electronics

Review
Smart Manufacturing and Tactile Internet Based on 5G in
Industry 4.0: Challenges, Applications and New Trends
Dimitris Mourtzis * , John Angelopoulos and Nikos Panopoulos

Laboratory for Manufacturing Systems and Automation, Department of Mechanical Engineering and
Aeronautics, University of Patras, 26504 Rio Patras, Greece; [email protected] (J.A.);
[email protected] (N.P.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +30-2610-910160

Abstract: For many applications deployed in manufacturing networks, communication latency has
been a significant barrier. Despite the constant development of improved communication protocols
and standards during Industry 4.0, the latency problem persists, lowering quality of services (QoS)
and quality of experience (QoE). Tactile internet (TI), with its high availability, security, and ultra-low
latency, will add a new dimension to human-machine interaction (HMI) by enabling haptic and
tactile sensations. The tactile internet (TI) is a cutting-edge technology that uses 5G and beyond (B5G)
communications to enable real-time interaction of haptic data over the internet between tactile ends.
This emerging TI technology is regarded as the next evolutionary step for the Internet of Things
(IoT) and is expected to bring about massive changes towards Society 5.0 and to address complex
issues in current society. To that end, the 5G mobile communication systems will support the TI at



the wireless edge. As a result, TI can be used as a backbone for delay mitigation in conjunction with


5G networks, allowing for ultra-reliable low latency applications like Smart Manufacturing, virtual
Citation: Mourtzis, D.;
reality, and augmented reality. Consequently, the purpose of this paper is to present the current state
Angelopoulos, J.; Panopoulos, N.
of 5G and TI, as well as the challenges and future trends for 5G networks beyond 2021, as well as a
Smart Manufacturing and Tactile
conceptual framework for integrating 5G and TI into existing industrial case studies, with a focus on
Internet Based on 5G in Industry 4.0:
the design aspects and layers of TI, such as the master, network, and slave layers. Finally, the key
Challenges, Applications and New
Trends. Electronics 2021, 10, 3175.
publications focused on the key enabling technologies of TI are summarized and the beyond 5G era
https://doi.org/10.3390/ towards Society 5.0 based on cyber-physical systems is discussed.
electronics10243175
Keywords: tactile internet; Smart Manufacturing; 5G; Industry 4.0; Society 5.0
Academic Editor: George
A. Tsihrintzis

Received: 11 November 2021 1. Introduction

Accepted: 16 December 2021 1.1. Evolution of Network Technologies
Published: 20 December 2021
Over the last decade, the manufacturing industry has been undergoing a digital
transformation known as “Industry 4.0”. Cloud, artificial intelligence (AI) and machine
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
learning, new connectivity technologies (5G, Wi-Fi 6, etc.), Internet of Things (IoT) and
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
sensor technology, digital twins, and robotics are all contributing to the digitization of
published maps and institutional affil-
manufacturing [1]. Most manufacturers strive to increase efficiency and productivity. Most
iations.
businesses aim for a 3% increase in productivity year over year. Thus, operational equip-
ment effectiveness (OEE) is an important performance metric that assesses the efficiency
of a production line by weighing three factors to produce an overall score: availability,
performance, and quality. Additionally, three important challenges that manufacturers are
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
facing in the volatile global marketplace are summarized as follows:
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
• Global competition: as revenues from the traditional model of selling products are
distributed under the terms and squeezed, manufacturers must find ways to become more efficient on a continuous
conditions of the Creative Commons basis in order to compete at lower prices or adopt new business models.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// • New consumer trends: consumers are increasingly expecting “on-demand” products
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ that are fully customizable, putting pressure on manufacturers to reduce cycle times
4.0/). and create unique products while maintaining efficiencies.

Electronics 2021, 10, 3175. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10243175 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 2 of 30

• Skills shortages in the workforce: the introduction of new technologies necessitates the
acquisition of new skills, and the manufacturing industry is struggling to attract new
talent, with an estimated 2.4 million unfilled positions (or 15% of the total workforce)
in the US alone by 2028 [2].
Improving efficiency is the key to addressing the challenges. To that end, technology
will be a key driver by enabling rapid digital transformation. Data can help make better
decisions, but the real benefits will come from developing new business and operating
models. The four pillar technologies that will help in driving efficiency are big data,
analytics, connectivity and management [3].
While most people agree that better use of data can lead to better decision-making,
there are still barriers to overcome. Manufacturers, for example, are facing interoperability
issues. By extension, this issue is caused by the lack of tools and methods for easily
connecting machines, tools and plants, and, most importantly, to aggregate data across silos
in a consistent manner. On the other hand, a new generation of mobile communications is
realized approximately every ten (10) years, as is illustrated in Figure 1. More details for
the evolution of network technologies is listed hereafter [4,5]:
• 1G–voice call: the 1G mobile network was put into use in the early 1980s. It has voice
communication and limited data transmission capabilities.
• 2G–message passing: in the 1990s, the 2G mobile network improved voice quality,
data security, and data capacity and provided limited data capabilities through the
use of GSM (global system for mobile communications) standard circuit switching.
• 3G–multimedia, text, internet: the first commercial 3G service was introduced in 2003,
including mobile internet access, fixed wireless access, and video calling.
• 4G–real-time data, car navigation, video sharing: 4G was launched in 2008, making full
use of all IP networking and relying entirely on packet switching. Its data transmission
speed is 10× compared with 3G network.
• 5G–is the most recent generation of mobile technology, and it differs from previous
generations in that it is not simply a speed increase over 4G. It is more flexible than
previous generations of cellular technology because it is software-based. Customers
will be able to use different characteristics of 5G tailored to meet the requirements of
specific applications, rather than one network that fits all.
• 6G–is the next generation of mobile technology also known as “Next G”, which is still
under development. Currently, initiatives are starting to form and research projects
are set up in an attempt to begin the design, development, and experimentation on the
required network infrastructure to support this new mobile network generation. Ac-
cording to recent research [6], China has already set up two working works. Similarly,
Japan has also invested $2 billion (two billion US dollars) in order to support research
activities for 6G. Europe has also approved the research of 6G under the Horizon 2020
plan. North America has also begun working on the initiative called “Next G”, mainly
at a university level.
Users can share data on the go with their smart devices using mobile communication
and the mobile internet (MI). MI has millions of connected smart devices and has revo-
lutionized various industries such as logistics, education, healthcare, and transportation
in order to maintain quality of service (QoS) and quality of experience (QoE) for diverse
customers [7]. It also enables device-to-device (D2D) communication and invented the term
“Internet of Things” (IoT), which allows low-power devices and/or equipment to execute
specific functions in the area in which they are installed [8]. Mobile devices can share prime
or vital information in situations when a millisecond delay could harm a human life via
D2D communication. The current cellular network architecture is not adequate for such
sensitive data sharing, which has a latency of more than 20 milliseconds, due to poor data
rates and significant delays.
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 3 of 30
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3o

