CHAPTER 12

ATOMS
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1. Most of the particles pass undeflected through the gold

12.1 THOMSON MODEL OF ATOM foil.
2. Particles suffer different amounts of deflection. Only
In 1989, J.J. Thomson gave the first explanation about the about 0.14% of the incident alpha particles scatter by
structure and arrangement of atoms. He explained that an more than 1 o.
atom is a sphere of radius about 10−10 m. The positive charge The graph between the number of particles deviated at
of the atom is uniformly distributed throughout its volume and different angles is shown in the diagram.
negatively charged electrons are embedded in it just like the
seeds of a watermelon. This model is called the plum pudding
model/Watermelon model of the atom. The atom is
electrically neutral as the total positive and negative charge
in an atom are equal.

Failure of Thomson model: This model fails because it

could not explain some phenomena and experiments. It does
not explain the stability of an atom. This model could not
explain the spectral series (emission and absorption) of
atoms and Rutherford’s alpha scattering experiments.
3. A few particles (1 in 8000 ) suffer a deviation of angle 90°
12.2 RUTHERFORD’S ALPHA SCATTERING or more.
EXPERIMENT 4. Rarely an alpha particle suffers a deviation of angle 180°
and got rebounded back from the foil.
Rutherford (a student of J.J. Thomson) and his two
assistants Geiger and Marsden performed an experiment. Explanation: Since most of the α-particles pass straight
They use a source of α-particles, a thin gold foil (about 1 μm) (without deviation), the atom has a lot of space. Some α-
and a ZnS screen which acts as a detector. A α-particle is a particles are scattered in large amounts, this is possible only
helium nucleus having mass equal to that of helium and a if the whole mass and positive charge are concentrated in a
positive charge equal to twice the charge of an electron. small region called the nucleus. So the particles close to the
nucleus will deviate most. The number of particles scattered
by a large angle is small, hence the size of the nucleus is
small.
# In Rutherford’s experiment, a thin sheet of gold is used. It
is because gold can be beaten to form very thin sheets (in
range of micrometre). There was no other logic to use
gold sheet.

Distance of Closest Approach

As the α-particles approach the nucleus, its speed
decreases. At a certain distance (say ro ), the particles come
to rest. At this point, the kinetic energy is completely
converted into electrostatic potential energy. This distance is
The α-particles from the source pass through the known as the distance of closest approach.
collimator and are directed onto the gold foil. These particles
are then scattered by the foil in different directions. The Suppose α-particles of mass m and velocity v is
number of particles scattered in different directions is approaching a nucleus having atomic number Z. Then by law
detected by the circular detector. This experiment is of conservation of energy.
performed inside a vacuum chamber to prevent scattering of 1
mv 2 = k
(2e)(Ze)
α-particles from air molecules. 2 ro

Observations from the experiment

 (2e)(Ze) 1 (2e)(Ze) 2. The revolving electron can have all possible radii and
ro = k 1 = 1 hence it should emit a continuous energy spectrum. But
mv2 4πεo mv2
2 2
the spectrum of atoms was a line spectrum. So it could
not explain the spectrum of atoms.
Impact Parameter 3. It could not explain why atoms emit light of only discrete
wavelengths.
It is the perpendicular distance between the velocity
vector of α-particle from the central line of the nucleus when # Electromagnetic theory states that every accelerated
it is far away from the nucleus. It is denoted by b. charge particle emits radiation (energy).

