Raymer Ch.01-17

AEE 451
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN
PROF. DR. ÜNVER KAYNAK

1
FALL 2022 - ANKARA

CHAPTER 1
DESIGN- A SEPARATE DISCIPLINE
2
CHAPTER 2
THE OVERVIEW OF THE DESIGN PROCESS
2.1.INTRODUCTION
2.2. PHASES OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN
2.3. AIRCRAFT CONCEPTUAL DESIGN PROCESS
3
2.1.INTRODUCTION
Figure 1: The desıgn wheel

4
2.2.PHASES OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN
Figure 2: Three phase of aircraft desıgn

2.3.AIRCRAFT CONCEPTUAL DESIGN PROCESS
Figure 3: Aircraft conceptual desıgn process

CHAPTER 3
SIZING FROM A CONCEPTUAL SKETCH
3.1.INTRODUCTION
3.2. TAKEOFF WEIGHT BUILD UP
3.3. EMPTY WEIGHT ESTIMATION
3.4. FUEL FRACTION ESTIMATION
3.5. TAKEOFF WEIGHT CALCULATION
3.6. DESIGN EXAMPLE: ASW AİRCRAFT
7
3.1.INTRODUCTION
3.2.TAKE OFF WEIGHT BUILD UP
8
3.3.EMPTY WEIGHT ESTIMATION
Figure 4: Empty weıght fractıon trends

3.3.EMPTY WEIGHT ESTIMATION
Table 1: Empty weıght fractıon vs. Wo
10
3.4.FUEL FRACTION ESTIMATION
MISSION PROFILES
Figure 5: typical mıssıon profıles for sızıng 11

MISSION SEGMENT WEIGHT FRACTIONS
Table 2: Hıstorıcal mıssıon segment
weıght fractıons
12
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
Figure 6: Specıfıc fuel consumptıon trends

13
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
Table 2: Specifıc fuel consumption(C)
Table 3: Propeller specıfıc fuel consumptıon (Cbhp)
14
L/D ESTIMATION
15
Figure 7: Does aspect ratıo predict drag?
3.4.FUEL FRACTİON ESTİMATION
L/D ESTIMATION
16
Figure 8: Wetted area ratıos

L/D ESTIMATION
Figure 9: Maximum lift to drag ratio trends 17

3.5.TAKE-OFF WEIGHT CALCULATION
18
Figure 10: First order desıgn method
3.5.TAKE-OFF WEIGHT CALCULATION
Figure 11: Sample mission profıle
19
3.6.DESIGN EXAMPLE: ASW AİRCRAFT
• ASW REQUIREMENTS
• CONCEPTUAL SKETCHES
Figure 12: ASW conceptual sketches

20
Figure 13: Completed ASW sketch 21

• L/D ESTIMATIONS
• TAKEOFF-WEIGHT SIZING
22
• L/D ESTIMATIONS
• TAKEOFF-WEIGHT SIZING
• TRADE STUDIES
23
Figure 14: Range trade

24
25
26
Figure 15: Payload trade

CHAPTER 4
AİRFOİL AND GEOMETRY SELECTION
4.1.INTRODUCTION
4.2. AİRFOİL SELECTION
4.3. WING GEOMETRY
4.4. BIPLANE WINGS
4.5. TAIL GEOMETRY AND ARRANGEMENT
27
4.1.INTRODUCTION
4.2.AİRFOİL SELECTION
28
Figure 16: Airfoil geometry
AİRFOİL LIFT AND DRAG
29
Figure 17: typical Airfoil pressure distribution
30
Figure 18: Airfoil flowfıeld and cırculatıon
31
Figure 19: Airfoil lıft, drag, and pıtchıng moment

Figure 19: Effect of chamber on seperatıon
32
Figure 20: Typical Airfoils

 AİRFOİL FAMILIES
 AİRFOİL DESIGN
Figure 21: Transonıc effects
Figure 20: Lamınar Airfoil
33
 DESIGN LIFT COEFFICIENT
34
Figure 22: Desıgn lıft coeffıcıent

 STALL
35
Figure 23: Types of stall
 AİRFOİL THICKNESS RATIO
 OTHER AİRFOİL CONSIDERATIONS
Figure 24: Effects of t/c on drag Figure 25: Effects of t/c on crıtıcal mach
number
36
 AİRFOİL THICKNESS RATIO
 OTHER AİRFOİL CONSIDERATIONS
Figure 26: Effects of t/c on max. lıft Figure 27: Thıckness ratıo hıstorıcal
trend
37
4.3. WING GEOMETRY
38
Figure 28: Wıng geometry

