1.

“The study of human beings" it includes the past life, how people live,
how people interact with others, and how people's life changes through
time.
2. It is the standard behavior in the society.
3. It is the unacceptable behavior in the society.
4. It is the branch of anthropology that deals with the study of artifacts.
5. It is the basic unit of society.
6. It is the science of society or the scientific study of social behaviour
and human groups.
7. It is a social science discipline that deals with government systems
and analyses political activity and political behavior.
8-9 . The two countries that rich in artifacts and human civilization.

9. cultures aren't compared to one another in terms of which is better

than the other, but rather in an attempt to understand how and why they
differ share commonalities. This method is also known as cultural
relativism

10. Give one branch of Anthropology.

Lesson 2

1. It is also called biological anthropology that centers primarily on the human

biological origins and variations in humans. Physical Anthropology

2. Forensic Anthropology – The Subdisciplines analysis and identification of

human remains
3. Genetics – gene structure, patterns of inheritance of traits
4. Osteology – skeletal remains
5. Urban Anthropology – IT is the subdiscipline of cultural anthropology that focus
on the issues of cities such as poverty, immigration, and social stratification
6. Medical Anthropology – IT is the subdiscipline of cultural anthropology that focus
onthe relationship between culture and health or diseases.
7. Linguistic Anthropology - It is the study of human speech and language and
various changes that have taken place over time.
8. He is German American anthropologist and considered as the “Father
of American Anthropology.

9. General Sociology - It deals with the properties and homogeneity common to all
social and cultural phenomena, including those characteristics found among
groups and institutions.
10. Karl Marx - He considered one of the founder of sociology
The Study of Culture: Anthropology
The science of anthropology peaked during the late 19th century when
the first generation of anthropologists relied on artefactual evidence,
previous writings, and travel reports to conduct archaeological activities and
discover remnants of the past. Since then, the discipline continued to grow,
and several subdisciplines began to flourish (Unit 2: The Study of Culture,
Society, and Politics, n.d.).

Branches of Anthropology

 Physical anthropology

 Cultural anthropology

 Archaeology

Physical Anthropology

 It is also called biological anthropology.

 It is the study of human biology within the milieu (a person’s social

environment) of evolution.

 This centers primarily on the human biological origins and variations in

humans.

 Physical anthropologists also analyze human fossil remains.

 They are now thousands of specimens of human ancestors being

housed in museums and research collections worldwide.

 They also excavate and study these hardened remains as they try to
formulate theories on the origin of humans and subsequent variation.
(Respeto, n.d.)

Subdisciplines of Physical Anthropology

 Paleoanthropology – human evolution, earlier hominids

  Genetics – gene structure, patterns of inheritance of traits

 Primatology – nonhuman primates

 Osteology – skeletal remains

 Paleopathology – traces of disease and injury in human skeletal

remains

 Forensic Anthropology – analysis and identification of human remains

(Respeto, n.d.)

Cultural Anthropology

 It involves the study and comparative analysis of literate societies,

including all aspects of human behavior

 This includes religion, ritual, myth, technology, gender roles, kinship

forms, and economic and political structures. It also includes music and
folklore.

 Ethnography: a means to study and record different ways of human

societies and provides descriptive accounts, which form the basis for
comparative studies of many cultures.

Another subdiscipline of Anthropology

 Urban Anthropology – the issues of cities such as poverty, immigration,

and social stratification

 Medical Anthropology – the relationship between culture and health or

diseases

 Economic Anthropology – the distribution of goods and resources within

and between cultures

Archaeology
  It involves studying earlier cultures and ways of life by way of
retrieving and examining the material remains of previous human
societies.

 Archaeologists attempt to reconstruct the everyday life and customs of

early people. They also seek to explain different cultural changes that
happened over time.

Linguistic Archaeology

 It is the study of human speech and language and various changes

that have taken place over time.

 This attempts to comprehend different processes in human

communication and language use.

Franz Boas

“German American anthropologist Franz Boas was one of the most

influential social scientists of the early twentieth century, noted for his
commitment to cultural relativism and as a staunch opponent of racist
ideologies.

Boas was arguably the most innovative, active, and prodigiously

productive of the first generation of anthropologists in the U.S. He is best
known for his curatorial work at the American Museum of National History in
New York and for his nearly four-decade career teaching anthropology at
Columbia University, where he built the first anthropology program in the
country and trained the first generation of anthropologists in the U.S. His
graduate students went on to establish many of the first and most highly
regarded anthropology programs in the country.” (Lewis, 2020)

“Boas was an outspoken opponent of racism and used anthropology to

refute the scientific racism that was popular during his time. His theory of
cultural relativism held that all cultures were equal, but simply had to be
understood in their own contexts and by their own terms.” (Lewis, 2020)

He is also known as the “Father of American Anthropology.” (Lewis,

2020)

The Study of Society: Sociology

The term “sociology” was first used in 1780 by French essayist
Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyes in his unpublished manuscript. Over the years,
Auguste Comte reinvented the term to characterize the study of society
concerning the scientific method and natural sciences. However, during the
mid-1800s, sociology as a discipline and as a concept boomed through Karl
Marx and Friedrich Engels's Communist Manifesto works. This book, which is
considered one of the most influential in political history, presented Marx’s
theory of society and radical views against capitalism. Since then, sociology
began to take a peek at social scientists.

