophy that studies the moral
emotions, identity, and actions. relationship of human beings with the environment
Human awareness - goes beyond perception and and its non-human contents.
reaction to the environment. Environmental philosophers - tackle issues such as
Rationality - deeper awareness/human thought humanity's role in the natural world, the interaction
Self - the person who is actively aware that he or she between nature and human activities, and
is perceiving and experiencing reality. humanity's response to environmental challenges.
- self also enables us to reach out and interact with 3 MAJOR VIEWS REGARDING THE RELATIONSHIP
things outside of ourselves. BETWEEN HUMANITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT:
Interiority - which is the quality of being focused on Anthropocentrism - focuses on the significant role of
one's inner life and identity. humankind in the world and considers nature as the
- enables persons to exercise means by which humans are able to meet their
Creativity - means that a person can create within needs and survive.
himself or herself what is not yet existing outside. - believes that humans are the most important
Inner world - allows a person to create goals, species on the planet and they are free to transform
dreams, and plans which may be realized through nature and use its resources
activity. Biocentrism - believes that humans are not the only
Self-determination - refers to the capability of significant species on the planet, and that all
persons to make choices and decisions based on organisms have inherent value and should be
their own preferences, monitor and regulate their protected. Drives the activities of humane
actions, and be goal-oriented and self-directed. organizations that advocate the ethical treatment of
Free will - is the capacity to choose a course of animals.
action from various alternatives.
A. 8485 or "The Animal Welfare Act of 1998" - laws change, and consider it a significant ethical, social,
that recognize the rights of animals to be treated and political issue.
kindly Environmental justice - which refers to the fair
Ecocentrism - places great value on ecosystems and distribution of environmental benefits, as well as the
biological communities. burden of meeting environmental challenges.
- believes that humankind is part of a greater - emphasize equity and the meaningful involvement
biological system or community and that we have a of communities and governments in addressing
significant role as stewards or guardians of nature. environmental challenges, and in planning and
- promotes the idea that order and balance in nature implementing environmental policies.
brings about stability and beauty - Environmental aesthetics, which originally focused
“Deep Ecology" and the "Gaia Hypothesis” - Several on concepts of beauty in nature, but has become
philosophical views on the environment, emphasize increasingly influenced by environmental concerns
the important role of the interaction between the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 - where various nations
living and non- living components of the committed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions
environment in order to curb global warming.
Enviromental aesthetics - one philosophical view Celebration of Earth Day - first instituted in 1970, is
that believes maintaining order in the environment a global effort to raise awareness of environmental
will bring out the natural beauty of the surroundings issues and inspire action among communities.
and contribute to the well-being of the people and LAWS TO ADDRESS ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
other organisms living in it. THAT CONTRIBUTE TO GLOBAL WARMING:
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)  Clean Air Act of 1999,
- finds clear evidence that human activities have  Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000,
contributed to the rise of global temperatures  the Wildlife Resources Conservation and
through the release of greenhouse gases into the Protection Act.
atmosphere. Sustainability or Sustainable Development - One of
Environmentalism - One important development the major concepts that drive environmentalism
that arose during the late twentieth century - This concept focuses on reconciling human
- advocates to address the growing environmental activities and economic development with the
problems. protection of the environment.
- also encourages governments, institutions, - we must make wise decisions regarding the use of
organizations, and corporations to commit to natural resources to ensure that there is still enough
responsible action for the environment. left for future use.
Environmental ethics - One important philosophical 2011 report by the World Food Programme - about
view from environmentalism one-third of the total food supply is wasted
- emerged in the 1970s, advocating human throughout the world
responsibility and action with regard to 2008, a study of the Philippine Rice Research
environmental issues. Institute - estimates that every Filipino wastes about
- a moral approach that analyzes the relationship 3.2 kilograms of rice every year.
between humans and the environment. SUSTAINABILITY RELIES ON THREE IMPORTANT
- discusses environmental problems caused by PRINCIPLES:
human activities and social issues that impact the 1. Environmental integrity - refers to maintaining
environment. the state of the environment.