Figure 1. Evolution of mobile

Figure network
1. Evolution of technologies.
mobile network technologies.

However, for most Userssmart applications,

can share thisgodelay
data on the with for D2D
their smartconnections
devices using is excessively
mobile communicat
long. Similarly, the
andterm “tactileinternet
the mobile internet” (TI)
(MI). MIwas
hascoined
millionsinofearly 2014 tosmart
connected characterize
devices andthe has revo
ability to monitortionized
and, asvarious
a result,industries
act over the internet
such [9]. Aseducation,
as logistics, a result, TIhealthcare,
is expected to offer
and transportation
up several new opportunities
order to maintain and quality
applications that (QoS)
of service will improve the quality
and quality of life and
of experience work.
(QoE) for diverse c
According to market research, the worldwide market might be worth up to $20
tomers [7]. It also enables device-to-device (D2D) communication and invented the te trillion,
accounting for at least 20%
“Internet of global
of Things” GDP
(IoT), today
which [10]. low-power
allows Even though the term
devices and/or Internet
equipmentof to exec
Things was established in 1995 itinhas
specific functions therecently
area in faced
which significant popularity.
they are installed Moving
[8]. Mobile on, can sh
devices
the TI is considered
prime to or
bevital
the evolution
information of in
IoT. Hereinafter,
situations whenthe key characteristics
a millisecond of each
delay could harm a hum
life via D2D communication.
internet era are summarized [11]: The current cellular network architecture is not adequate
• such sensitive
Mobile internet: suited for data sharing,
static which has
or streaming a latency
content, of more
video withthan 20 milliseconds,
limited resolution, due to p
web browsingdata rates and significant delays.
• Internet of Things However, for most smart applications,
(IoT): machine-to-machine this delay for D2D
(M2M) communication, connections
billions of inter-is excessiv
long. Similarly, the term “tactile internet” (TI) was coined in early 2014 to characterize
connected smart devices, low rate, latency, secure and reliable
ability to monitor and, as a result, act over the internet [9]. As a result, TI is expected
• Tactile internet: human-to-machine communication (H2M), ultra-low latency, ultra-
offer up several new opportunities and applications that will improve the quality of
high availability, end-to-end security
and work. According to market research, the worldwide market might be worth up to
trillion,
1.2. Vision of Tactile accounting for at least 20% of global GDP today [10]. Even though the term In
Internet
net of Things was established in 1995 it has recently faced significant popularity. Mov
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU-R) initiated a program in early
on, the TI is considered to be the evolution of IoT. Hereinafter, the key characteristic
2012 to establisheach
“International Mobile Telecommunication (IMT) for 2020 and Beyond”,
internet era are summarized [11]:
laying the way for 5G research activities around the world. Figure 2 [12] illustrates the
• Mobile internet: suited for static or streaming content, video with limited resoluti
5G Roadmap. The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) has a long history
web browsing
of producing radio interface standards for mobile communications. IMT-2000 and IMT-
• Internet of Things (IoT): machine-to-machine (M2M) communication, billions of
Advanced are part of the International Mobile Telecommunications (IMT) framework of
terconnected smart devices, low rate, latency, secure and reliable
standards, which encompasses 3G and 4G industry perspectives and will continue to
• Tactile internet: human-to-machine communication (H2M), ultra-low latency, ul
evolve as 5G with IMT-2020. The ITU multi-stakeholder framework’s reliability ensures a
high availability, end-to-end security
positive outcome for the global telecommunications community.
 laying the way for 5G research activities around the world. Figure 2 [12] illustrates the 5G
Roadmap. The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) has a long history of pro-
ducing radio interface standards for mobile communications. IMT-2000 and IMT-Ad-
vanced are part of the International Mobile Telecommunications (IMT) framework of
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 standards, which encompasses 3G and 4G industry perspectives and will continue 4 ofto
30
evolve as 5G with IMT-2020. The ITU multi-stakeholder framework’s reliability ensures a
positive outcome for the global telecommunications community.

Figure2.2.5G
Figure 5GRoadmap
Roadmapof
ofIMT
IMT 2020
2020 [12].
[12].