4.3. WING GEOMETRY
39
Figure 29: Wıng sweep

4.3. WING GEOMETRY
 MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD
40
Figure 29: Mean aerodynamıc chord

4.3. WING GEOMETRY
 ASPECT RATIO
41
Figure 30: Effects of aspect ratıo on lıft

4.3. WING GEOMETRY
 ASPECT RATIO
Table 4: Aspect ratıo
42
4.3. WING GEOMETRY
 WING SWEEP
Figure 31: Wıng sweep hıstorıcal trend Figure 32: Taıl-off pıtch up boundarıes
43
4.3. WING GEOMETRY
 TAPER RATIO
Figure 32: Ellıptıcal wıng
44
Figure 33: Effect of taper on lıft
dısturıbutıon
4.3. WING GEOMETRY
 TWIST
45
Figure 33: Effect of sweep on desıred taper ratıo

4.3. WING GEOMETRY
 WING INCIDENCE - DIHEDRAL
Figure 34:Angle of ıncıdence Figure 35: Wıng dıhedral
46
4.3. WING GEOMETRY
 WING VERTICAL LOCATION
Figure 36:Hıgh wıng Figure 37: Mıd wıng
Figure 38: Low wıng

47
4.3. WING GEOMETRY
 WING TIPS
Figure 39: Wıng tıps

48
4.4. BIPLANES
Figure 39 Figure 40
49
Figure 41
 TAIL FUNCTIONS
 TAIL ARRANGEMENT
Figure 42: Aft taıl varıatıons

50
 TAIL FUNCTIONS
Figure 43: Aft taıl posıtıonıng 51

 TAIL FUNCTIONS
Figure 44: Other taıl confıguratıons 52

 TAIL ARRANGEMENT FOR SPIN RECOVERY
Figure 45: Taıl geometry for spın recovery

 TAIL GEOMETRY
Table 5: Taıl aspect ratıo and taper ratıo
53
CHAPTER 5
THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO AND WING LOADING
5.1. INTRODUCTION
5.2. THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO
5.3. WING LOADING
5.4. SELECTION OF THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO AND WING LOADING
54
5.1.INTRODUCTION
5.2.THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO
 THRUST TO WEIGHT DEFINITIONS
 POWER LOADING AND HORSE POWER TO WEIGHT
Table 1: Thrust to weıght ratıo( T/W )
Table 2: Horse power to weıght ratıo
55
 THRUST MATCHING
Table 3: T/Wo vs.Mmax
Table 4: hp/Wo vs. Vmax (mph)
56
 THRUST MATCHING
Figure 1: T/Wo vs.Mmax Figure 2: Pıston engıne varıatıon wıth

altıtude
57
 THRUST MATCHING
5.3.WING LOADING
Table 5: Wıng loadıng
58
5.3.WING LOADING
 STALL SPEED
59
Figure 3: Maxımum lıft coeffıcıent

5.3.WING LOADING
 TAKE OFF DISTANCE ESTIMATION
Figure 4: Take off dıstance estımatıon
60
5.3.WING LOADING
 CATAPULT TAKE OFF
61
Figure 5: Catapult end speeds
5.3.WING LOADING
 LANDING DISTANCE
 ARRESTED LANDING
62
Figure 6: Arrestıng gear weıght lımıts

5.3.WING LOADING
 WING LOADING FOR CRUISE
e: Oswald effıcıency factor : zero lıft drag coeffıcıent
0.6 for fıghter 0.015 for jet aircraft