12.4 ATOMIC SPECTRA

Emission Line Spectrum
Each element emits a characteristic spectrum of
radiation. When electric current is passed through an atomic
gas or vapour at low pressure then it gets excited and emits
Rutherford derived the relation between the impact radiation. The emitted radiation has a spectrum that contains
parameter and the scattering angle which is given by certain specific wavelengths only. Such spectrum is termed
Ze2 cot
θ as emission line spectrum. It consists of bright lines on a dark
1
b = 1
2
background. The study of emission line spectra helps in the
4πεo mv2
2 identification of the gas.
1. If the impact parameter is large, particles are scattered by
a small angle. Absorption Spectrum
2. If the impact parameter is small, particles are scattered
by a large angle. For absorption spectra, white light is passed through a
3. If the impact parameter is zero then there will be head on gas and the transmitted light is analysed using a
collision and the particles are reflected by an angle of spectrometer. In the spectrum obtained, we find some dark
180°. lines. These dark lines correspond precisely to those
wavelengths that were found in the emission line spectrum of
the gas. This is called the absorption spectrum of the material
12.3 RUTHERFORD’S MODEL OF ATOM of the gas
Based on alpha scattering experiments, Rutherford
suggests an atomic model. The main features of this model 12.5 BOHR ATOMIC MODEL
are:
After the failure of Rutherford’s model, Bohr suggests a
1. An atom consists of a central core called the nucleus. The model of atom (known as Bohr model). He explained that an
whole of positive charge and almost mass is concentrated electron moves only in a certain circular orbit, called
in the nucleus. stationary orbit. In its orbit, the electron will not emit radiation.
2. The size of nucleus is very small as compared to the size These orbits are stable and have some definite amount of
of atom. (The size of nucleus is about 10−15 m and the energy associated with it. The main postulates of Bohr model
size of atom is about 10−10 m). The atom has a lot of are given below.
empty space. 1. An electron revolves in certain stable orbits and will not
3. The nucleus is surrounded by electrons. The total radiate energy. It states that each atom has certain
negative charge on electrons is equal to the total positive definite stable states in which it can exist, and each
charge on the nucleus. So the atom is electrically neutral. possible state has definite total energy. These are called
4. The electrons in the atom are not stationary. They revolve stationary states of atom.
around the nucleus in the same manner as the planets The centripetal force required by an electron to revolve
revolve around the sun. The necessary centripetal force around the nucleus is provided by electrostatic force of
is provided by the electrostatic force of attraction between attraction between nucleus and electron.
the nucleus and electrons. (Ze)(e) mv2
k 2 =
mv2 1(Ze)(e) r r
= 2. The electron revolves only in those circular orbits for
r 4πεo r2 h
which the angular momentum is an integral multiple of .
2π
Drawbacks of Rutherford’s atomic model: L = mvr =
nh
n = 1, 2, 3, … …
2π
1. It could not explain the stability of the nucleus. A revolving 3. An electron revolves in certain stable orbits and will not
electron around the nucleus is accelerated towards the radiate energy. When it jumps from higher to lower energy
centre. According to classical electromagnetic theory, an state then energy (photon) radiates. This radiated energy
accelerated charge particle must radiate energy (energy of photon) is equal to the difference in energy of
continuously. So the electron should come closer to the two states.
nucleus gradually, following a spiral path and ultimately If E1 and E2 be the energy of inner and outer energy levels,
should fall in the nucleus. This makes the atom unstable then frequency (𝜐) of radiation emitted is
but the atom was stable. hυ = E2 − E1

Limitations of Bohr Model

1. This theory is applicable only for hydrogen-like single
electron atoms such as H, He+ , Li++ . This theory fails for
atoms having more than one electron.
2. In the spectrum of hydrogen, some spectral lines are not
single but consist of several lines very close to each other.
 This is called fine structure of spectral lines. Bohr’s theory =
k e2
+ (−
k e2
)
could not explain this. r r
3. This theory could not explain the relative intensity of k e2
En = −
spectral lines. 2r
4. It could not explain why orbits are only circular and not Substitute the value of r,
elliptical.
k e2 4 π2 k m e2
5. It considers electrons only a particle but electrons also = − ( )
2 n2 h 2
have a wave nature.
6. Splitting of spectral lines by applying electric field (Stark 2 π2 k2 m e4
En = −
effect) and magnetic field (Zeeman effect) is not n2 h2

explained by this theory. Substituting the values, we get

7. Bohr’s theory explains the position and momentum of the 13.6
electron very precisely but it was against the Heisenberg En = −
n2
eV
uncertainty principle.

# For hydrogen-like ions (ions having just one electron e.g.

12.6 BOHR’S THEORY OF HYDROGEN ATOM H, He+ , Li++ )
n2 n2
i) rn ∝ , rn = 53 × 10−12 ×
Z Z
A hydrogen atom consists of only one proton (Z = 1) and
Z Z
one electron. Suppose an electron of mass m, charge ‘e’ is ii) vn ∝ , vn = 2.2 × 106 × m/s
n n
moving with velocity v around the nucleus in a circular orbit
of radius r. We know Z2 Z2
iii) En ∝ , En = −13.6 × eV
n2 n2
mv2 (Ze)(e)
= k ……….1 P.E.
r r2 And T. E. = −K. E. =
2
nh
and mvr = ……….2 The total energy of a system is always negative and its
2π
magnitude is equal to the binding energy of the system.
1. Radii of Bohr stationary orbit:
Here Z is the atomic number of atom and n is the number
From equation 2,
nh of orbits.
v= ………..3
2π m r

Put in equation 1, we get 12.7 SPECTRAL LINES OF HYDROGEN ATOM

2 k e2
m
(
nh
) = [𝑍 = 1] In a hydrogen atom, when electron jump from a higher
r 2π m r r2 energy level to a lower energy level, then the difference of
m n2 h 2 k e2 energy in the two levels is emitted in the form of radiation.
=
4 π2 m2 r2 r The wavelength of radiation depends on the energy of two
n2 h 2 levels. This band of energy is known as spectral lines.
r=
4 π2 k m e2

Here r ∝ n2 , so the radius increases in the ratio 1 : 4 : 9 :