The
TheTI,TI,according
accordingto to one
one ITU-T
ITU-T Technology
Technology Watch
Watch Report
Report [13], has taken
[13], has taken aa quantum
quantum
leap forward. Tactile and haptic sensations will be enabled by TI’s high availability
leap forward. Tactile and haptic sensations will be enabled by TI’s high availability and and
security, ultra-fast reaction times, and carrier-grade reliability, adding new
security, ultra-fast reaction times, and carrier-grade reliability, adding new dimensions todimensions
tohuman-machine
human-machine contact
contact (HMI)
(HMI) [14].
[14]. TheThe5G 5G technology
technology vision
vision envisions
envisions 1000-fold
1000-fold in-
increases
creases ininarea
areacapacity,
capacity, 10
10 Gb/s
Gb/speak
peakdata
datarates,
rates,and
andconnections
connectionsfor forat
atleast
least100
100 billion
billion
devices
devicesto
toachieve
achievethisthisgoal.
goal. The
The main
main challenge
challenge ofof 5G
5G wireless access and
wireless access and core
core network
network
architectures is to enable new machine-centric use cases that are currently
architectures is to enable new machine-centric use cases that are currently unsupported unsupported
bybycellular
cellularnetworks.
networks. Additionally,
Additionally, the
the TI
TI is
is characterized
characterized by by the following technological
the following technological
capabilities [12]:
capabilities [12]:
•• Ultra-low
Ultra-lowlatency;
latency;11msmsand
andbelow
below latency
latency (as
(as in
in round-trip-time/round-trip delay)
round-trip-time/round-trip delay)
•• Ultra-high availability; 99.999% availability
Ultra-high availability; 99.999% availability
•• Ultra-secure
Ultra-secureend-to-end
end-to-end(E2E)(E2E)communications
communications
•• Persistent
Persistent very high bandwidth capability
very high bandwidth capability (>1 Gbps)
(>1 Gbps)
•• Bandwidth:
Bandwidth:datadatarates
rates of
of 100
100 MB/s
MB/s onon average
average
•• Capacity:
Capacity: up to 1 million devices per square kilometer
up to 1 million devices per square kilometer
•• Reliability:
Reliability:99.999%
99.999%network
network reliability
reliability
•• Mobility:
Mobility:Seamless
Seamlesstransfer
transfer between
between radio
radio nodes
nodes up to 500
up to 500 km/h
km/h
•• Battery Life: up to ten (10) years battery life for low power (IoT)
Battery Life: up to ten (10) years battery life for low power (IoT) devicesdevices
However,
However,itithas
hasto
tobe
bementioned
mentioned thatthat the
the TI
TI should be able
should be able to
to highlight
highlightthe
thedifference
difference
between
between humans and machines. This should be used in situations where there isis aa high
humans and machines. This should be used in situations where there high
demand for machines and little interference from humans. Machines should
demand for machines and little interference from humans. Machines should be used to be used to
supplement humans rather than to replace them
supplement humans rather than to replace them [15]. [15].

1.3. Challenges and Motivation-Existing Cellular Technologies Cannot Support Tactile Internet Yet
Tactile applications based on control communications can now be developed with
1 ms round-trip latency (RTL) and ultra-high reliability and availability (as envisioned
for 5G). As such, for the global economy, the TI has the potential to be a game-changer.
Table 1 compares the industrial automation performance requirements for 5G. To that end,
the purpose of this study is to look into how 5G can fuel Smart Manufacturing and TI by
reviewing existing trends, difficulties, and future trends. There will also be a discussion of
the potential ramifications for operators in terms of network infrastructure and commercial
prospects. The rate 10× factor [16] is fast increasing the data rate need in IoT.
As already mentioned, the critical challenge is to achieve a tolerable RTT of 1 ms in
order to facilitate TI-related services and applications. Nonetheless, there are numerous
challenging solutions for reducing network RTT. As a result, another motivation of the
paper is to adopt TI technology in order to incorporate technological advancements such
as software defined networking (SDN), network function virtualization (NFV), network
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 5 of 30

coding, physical MAC-layer protocols, and cloud networking technologies that promise to
meet the needs of the TI [17].

Table 1. Comparison of peak data rate versus latency [18].

Number of
Use Case Availability Cycle Time Payload Size Typical Service Area
Devices
Printing
>99.9999% <2 ms 20 bytes 100 100 m × 100 m × 30 m
Motion machine
control Machine tool >99.9999% <0.5 ms 50 bytes ~20 15 m × 15 m × 15 m
Packaging
>99.9999% <1 ms 40 bytes ~50 10 m × 5 m × 3 m
machine
Cooperative
>99.9999% 1 ms 40–250 bytes 100 <1 km2
Mobile robots motion control
Video-operated
>99.9999% 10–100 ms 15–150 kbytes 100 <1 km2
remote control
Assembly
Mobile control robots or
>99.9999% 4–8 ms 40–250 bytes 4 10 m × 10 m
panels with milling
safety functions machines
Mobile cranes >99.9999% 12 ms 40–250 bytes 2 40 m × 60 m
Process automation
>99.99% >50 ms Varies 10,000 devices per km2
(process monitoring)