0.8 for other aırcrafts 0.02 for clean propeller aircraft
0.03 for dırty fıxed gear prop. aircraft
63
5.3.WING LOADING
 WING LOADING FOR LOITER ENDURANCE
 INSTANTANEOUS TURN
: : turn rate
: load factor 64
5.3.WING LOADING
 SUSTAINED TURN
65
5.3.WING LOADING
 CLIMB AND GLIDE
G : clımb gradıent 66
5.3.WING LOADING
 MAXIMUM CEILING
 SELECTION OF THRUST TO WEIGHT AND WING LOADING
67
CHAPTER 6
INITIAL SIZING
6.1.INTRODUCTION
6.2. RUBBER ENGINE SIZING
6.3. FIXED ENGINE SIZING
6.4. GEOMETRY SIZING
6.5. CONTROL SURFACE SIZING
68
6.1.INTRODUCTION
6.2.RUBBER ENGINE SIZING
 REVIEW OF SIZING
 REFINED SIZING EQUATION
69
6.1.INTRODUCTION
 EMPTY WEIGHT FRACTION
 FUEL WEIGHT
70
6.1.INTRODUCTION
 ENGINE START, TAXI AND TAKE OFF
 CLIMB AND ACCELERATE
 CRUISE
71
6.1.INTRODUCTION
 LOITER
 COMBAT
72
 DESCENT FOR LANDING
LANDING AND TAXI BACK
73
Figure 1: Refıned sızıng method

6.3.FIXED ENGINE SIZING
6.4.GEOMETRY SIZING
 FUSELAGE
74
Figure 1: Refıned sızıng method

6.4.GEOMETRY SIZING
 WING-TAIL VOLUME COEFFICIENT
75
6.4.GEOMETRY SIZING
 WING-TAIL VOLUME COEFFICIENT
76
6.5.CONTROL SURFACE SIZING
77
CHAPTER 7
CONFIGURATION LAYOUT AND LOFT
7.1.INTRODUCTION
7.2. END PRODUCTS OF CONFIGURATION LAYOUT
7.3. CONIC LOFTING
7.4. CONIC FUSELAGE DEVELOPMENT
7.5. FLAT WRAP FUSELAGE LOFTING
7.6.CIRCLE TO SQUARE ADAPTER
7.7.FUSELAGE LOFT VERIFICATION
7.8.WING / TAIL LAYOUT AND LOFT
7.9.AIRCRAFT LAYOUT PROCEDURES
7.10.WETTED AREA DETERMINATION 78
7.11.VOLUME DETERMINATION
 REFERENCE WING / TAIL LAYOUT
79
: MAC: Mean aerodynamıc chord

 WING LOCATION RESPECT TO FUSELAGE
 WING / TAIL LOFTING
80
81
82
 AİRFOİL LINEAR INTERPOLATION
83
 AİRFOİL FLAT WRAP INTERPOLATION
84
 WING TAIL CROSS SECTION LAYOUT
85
 WING FILLETS
86
CHAPTER10
PROPULSION AND FUEL SYSTEM INTEGRATION
10.4. PROPELLER ENGINE INTEGRATION
87
 PROPELLER SIZING
88
 PROPELLER LOCATION
89
 ENGINE SIZE ESTIMATION
90
 PISTON ENGINE INSTALLATION
91
CHAPTER 12
AERODYNAMICS
12.1.INTRODUCTION
12.2. AERODYNAMIC FORCES
12.3. AERODYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS
12.4. LIFT
12.5. PARASITE(ZERO-LIFT) DRAG
12.6. DRAG DUE TO LIFT(INDUCED DRAG)
12.7. AERODYNAMIC CODES AND
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS(CFD)
92
12.1.INTRODUCTION
12.2.AERODYNAMIC FORCES
Figure 1: Orıgın of aerodynamıc forces
93
12.1.INTRODUCTION
12.2.AERODYNAMIC FORCES
94
Figure 2: Drag termınology matrıx

12.3.AERODYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS
Figure 3: Drag polar
95
12.4.LIFT
Figure 4: Wıng lıft curve 96

 SUBSONIC LIFT CURVE SLOPE
97
Figure 5: Lıft curve slope vs. Mach

number
 SUBSONIC LIFT CURVE SLOPE
: sweep of the wıng

: fuselage lıft factor
: fuselage dıameter
: geometrıc aspect ratıo
98
 SUPERSONIC LIFT CURVE SLOPE
when
 TRANSONIC LIFT CURVE SLOPE