16 : ....
2. Velocity of an electron in a stationary orbit:
From equation 3

nh
v=
2π m r

Substituting the value of r, we get

v=
nh Let n 1 and n 2 be the lower and higher orbit of electrons
n2h2
2π m (
4 π2 k m e2
) respectively and E1 and E 2 be their respective energies. If
nh 4 π2 k m e2 electron jump from n 2 to n 1 then energy (= the energy
= ( )
2π m n2 h 2 difference between two levels) is released.
2π e2 ∆E = E2 − E1
v = k
nh
2 π2 k2 m e4 2 π2 k2 m e4
= − − (− )
n22 h2 n21 h2
1
here v ∝ , i.e. speed of an electron in the innermost orbit hc 2 π2 k2 m e4 1 1
n = ( − )
is maximum and decreases when it moves away from the λ h2 n21 n22
nucleus. 1 2 π2 k2 m e4 1 1
3. Energy of electron: = ( − )
λ h3 c n21 n22
The electron in an atom has kinetic energy as well as
1 1 1
potential energy. The total energy is the sum of both these = ν = RH ( − )
λ n21 n22
energies.
From equation 1,
k e2 Here ν is known as wave number and R H is Rydberg’s
m v2 = constant (R H = 1.097 × 107 m−1 )
r
m v2 k e2 Depending on the values of n 1 and n 2, spectral lines of
K. E. = =
2 2r different wavelengths are obtained.
k (−e)(e) k e2 1. Lyman series: In this series, electrons jump from any
P. E. = = −
r r
higher energy level to the first energy level (n 1 = 1).
Total Energy = K. E. + P. E.
 1 1 1
ν = = RH ( 2 − ), where n2 = 2, 3, 4, … ..
λ 1 n22

This energy lies in the ultraviolet region.

2. Balmer series: In this series, electrons jump from any
higher energy level to a second energy level (n 1 = 2).
1 1 1
ν = = RH ( − ), where n2 = 3, 4, 5, … ..
λ 22 n22

This energy lies in the visible region.

3. Paschen series: In this series, electrons jump from any
higher energy level to third energy level (n 1 = 3).
1 1 1
ν = = RH ( − ), where n2 = 4, 5, 6, … ..
λ 32 n22

This energy lies in the infra-red region.

4. Bracket series: In this series, electrons jump from any
higher energy level to the fourth energy level (n 1 = 4).
1 1 1 Excitation and Ionisation Potential
ν = = RH ( − ), where n2 = 5, 6, 7, … ..
λ 42 n22
Excitation energy is the energy required to jump an
This energy lies in the infra-red region. electron from the ground state to an excited (higher) state.
5. Pfund series: In this series, electrons jump from any The energy required to jump from first orbit to the second
higher energy level to the fifth energy level (n 1 = 5). orbit is called first excitation energy and from first to third
ν =
1
= RH (
1
−
1
), where n2 = 6, 7, 8, … .. orbit is called second excitation energy.
λ 52 n22
First excitation energy = E2 − E1
This energy lies in the infra-red region.
= (−3.4 eV) − (−13.6 eV) = 10.2 eV
6. Humphrey series: In this series, electrons jump from any
higher energy level to the sixth energy level (n 1 = 6). Second excitation energy = E3 − E1
1 1 1 = (−1.51 eV) − (−13.6 eV) = 12.09 eV
ν = = RH ( − ), where n2 = 7, 8, … ..
λ 62 n22 The potential required to excite an electron to higher orbit
This energy lies in the infra-red region. is called excitation potential.
The energy required to remove electron from an atom is
# Hα lines of Lyman series for hydrogen: Transition is from known as ionization energy. For hydrogen, the ionization
level n = 2 to n = 1. energy is given by
# Hβ lines of Lyman series for hydrogen: Transition is from
E∞ − E1 = (0) − (−13.6 eV) = 13.6 eV
level n = 3 to n = 1
# Hα lines of Balmer series for hydrogen: Transition is from
level n = 3 to n = 2 12.8 de-BROGLIE’S EXPLANATION TO BOHR’S
# Hβ lines of Balmer series for hydrogen: Transition is from SECOND POSTULATE
level n = 4 to n = 2
In Bohr's model, perhaps the most puzzling is his second
# *For hydrogen-like ions postulate. It states that the angular momentum of an electron
1 1 1
orbiting around the nucleus is quantized. This was explained
= ν = R H Z2 ( − ) by Louis de Broglie ten years later.
λ n21 n22

where Z is the atomic number of atom.

# If an electron jumps from energy level ‘n’ to ground state
then the total number of wavelengths emitted is given by
n(n−1)
.
2

Energy Level Diagram

The energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom is given by
13.6
En = − eV
n2
where n is the number of shells.
He explains that the electron in its circular orbit must be
The energy of first orbit is seen as a particle wave. This particle-wave leads to standing
13.6
E1 = − = −13.6 eV waves under resonant conditions. For an electron moving in
12
n th circular orbit of radius r n, let there are ‘n’ total no of
The energy of second orbit is
wavelength in the orbit. Therefore
13.6
E2 = − = −3.4 eV 2π rn = n λ ...........1
22
The energy of third orbit is We know the de Broglie wavelength is given by
13.6 h
E3 = − = −1.51 eV λ =
32 mv
Substitute in eq. 1,
h
2π rn = n ×
mv

nh
mvr =
mv
 This is Bohr’s second postulate and is explained by de
Broglie.