The present 4G network is incapable of handling such high data rates. In this context,
5G technology has the potential to lead IoT applications that require high data rates, such
as smart cities, smart grids, smart healthcare, connected cars, and linked homes [19]. By
2020, there will be more than 50 billion gadgets connected to the internet.
Issues and concerns with IoT-based smart home applications, such as latency and
reliability, were highlighted by Alaa et al. [20]. TI can be utilized to alleviate these diffi-
culties because it has ultra-low latency and carrier-grade frequency. The problems of IoT
will be addressed by a future technical development, a 5G-enabled TI. In addition, the
following are the components of TI: (a) fixed internet [8], (b) mobile internet [21], (c) things
internet [22], and (d) tactile internet [8].
The 5G technology will be integrated in a heterogeneous network infrastructure.
Three major frequency bands have been made available for use of 5G in Europe. These
three bands are 700 MHz, 3.6 GHz, and 26 GHz. Next, the CBRS (Citizens Broadband
Radio Service) band, which operates at 3.5 GHz, was opened up for commercial use in
the United States in January 2020. Wi-Fi networking is also getting a makeover, and this
supplementary technology will contribute to the 5G ecosystem. Finally, the IEEE 802.11ax
specification is referred to as Wi-Fi 6 by the Wi-Fi Alliance because it is the sixth generation
of Wi-Fi. Similarly, following the ongoing standardization, a new IEEE P1918.X standard
has been defined for the TI [23,24]. IEEE P1918.X describes the TI’s architecture technology
and assumptions, whereas IEEE P1918.X.1, IEEE P1918.X.2, and IEEE P1918.X.3 focus on
codecs, AI, and MAC for the TI, respectively. Furthermore, significant effort has been
expended to form a working group for low latency industrial IoT (IIoT) applications such
as intelligent transportation systems, Industry 4.0, and Health 4.0 [25]. Finally, Figure 3
presents verticals sectors’ capabilities and requirements spider charts [26].
In an attempt to properly introduce the key concepts of this research work, a short
glossary is compiled below in the form of a table (refer to Table 2). Consequently, this table
can facilitate the readership to become more familiar with the concepts of mobile networks,
5G, tactile internet, and Industry 4.0.
 tion of Wi-Fi. Similarly, following the ongoing standardization, a new IEEE P1918.X stand-
ard has been defined for the TI [23,24]. IEEE P1918.X describes the TI’s architecture tech-
nology and assumptions, whereas IEEE P1918.X.1, IEEE P1918.X.2, and IEEE P1918.X.3
focus on codecs, AI, and MAC for the TI, respectively. Furthermore, significant effort has
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 been expended to form a working group for low latency industrial IoT (IIoT) applications 6 of 30
such as intelligent transportation systems, Industry 4.0, and Health 4.0 [25]. Finally, Figure
3 presents verticals sectors’ capabilities and requirements spider charts [26].

Figure3.3.Verticals
Figure Verticalssectors’
sectors’capabilities
capabilities and
and requirements
requirements spider
spider charts
charts [26].
[26].

In an attempt toGlossary
Table 2. properlyofintroduce the key concepts of this research work, a short
Key Concepts.
glossary is compiled below in the form of a table (refer to Table 2). Consequently, this
Term table can facilitate the readershipDefinition
to become more familiar with the concepts of mobile
Source
networks, 5G, tactile internet, and Industry 4.0.
IoT can be realized as a new form of network created by physical devices. In this
type of network, the physical devices are called things. Each thing is embedded
Internet of Things (IoT) [27]
with sensing systems and associated software which enable the connection and
data exchange with other things over the internet.
According to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), TI can be realized
as the next generation of internet network. This new generation of internet is
based on the combination of ultra-low latency, extremely high network availability,
Tactile internet (IT) [13,28]
reliability, and security. Ultimately, TI will enable the advanced human-machine
interface (HMI), based on the interaction of humans with the new TI environment
through human senses.
This notation refers to the mobile network generations, encapsulating the
corresponding communication protocols. Concretely, “G” refers to “generation”,
xG mobile network, x ∈ [1, 6] [29]
whereas the numerical value refers to the number of the generation. For example,
5G refers to the fifth generation of mobile networks
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 7 of 30

Based on the abovementioned identified challenges, the contribution of this state-of-

the-art paper can be summarized as follows:
1. It provides a state-of-the-art review on 5G and related key technologies under the
framework of Industry 4.0 and beyond.
2. It identifies three important challenges faced by industrial stakeholders in the volatile
global marketplace.
3. It highlights the fact that existing cellular technologies cannot support the tactile
internet yet.
4. It clearly introduces the era beyond 5G. The well-known Figure 1 that presents the
evolution of mobile network technologies has been elaborated and includes the main
features of the 6G technology for the years to come.
5. It adds taxonomy of tactile internet ultra-low latency (URLL) manufacturing appli-
cations that will be boosted by 5G technology, such as the tactile internet and haptic
feedback. Moreover, this state-of-the-art paper introduces education frameworks for
up-skilling and re-skilling the next generation of engineers.
6. It integrates the concept of personalized healthcare under the concept of Society 5.0
and, more specifically, explains the progress of cyber-physical systems towards the
realization of a super smart society 5.0.
7. Finally, the current paper extends the scope of the most recent comprehensive surveys
on 5G and integrates the new developments of smart factories in Wi-Fi6 for industrial
Internet of Things (IIoT) applications.
The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. In Section 2, the most pertinent
literature on the topics of international goals for 5G beyond 2020, 5G usage scenarios, the
potential, and the impact of 5G in manufacturing as well as the latency budget of a data
life cycle in TI are presented. Next, in Section 3, use cases in the manufacturing industry
enabled by 5G are discussed, and in Section 4 a generalized framework for TI in the beyond
5G era is provided. Furthermore, the integration of 5G and TI to industrial case studies
is presented by the authors. Finally, in Section 6 the research work results are discussed,
conclusions are drawn, and future research points are discussed.

2. State-of-the-Art
2.1. Review Methodology
For the purposes of this research, emphasis was placed on electronic academic papers
and scientific articles, as well as numerous business reports indexed in globally recognized
databases, such as Google Scholar and Scopus, as well as specific consulting and technology
companies. The recently published papers were included in the process, from 2019 to 2021.
The flowchart of the research methodology that was based on [7] is presented in Figure 4.