Mach 0.85 – 1.2
99
 NONLINEAR EFFECTS
For a wıng of very hıgh sweep and low aspect ratıo ( under two or three)
100
 MAXIMUM LIFT
Figure 6 :Airfoil leadıng edge sharpness parameter
Figure 7 :Subsonıc maxımum lıft of

hıgh aspect ratıo wıngs
101
 MAXIMUM LIFT
Table 1 :ΔY for common Airfoils
102
Figure 8 :Mach number correctıon for subsonıc maxımum lıft of hıgh A.R. wıngs
 MAXIMUM LIFT
:ıs Airfoil maxımum lıft coeffıcıent at M = 0.2
103
 MAXIMUM LIFT
Figure 9 : Angle of attack ıncrement for subsonıc max. lıft of A.R. wıngs 104
 MAXIMUM LIFT
Figure 10 : Taper ratıo correctıon factors for low aspect ratıo wıngs
105
Figure 10 : Maxımum subsonıc lıft of low aspect ratıo wıngs

 MAXIMUM LIFT
Figure 11 : Maxımum lıft ıncrement for low aspect ratıo wıngs
106
Figure 12 : Angle of attack for subsonıc maxımum lıft of low A.R. wıngs
 MAXIMUM LIFT
Figure 12 : Angle of attack ıncrement for subsonıc maxımum lıft of low A.R. wıngs
107
 MAXIMUM LIFT WITH HIGH LIFT DEVICES
108
109
110
Table 2 :Approxımate lıft contrıbutıons of hıgh lıft devıces
111
12.5.PARASITE(ZERO LIFT) DRAG
 EQUIVALENT SKIN FRICTION METHOD
: equıvalent skın frıctıon coeffıcıents
Table 3 :Equıvalent skın frıctıon coeffıcents
112
 EQUIVALENT SKIN FRICTION METHOD
113
 COMPONENT BUILD UP METHOD
: mıscellaneous drag
: leakages and protuberances
FF : form factor
: flat plate skın frıctıon drag coeffıcıent
 FLAT PLATE SKIN FRICTION COEFFICIENT
114
 COMPONENT FORM FACTORS
Wıng ,taıl,strut and pylon:
Fuselage and smooth canopy: Nacalle and smooth external store:
Table 3: Skın roughness value(k)
115
 COMPONENT FORM FACTORS
116
 COMPONENT INTERFERENCE FACTORS  MISCELLANEOUS DRAGS
117
 MISCELLANEOUS DRAGS
118
 MISCELLANEOUS DRAGS
Table 4: Landıng gear component drags
 LEAKAGE AND PROTUBERANCE DRAG 119

 STOPPED PROPELLER AND WING MILLING ENGINE DRAGS
 SUPERSONIC PARASITE DRAG
r = the cross sectıon radıus

l = the longıtudınal dımensıons
120
 SUPERSONIC PARASITE DRAG
Amax : maksımum
cross sectıonal area
121
: emprıcal wave drag effıcıency factor

 TRANSONIC PARASITE DRAG
122
123
124
 COMPLETE PARASITE DRAG BUILD UP
125
12.6.DRAG DUE TO LIFT (INDUCED DRAG)
 OSWALD SPAN EFFICIENCY METHOD
126
 OSWALD SPAN EFFICIENCY METHOD
127
 LEADING EDGE SUCTION METHOD
128
129
130
 GROUND EFFECT
h: wıng heıght above ground
 TRIM DRAG
131
12.7.AERODYNAMIC CODES & CFD
 INDUSTRY PRACTISE FOR AERODYNAMIC ESTIMATION