Sociology is interested in discovering repetitive and general patterns

in human behavior as people interact with one another.

The sociology study can be separated into three paradigms, namely,

structural functionalism, conflict perspective, and symbolic interactionism.

Sociological Paradigms Level Focus

Paradigms of Analysis

Structural Macro or Mid Each part of society has a

functionalism specific function or contribution
to enable societal unity or
equilibrium.

Conflict perspective Macro Social inequality is constantly

occurring in society. This
enables social differences and
power distribution.
 Symbolic Micro Importance is placed upon one-
interactionism on-one interaction and
communicative exchanges with
others.

(Unit 2: The Study of Culture, Society, and Politics, n.d.)

These sociological paradigms have been widely used to explain

sociological phenomena throughout history. At the same time, each
paradigm has been criticized by supporters from other sociological
perspectives. The three paradigms remain to be helpful approaches to
defining and understanding social behavior and phenomena.

Branches/subfields of Sociology
General Sociology

 It deals with the properties and homogeneity common to all social and
cultural phenomena, including those characteristics found among
groups and institutions.

 Its concern may include the conditions, forms, and forces of human
association.

Special Sociology

 It focuses on specific sociocultural phenomena usually selected for

further study, including socialization, interaction, conflict, and
denomination.

 Examples of the most developed sociologies in the field of study

include sociology of population, sociology of law, sociology of religion,
and sociology of knowledge.

Social Organization

 Topics: social institutions, groups, inequality, mobility, stratification,

bureaucracy, ethnic groups, family, education, politics, religion

Social Change
  Topics: changes in culture and social relations and the disruptions
occurring in society; ecological changes, cultural change, and
modernization

Sociological Theory and Method

 Topic: principles and theories about the social environment

 Applied Sociology

 Topics: the resolution of social problems through research in social

work, counseling, and criminology

Karl Marx

“Karl Marx, born May 5, 1818, is considered one of the founding

thinkers of sociology, along with Émile Durkheim, Max Weber, W.E.B. Du Bois,
and Harriet Martineau. Though he lived and died before sociology was a
discipline in its own right, his writings as a political-economist provided a still
deeply important foundation for theorizing the relationship between
economy and political power.” (Cole, 2018)

“These are the ideas that are central to Marx's theory of economy and
society and are what made him so important to the field of sociology. Of
course, Marx's written work is quite voluminous, and any dedicated student
of sociology should engage in a close reading of as many of his works as
possible, especially as his theory remains relevant today. While the class
hierarchy of society is more complex today than that which Marx theorized,
and capitalism now operates on a global scale, Marx's observations about
the dangers of commodified labor, and the core relationship between base
and superstructure continue to serve as important analytic tools for
understanding how the unequal status quo is maintained, and how one can
go about disrupting it.“ (Cole, 2018)

The Study of Politics: Political Science

Political science has had its roots since ancient times. As early as 551–
479 BC in China (through the works of Confucius) and 300 BC in India
(through Kautilya), political science garnered much attention from ancient
scholars and politicians. Aristotle considered the world's first political
scientist, introduced scientific observation to the discipline, making political
science advanced.

Sub-fields in Political Science

Sub-fields Focus

Domestic Politics Public opinion, election, public governance, and

national and local government units

Comparative Politics Politics among countries, similarities, and

differences between political models

International Relations Political relationships and activities between

countries, including the causes of war and
international economic policies

Political Theory Classic and contemporary theoretical models on

philosophy and politics

Public Administration Role of bureaucracy and application of political

science in daily living, civil service

Public Law Constitution, legal rights, the justice system, and

civil rights

Public Policy Passage and implementation of all government-

mandated policies

(Unit 2: The Study of Culture, Society, and Politics, n.d.)

Aristotle
 “Aristotle, who was one of the greatest philosophers of all time, a
teacher of world leader Alexander the Great, and a prolific writer on various
subjects we might not think related to philosophy, provided important
information on ancient politics. He distinguished between good and bad
forms of ruling in all the primary systems. Thus, there are good and bad
forms of the rule by one (mon-archy), a few (olig-archy, arist-ocracy), or
many (dem-ocracy)” (Gill, 2019).

All Government Types Have a Negative Form

“For Aristotle, democracy is not the best form of government. As is
also true of oligarchy and monarchy, rule in a democracy is for and by the
people named in the government type. In a democracy, the rule is by and for
the needy. By contrast, the rule of law or aristocracy (literally, power [rule] of
the best) or even monarchy, where the ruler has the interest of his country
at heart, are better types of government than democracy” (Gill, 2019).

Best Fit to Rule

“Government, Aristotle says, should be by those people with enough
time on their hands to pursue virtue. This is a far cry from the current U.S.
drive toward campaign financing laws designed to make political life
available even to those without well-endowed fathers. It is also different
from the modern career politician who derives his wealth at the citizenry's
expense. Aristotle thought that rulers should be propertied and leisured.
Hence, without other worries, they can invest their time in producing virtue.
Laborers are busy” (Gill, 2019).