2.2. International Mobile Telecommunications (IMT) for 5G beyond 2020

By 2030 it is estimated that 5G technology will increase the global manufacturing
gross domestic product (GDP) by 4%, which is equivalent to approximately $740 billion.
This forecast is based on the new use cases and improvements in existing applications that
5G brings versus other technologies, as well as how these improvements will affect pro-
ductivity (Figure 3) [12,30,31]. The evolution of mobile communications has significantly
affected socio-technical evolution in recent decades, by contributing to the economic and
social development of both developed and developing countries. Mobile communications
have become deeply ingrained in all aspects of daily life. The evolution of mobile com-
munications systems and socio-technical trends are expected to remain tightly coupled,
forming a foundation for the next generation of society in 2020 and beyond. Therefore,
new demands, such as increased traffic volume, a greater number of devices with varying
service requirements, improved quality of user experience (QoE), and improved afford-
ability through cost reduction, will necessitate a greater number of innovative solutions
soon. In a research published by the International Mobile Telecommunications (IMT) [12],
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 8 of 30

Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 33

the potential user and application and technological trends, spectrum applications can be
summarized to the following:
•2. State-of-the-Art
Support very low latency and high reliability human-centric communication
•2.1. Review
SupportMethodology
very low latency and high reliability machine-centric communication
• Support high user density
For the purposes of this research, emphasis was placed on electronic academic papers
• Maintain high quality at high mobility
and scientific articles, as well as numerous business reports indexed in globally recog-
• Enhanced multimedia services
nized databases, such as Google Scholar and Scopus, as well as specific consulting and
• Internet of Things (IoT)
•technology companies.
Convergence The recently published papers were included in the process, from
of applications
•2019Ultra-accurate
to 2021. The flowchart of the
positioning research methodology that was based on [7] is presented
applications
in Figure 4.

Figure4.4.Research
Figure ResearchMethodology
Methodologyfor
forLiterature
LiteratureReview.
Review.

2.3.
2.2.Spectrum for 5G
International Private
Mobile and Dedicated Networks
Telecommunications (IMT) for 5G beyond 2020
Access
By 2030 to itthe
is appropriate
estimated that radio
5Gspectrum
technology is required for 5G
will increase industrial
the applications,
global manufacturing
which is a critical
gross domestic consideration
product (GDP) by for4%,
anywhich
wireless technology.
is equivalent to Most mobile operators
approximately are
$740 billion.
relying on the spectrum in the 3.5 GHz range (3.3 GHz–4.2 GHz) to launch
This forecast is based on the new use cases and improvements in existing applications that commercial
networks.
5G bringsIt versus
is on itsother
way to becoming a globally
technologies, as well harmonized
as how these band for 5G, whichwill
improvements will affect
help
bring network(Figure
productivity equipment and devices
3) [12,30,31]. The down in price.
evolution 5G, on
of mobile the other hand,has
communications supports
signifi-
acantly
much affected
wider range of spectrum
socio-technical options, in
evolution particularly across by
recent decades, licensed frequency
contributing bands,
to the eco-
which
nomiccanandaccommodate
social development a wider ofrange of requirements.
both developed The spectrum
and developing rangesMobile
countries. for 5Gcom-
are
illustrated in a comprehensive manner in Figure 5.
munications have become deeply ingrained in all aspects of daily life. The evolution of
•mobile
Low communications
frequency bands, systems and socio-technical
e.g., under 1 GHz, supporting trendswide
are expected to remain
area coverage e.g.,tightly
wide
coupled, formingand
area logistics a foundation for the next generation of society in 2020 and beyond.
sensor networks;
•Therefore, new demands,
Mid frequency suchinasthe
bands, e.g., increased traffictovolume,
core 3.3 GHz 3.8 GHz arange,
greater number expanded
delivering of devices
withdevice
varying service requirements, improved quality of user experience
capacity and bandwidth. It is expected that public mobile network operators(QoE), and im-
proved
willaffordability through
each have between 80cost
MHz reduction, will necessitate
and 100 MHz in prime 5G a greater number of innova-
mid-bands;
•tive High
solutions soon. bands
frequency In a research
known published by the
as “millimeter wave”,International Mobile
e.g., 26 GHz, Telecommunica-
28 GHz and 40 GHz.
tionsThis
(IMT) [12],
is of the potential
particular user and
importance applicationvideo,
to streaming and technological
image/video trends, spectrum
processing, vir-
applications can be summarized to the following:
• Support very low latency and high reliability human-centric communication
 • Low frequency bands, e.g., under 1 GHz, supporting wide area coverage e.g., wide
area logistics and sensor networks;
• Mid frequency bands, e.g., in the core 3.3 GHz to 3.8 GHz range, delivering expanded
device capacity and bandwidth. It is expected that public mobile network operators
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 9 of 30
will each have between 80 MHz and 100 MHz in prime 5G mid-bands;
• High frequency bands known as “millimeter wave”, e.g., 26 GHz, 28 GHz and 40 GHz.
This is of particular importance to streaming video, image/video processing, virtual
reality/augmented reality,reality,
tual reality/augmented and more
and general wireless
more general networking
wireless for flexible
networking produc-
for flexible
tion lines, AGVs,
production lines, machine vision and
AGVs, machine supply
vision chain management.
and supply chain management.
•• Mobile network operators should have at least least 11 GHz
GHz of
of spectrum
spectrumavailable
availableeach
eachin in
the high frequency bands, enabling
enabling those
those industrial
industrial use
use cases
cases which
which demand
demandpeak peak
‘traffic
‘traffic volume
volume density’.
density’.

Figure 5. Spectrum
Figureranges for 5Granges
5. Spectrum [32]. for 5G [32].

2.4. 5G
2.4. 5G Usage
Usage Scenarios
Scenarios
The goal
The goal of
of Industry
Industry 4.0
4.0isistotoincrease
increaseefficiency
efficiencybyby
incorporating
incorporatingthethe
features of cut-
features of
ting-edge technologies
cutting-edge intointo
technologies all processes and and
all processes assets, as well
assets, as as to provide
well a better
as to provide a under-
better
standing of manufacturing
understanding processes
of manufacturing acrossacross
processes their their
manufacturing sites sites
manufacturing in near real-time.
in near real-
time. The deployment of 5G has raised expectations that it will open new opportunities for
manufacturing business models, given the expected increase in data requirements ranging
from mission-critical to massive machine connectivity. As shown in Table 3, 5G promises
faster download speeds, lower latency, and increased capacity.

Table 3. Comparison of 3G/4G and 5G latency times and data speeds [19,21].