 CFD DEFINITION
 APPLICATIONS OF CFD
132
 APPLICATIONS OF CFD
133
 CFD ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
134
135
136
137
CHAPTER 13
PROPULSION
13.6.PISTON-ENGINE PERFORMANCE
138
 PROPELLER PERFORMANCE
139
 PROPELLER PERFORMANCE
140
141
142
143
 PISTON-PROP THRUST CORRECTION
144
145
146
147
148
CHAPTER 17
PERFORMANCE AND FLIGHT MECHANICS
17.1.INTRODUCTION AND EQUATION OF MOTION
17.2. STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
17.3. STEADY CLIMBING AND DESCENDING FLIGHT
17.4. LEVEL TURNING FLIGHT
17.5. GLIDING FLIGHT
17.6.ENERGY-MANEUVERABILITY METHODS
17.7.OPERATING ENVELOPE
17.8.TAKE OFF ANALYSIS
17.9.LANDING ANALYSIS
149
17.1. .INTRODUCTION AND EQUATION OF MOTION
150
17.2. .STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
MINUMUM THRUST REQUIRED FOR LEVEL FLIGHT
151
MINUMUM POWER REQUIRED FOR LEVEL FLIGHT
152
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS AND FOR THRUST AND POWER REQUIRED
153
RANGE OPTIMIZATION - JET
154
MINIMUM FUEL TO CLIMB TRAJECTORY
155
ENERGY METHODFOR MISSION SEGMENT WEIGHT FRACTION
156
GRAPHICAL METHOD FOR BEST ANGLE AND RATE OF CLIMB
BEST ANGLE AND RATE OF CLIMB JET BEST ANGLE AND RATE OF CLIMB PROP
157
TIME TO CLIMB AND FUEL TO CLIMB
a: lınear constant
158
INSTANTANEOUS TURN RATE
159
SUSTAINED TURN RATE
160
TURN RATE WITH VECTORED THRUST
161
STRAIGHT GLIDING FLIGHT
162
STRAIGHT GLIDING FLIGHT
163
TURNING GLIDING FLIGHT
164
GROUND ROLL
165
GROUND ROLL
166
GROUND ROLL
167
TRANSITION
168
CLIMB
BALANCED FIELD LENGTH
169
17.9.LANDING ANALYSIS
APPROACH
Va=approach speed
Va=1.3 x Vstall
FLARE
Vtd=touchdown speed
Va=1.15 x Vstall
GROUND ROLL 170

17.10.OTHER PERFORMANCE MEASURES OF MERIT
171
SUPERMANEUVER AND POST STALL MANEUVER
172
173
174
175
176
177
178

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AEE 451

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN

PROF. DR. ÜNVER KAYNAK

FALL 2022 - ANKARA

DESIGN- A SEPARATE DISCIPLINE

Figure 1: The desıgn wheel

Figure 2: Three phase of aircraft desıgn

Figure 3: Aircraft conceptual desıgn process

Figure 4: Empty weıght fractıon trends

Figure 5: typical mıssıon profıles for sızıng 11

Figure 6: Specıfıc fuel consumptıon trends

Table 2: Specifıc fuel consumption(C)

Table 3: Propeller specıfıc fuel consumptıon (Cbhp)

Figure 8: Wetted area ratıos

Figure 9: Maximum lift to drag ratio trends 17

Figure 11: Sample mission profıle

Figure 12: ASW conceptual sketches

Figure 13: Completed ASW sketch 21

Figure 14: Range trade

Figure 15: Payload trade

Figure 19: Airfoil lıft, drag, and pıtchıng moment

Figure 19: Effect of chamber on seperatıon

Figure 20: Typical Airfoils

Figure 21: Transonıc effects

Figure 20: Lamınar Airfoil

Figure 22: Desıgn lıft coeffıcıent

Figure 28: Wıng geometry

Figure 29: Wıng sweep

Figure 29: Mean aerodynamıc chord

Figure 30: Effects of aspect ratıo on lıft

Table 4: Aspect ratıo

Figure 32: Ellıptıcal wıng

Figure 33: Effect of sweep on desıred taper ratıo

Figure 34:Angle of ıncıdence Figure 35: Wıng dıhedral

Figure 36:Hıgh wıng Figure 37: Mıd wıng

Figure 38: Low wıng

Figure 39: Wıng tıps

Figure 42: Aft taıl varıatıons

Figure 43: Aft taıl posıtıonıng 51

Figure 44: Other taıl confıguratıons 52

Figure 45: Taıl geometry for spın recovery

Table 2: Horse power to weıght ratıo

Table 3: T/Wo vs.Mmax

Table 4: hp/Wo vs. Vmax (mph)

Figure 1: T/Wo vs.Mmax Figure 2: Pıston engıne varıatıon wıth

Table 5: Wıng loadıng

Figure 3: Maxımum lıft coeffıcıent

Figure 4: Take off dıstance estımatıon

Figure 6: Arrestıng gear weıght lımıts

e: Oswald effıcıency factor : zero lıft drag coeffıcıent

0.6 for fıghter 0.015 for jet aircraft

 SELECTION OF THRUST TO WEIGHT AND WING LOADING

 REFINED SIZING EQUATION

 CLIMB AND ACCELERATE

 DESCENT FOR LANDING

LANDING AND TAXI BACK

Figure 1: Refıned sızıng method

Figure 1: Refıned sızıng method

 REFERENCE WING / TAIL LAYOUT

: MAC: Mean aerodynamıc chord