- serves as a basis for reflecting on how our actions - This means that human activities should not unduly
show our regard for nature. disrupt the ecosystems and human communities
- also guides us in upholding the welfare of the located in the area.
environment and everything in it. 2. Economic efficiency - refers to prudence in
MAIN IDEAS OF ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS: decision-making regarding the use of resources to
1. All nonhuman elements of the world, including ensure that there is minimum to zero waste.
animals and natural resources, have intrinsic value 3. Equity - demands that we use our natural
and should be preserved. resources in such a manner that these are conserved
2. The preservation of the environment will benefit so that the next generation will be able to use them.
humans by providing for the needs of present and VALUES OF PRUDENCE AND FRUGALITY CAN GUIDE
future generations. US IN OUR OWN PERSONAL USE OF RESOURCES:
3. Humankind has a responsibility to safeguard the 1. Prudence - is the ability to regulate one's actions
planet as stewards of creation. and behavior
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS HAS RESULTED IN THE 2. Frugality - is being thrifty with the use of one's
DEVELOPMENT OF VARIED VIEWS: resources
Social ecology - applies an ecological and ethical Environmental philosophy - is a branch of
approach in analyzing society, and sees a philosophy that is concerned with the natural
relationship between social problems and environment and humanity's place in it.
environmental problems. - It deals with issues concerning humanity's role in
- Concepts such as climate ethics and climate justice the world, the interaction between nature and
arose from the growing concern with climate
humans, and human response to environmental - We set limits to our own freedom and learn to
challenges. moderate or control our thoughts, emotions, and
Climate change - and its related effects are among actions depending on the situation.
the most important environmental issues we face “Freedom should also be exercised with regard for
today. knowledge and truth. “
LESSON 5 - As rational beings, it is natural for us to think
FREEDOM - an intrinsic and essential property of a before we act.
person. In exercising our freedom, “we should also
- The human person is by nature free and seeks recognize and uphold not only our individual
freedom. freedom but also the freedom of others. “
- Our freedom to act sets us apart from other beings. - This view has led to the assertion that freedom is a
- also understood as the power to be what you want recognized and guaranteed right for all persons.
to be and the ability to decide and create yourself Choice - is indeed an element of freedom, but
- gives us the choice to undertake one of these freedom goes beyond mere choosing.
possible actions. It also enables us to come up with Human action - can either uphold or diminish
new choices. freedom
- also requires a degree of control from the person
who exercises it.
“Freedom is an intrinsic and essential property of
the person.”
- the human person by nature is a free being and
that it is in his or her nature to seek freedom.
- the ability to make choices and perform actions.
“Freedom is rooted in the human person's self-
determination and the exercise of intellect and free
will.”
- This means that a person's every action is freely
determined and these actions define him or her.
KINDS OF FREEDOM:
1. Physical Freedom - refers to the absence of any
physical restraint.
- allows him or her to act and move in a determined
manner
2. Psychological freedom - is also called freedom of
choice.
- The person is free to perform actions that he or she
considers right and wise.
3. Moral freedom - refers to using freedom in a
manner that upholds human dignity and goodness.
2 ELEMENTS THAT DEFINE FREEDOM:
Voluntariness - refers to the ability of a person to
act out of his or her own free will and self-
determination.
- means that a person may decide to act or not to
act, and these decisions are made out of his or her
own free will.
Responsibility - refers to the person being
accountable for his or her actions and their
consequences.
“Freedom is experienced through the act of making
choices.”
- Although human freedom gives us the ability to
think of countless decisions and possible actions, we
only get to choose to enact one of these possible
actions or decisions.
Self-reflection - is vital in the proper exercise of
human freedom.
"My freedom to swing my fist ends where your
nose begins."
- points to the fact that human freedom, though
essential, is not absolute.
“Human freedom should be exercised with control
and a recognition of reasonable limits.“