Theoretical Download
Network Type Average Download Speeds Peak Download Speeds Milliseconds (ms)
Speeds
3G 8 Mbps ~20 Mbps 42 Mbps 60 ms (Typical)
4G 32.5 Mbps 90+ Mbps 300 Mbps 50 ms (Typical)
5G 130 Mbps–240 Mbps 599 Mbps+ 10–50 Gbps 1 ms (Theoretical)

By automating industrial technologies and utilizing other enabling technologies such

as artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning, the manufacturing industry expects to
maximize the innovations of 5G wireless communications. Industry expects this to lead to
more precise decision-making, such as the automation of physical tasks based on historical
data and knowledge, or improved outcomes for a wide range of vertical marketplaces,
including agriculture, supply chain logistics, healthcare, and energy management, among
others [30]. The use of network slicing is listed as follows: (a) eMBB (enhanced mobile
broadband), (b) URLLC (ultra-reliable low latency communications) and (c) mMTC (mobile
multimedia transmission control) (massive machine-type communications). By 2030, it
is estimated that 5G technology will increase the global manufacturing gross domestic
product by 4%, which is equivalent to approximately $740 billion [12,30].
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 10 of 30

The evolution of mobile communications has significantly affected socio-technical

evolution in recent decades, by contributing to the economic and social development of
both developed and developing countries. Mobile communications have become deeply
ingrained in all aspects of daily life. The evolution of mobile communications systems and
socio-technical trends are expected to remain tightly coupled, forming a foundation for the
next generation of society in 2020 and beyond. Therefore, new demands, such as increased
traffic volume, a greater number of devices with varying service requirements, improved
quality of user experience (QoE), and improved affordability through cost reduction, will
necessitate a greater number of innovative solutions soon. The potential user and applica-
tion and technological trends, spectrum applications can be summarized to the following:
(1) support very low latency and high reliability human-centric communication, (2) support
very low latency and high reliability machine-centric communication, (3) support high
user density, (4) maintain high quality at high mobility, (5) enhanced multimedia services,
(6) Internet of Things (IoT), (7) convergence of applications, and (8) ultra-accurate posi-
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 33
tioning applications. Finally, Figure 6 presents the three major application scenarios for
5G [13].

Figure6.6.Three
Figure Threemajor
majorapplication
applicationscenarios
scenariosfor
for5G
5Ginin2015
2015defined
definedby
byITU
ITU[13].
[13].

The
The International
International Telecommunication
TelecommunicationUnionUnionRadiocommunication
Radiocommunication Bureau Bureau(ITUR)
(ITUR)
defines
definesthree
threetypical
typicalapplication
applicationscenarios
scenariosofof5G
5Gasasillustrated
illustratedininFigure
Figure7.7.
•• Enhanced
Enhancedmobile
mobilebroadband
broadband(eMBB)
(eMBB)isismainly
mainlyforforhigh-bandwidth
high-bandwidthdemand
demandservices
services
such
suchasasvirtual
virtualreality
reality(VR),
(VR),augmented
augmentedreality
reality(AR),
(AR),andandonline
online4K4Kvideo
video
•• Massive
Massive machine-type
machine-type communications
communications (mMTC)
(mMTC) isis mainly
mainly for
forservices
serviceswith
withhigh
high
connection
connectiondensity
densityrequirements
requirementssuch
suchasassmart
smartcities
citiesand
andintelligent
intelligenttransportation
transportation
•• Ultra-reliable
Ultra-reliablelow latency
low communication
latency communication(uRLLC)
(uRLLC) is mainly for delay-sensitive
is mainly services
for delay-sensitive ser-
such
vicesassuch
internet-of-vehicles, unmanned
as internet-of-vehicles, driving, and
unmanned UAV and
driving, (unmanned aerial vehicle)
UAV (unmanned aerial
vehicle)
2.5. The Potential of 5G in Manufacturing
The deployment of 5G wireless technology comes at a time when many industries are
undergoing transformations due to increased automation, thanks to technologies like the
IoT, machine vision, machine learning, and robotics. 5G connections are expected to enable
the intelligent IoT, in addition to human communication needs. The next generation of
telecommunication technologies (NextGen) will be adopted by a broader range of industries
and sectors, with digital manufacturing being benefited. Next-generation wireless control
of highly sophisticated mobile machines is becoming possible, allowing machines to take
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 11 of 30

advantage of the massive computing power and cloud storage options, without being
tethered by physical wires. To this end, factory [34] and machine shop [35] monitoring, in
which sensors are installed in the shop-floor level to monitor equipment conditions and
ensure that everything is working as it should. Additionally, with 5G technology real-time
production monitoring will be possible, knowing the near real-time state of equipment or
the expected manufacturing time after an order has been placed, with proper access from
anywhere around the globe. As such, the various factors that have to be considered to
define6.the
Figure business
Three model andscenarios
major application the pricing of ain5G
for 5G industrial
2015 network
defined by ITU [13].are discussed in [36].
Next, in terms of predictive maintenance, the identification of potential issues before they
occur,
Theis International
an early area of interest for 5G in the
Telecommunication IIoT [37].
Union Moving information
Radiocommunication and network
Bureau (ITUR)
functions to the network’s edge can help reduce latency, which
defines three typical application scenarios of 5G as illustrated in Figure 7. will be necessary for
applications that require ultra-low latency. When dealing with lengthy distances between
• Enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB) is mainly for high-bandwidth demand services
nodes, applications that must span end-to-end, such as remote machinery control, will
such as virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and online 4K video
require 5G at the very least. 5G latency can be divided into three network topologies,
• Massive machine-type communications (mMTC) is mainly for services with high
assuming a roundtrip ping scenario, as presented in Figure 8.
connection density requirements such as smart cities and intelligent transportation
•• Ultra-reliable
Public cloud lowto device:
latency50communication
ms to 100 ms (uRLLC) is mainly for delay-sensitive ser-
• vices
Telcosuch
cloudastointernet-of-vehicles,
device: 20 ms to 50 ms
unmanned driving, and UAV (unmanned aerial
• vehicle)
Telco edge to device: 1 ms to 2 ms

Figure
Figure7.7.5G
5Gnetwork
networkslices
slices[33].
[33].

2.6. The Impact of 5G on Manufacturing

Close coordination across all systems, particularly information and communication
technologies (ICT) and manufacturing operational technologies (OT), is necessary to lever-
age the inherent possibilities of 5G inside a production system. Industry will be able to
create cyber-physical systems (CPS) that allow for near-real-time precision control from
nearly any location on the planet. Some application examples of typical deployment
scenarios are listed below [39,40]:
• Ability for remote control
• Remote control of supply chain equipment
• Remote equipment monitoring
 proper access from anywhere around the globe. As such, the various factors that have to
be considered to define the business model and the pricing of a 5G industrial network are
discussed in [36]. Next, in terms of predictive maintenance, the identification of potential
issues before they occur, is an early area of interest for 5G in the IIoT [37]. Moving infor-
mation and network functions to the network’s edge can help reduce latency, which will
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 12 of 30
be necessary for applications that require ultra-low latency. When dealing with lengthy
distances between nodes, applications that must span end-to-end, such as remote machin-
ery control, will require 5G at the very least. 5G latency can be divided into three network
•topologies,
Supportassuming a roundtrip
for augmented ping
reality scenario,
(AR) as presented
in design, in Figure
maintenance 8.
(real-time), and repair:
• simulations
Public cloudare used in50
to device: thems
design,
to 100 maintenance,
ms and repair domains to aid in the
• execution of procedural
Telco cloud to device: 20tasks
ms to 50 ms
•• Intra-
Telco and
edgeinter-enterprise
to device: 1 mscommunication
to 2 ms

Figure
Figure 8. Different
8. Different network
network topologies
topologies and their
and their associated
associated latencies
latencies [38]. [38].

2.7. Challenges for 5G and TI Adoption

Although mobile operators began to roll out 5G in 2019, this does not mean the
technology will be ready for widespread use by manufacturers. Certain 5G features
relevant to manufacturing use cases may not be available for at least another 5 years, and
coverage in rural areas will be a challenge. The following are the primary identified hurdles
for industry adoption of 5G based on the foregoing: (a) the cost of procuring and installing
the required equipment, (b) safety, (c) deployment knowledge, and (d) RF interference.
Finally, the expanding usage of more complex collaborative robots in production is a
topic to consider (cobots). Cobots are already on the market, but the incorporation of 5G
networks is expected to make them even more valuable. For example, taking use of 5G
networks’ decreased latency allows for more instantaneous real-time proximity awareness,
allowing the robot to work at quicker speeds, adjacent to a human, while reducing the
danger of injury [40].

2.8. The Latency Budget of a Data Life Cycle in the Tactile Internet
TI relies on the best response time, accessibility, dependability, and security. These
objectives can be achieved by using distributed service platform architectures. Tactile
applications must be implemented in locally available systems close to the clients due to
the requirement for extremely low end-to-end latency [41]. Figure 9 depicts the various
latency components of a typical TI system.
 2.8. The Latency Budget of a Data Life Cycle in the Tactile Internet
TI relies on the best response time, accessibility, dependability, and security. These
objectives can be achieved by using distributed service platform architectures. Tactile ap-
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175
plications must be implemented in locally available systems close to the clients due to the
13 of 30
requirement for extremely low end-to-end latency [41]. Figure 9 depicts the various la-
tency components of a typical TI system.

Figure9.9.The
Figure Thevarious
variouslatency
latencycomponents
componentsofofa atypical
typicalTIΤΙsystem
system [41].
[41].

2.9. The Era beyond 5G

As discussed briefly in the Section 1, the next generation of mobile networks, known
as “6G” or “Next G” is under development. More specifically, the first activities in North
America are focused on research conducted by academic bodies in conjunction with stan-
dards developing organizations (SDOs). Europe has also granted research funds under
the Horizon plan. However, it is notable that eastern countries, such as China and Japan
have set up research teams for the research and development of 6G networking infrastruc-
tures and have funded multi-billion R&D projects. Therefore, the research community has
already published the first wave of research works in the field. In the research work of
Viswanathan et al. in 2020 [42], which has been supported by Nokia, the authors exam-
ine the key characteristics of 6G based on the recent technological advances. It is worth
mentioning that 6G, besides the hardware infrastructure, will be heavily based on the
artificial intelligence air interface management and optimization as well as on more dense
networking as a result of the IoT. In [43] Jian et al. have conducted a comprehensive survey
on 6G. One of the key outcomes of this survey is that 6G will enable new dimensions on
mobile networking, and more specifically in the fields of extended reality (XR), TI, digital
twin, pervasive intelligence, intelligent transportation/logistics, enhanced communica-
tions, multi-sense experience, and global ubiquitous connectivity. Similarly, in [44], the
authors have also performed a survey on 6G. However, in this publication the authors
mostly focus on the deployment challenges. Concretely, for the deployment of 6G, it is nec-
essary to transition to the frequency band of THz (Terahertz), design more dense antenna
networks, as well as define the communication protocols. Modulation techniques are also
a cornerstone, in order to link 6G to the previous 5G and 4G. Among the most common
and effective modulation techniques lie discrete Fourier transform (DFT) precoded OFDM
and the OFDM which is already applied for the link between 4G and 5G (for a definition of
OFDM please refer to Figure 1).
A key aspect in the development and deployment of 6G is the redesign of the so-called
air interface. Briefly, air interface can be realized as the communication link between two
devices, e.g., the mobile device and the antenna. Currently, in 5G, the applied interface
is open radio access network, abbreviated as RAN. In [45], the focus is concentrated on
the deployment of 6G in subnetworks where reliability and availability of the network is
critical. Thus, by default, the connection is achieved through wired connection. However,
6G is a suitable candidate for wireless connectivity. On the other hand, it becomes evident
that the key challenges in such deployments are interferences, including jamming attacks
as well as impulsive noise.
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 14 of 30

Based on the lessons learnt from the deployment of 5G networks, specifically in the
field of software support and network security, the authors in [46] have conducted research
which emphasizes the environmental impact of 6G in terms of energy consumption. Under
the spectrum of energy efficiency, one of the key goals for the deployment of 6G is to become
approximately 100 (one hundred) times more efficient in comparison to 4G networks. The
recent advances in 5G networks have indicated that software support is fundamental for the
achievement of the goals set for this mobile network generation. Notably, the utilization of
energy intensive servers, in contrast to the chips used in virtualized radio access networks
(also known as RAN), has enabled 5G networks to deliver higher bandwidth at the cost of
increased energy consumption.
Despite the key challenges and issues identified for the successful deployment of 6G
networks in the previous paragraphs of this section, the capabilities offered are greater than
any previous mobile network generation. Focusing on TI, which is the main theme of this
research work, it has been enabled by the deployment of 5G networks. However, with 6G
improved E2E (exchange-to-exchange), latency can be achieved, rendering feasible a system
reaction time of 1 millisecond or even less, which is a cornerstone requirement for reaching
the human sense time. Moreover, high reliability, availability, security, and throughput
all add up to achieving real-time monitoring and system tele-operation. As a result of the
increased bandwidth support, greater network traffic can be supported. For example in
applications where sensor data as well as control data must be transmitted/exchanged, the
distributed control systems (enabled by 6G), can manage network traffic more efficiently.

3. Application Fields of Smart Manufacturing and Tactile Internet Powered by 5G

Since the already defined challenges are met, 5G-based TI mobile communications can
be used to explore and achieve a wide range of applications. As a result, Table 4 presents a
taxonomy of possible TI applications with 5G frameworks and their requirements [17].

Table 4. TI applications based on 5G [17].

Application Scenario TI Requirements Performance Metrics

Self-driving Vehicles
Remote Driving
Industrial Automation
Virtual and Augmented Round Trip Latency (RTL) (>1 ms)
Ultra-High Reliability
Reality (AR and VR) Reliability (99.999%)
Low Latency
Unmanned Ariel Vehicle (UAVs) Data Rate (<250 Mbps)
Smart Grids
E-learning
Serious Gaming
RTL (<1 ms)
Cloud-Based Telemedicine Ultra-High Reliability
Reliability (99.999%)
Industry 4.0 or Industrial Internet Ultra-High Availability
Availability (≈100%)
eHealth (Telesurgery)
Human-to-Machine Interaction
Ultra-Low Latency RTL (≈2 ms)
Immersive Virtual Reality
(IVR)Telementoring
Coverage and Excellent
Artificial Satellite Communication
Ultra-High Availability Service
for Emergency
Frequency (1 GHz to 50 GHz)

3.1. Industry
Modern manufacturing relies on the collaboration of multiple technologies, resulting
in the generation of large data sets. With the ultra-low latency and high bandwidth capacity
offered by 5G technology, this massive increase in data collection can be transmitted and
analyzed much faster. The addition of multiple sensors to industrial facilities machine
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 15 of 30

monitoring is generating more data than before. While the production floor is the most
obvious location where 5G can benefit manufacturing, there are other ways in which 5G
can contribute to the manufacturing environment in a non-direct way, as presented in
Table 5 [47,48].

Table 5. Manufacturing use cases enabled by 5G [48].

Application Use Case Benefits Why 5G?

Using dozens of sensors to give an
Reduce downtime Reliability
Advanced Predictive accurate, real-time representation of the
Reduce speed on maintenance Device costs
Maintenance status of a machine to perform predictive
Reduce machine replacement rate Device density
and preventative maintenance
Real-time monitoring and control of
Precision Monitoring & robots/machine tools/end-product (e.g., Reduce defects Ultra-low latency
Control change speed of process based on Increase throughput Device density
vibrations)
Using augmented reality headsets to
Reduce spending (and time) on
Augmented Reality & guide worker via augmented display Ultra-low latency
maintenance and repair
Remote Expert and/or remote expert when carrying out Bandwidth
Reduce spending on training
maintenance and repair tasks
Controlling robotic machinery remotely
(video link may be required) for tasks Health and safety
Remote Robot Control Ultra-low latency
where human involvement may be Increase throughput
hazardous
Making manufacturing flexible and Increase rate of product
Flexibility
Manufacturing-as-a mobile by reducing time to set up a site innovation
Device costs
Service (fixed infrastructure) and enabling Reduce overall costs
Ubiquity
multiple parties to use same facility Increase productivity
Coordinating vehicle control of AGVs
Low latency
Automated Guided (e.g., forklifts, pallet movers or tractors) Increase efficiency
Reliability
Vehicle in a more flexible way without needing to and productivity
Location-awareness
pre-define routes
Using drones to perform tasks that may
Health and safety Low latency
Drone be difficult, dangerous, or tedious for
Reducing spending (and time) on Reliability
Inspections humans (e.g., inspecting hard to reach
inspections Location-awareness
equipment, checking inventory)

Industry digitalization is already happening, opening up new opportunities for service

providers. With 5G, industries all over the world can innovate and rise to their full potential.
Ericsson and Audi have been working together to use 5G technologies to broaden the
horizons of tomorrow’s factories. They first introduced a safe AGV operation over a 5G
network, and now 5G URLLC has taken factory automation over a wireless network to
the next level. Similarly, Ericsson and Audi have built a robot cell similar to those used
in Audi factories today, but over 5G connectivity, in the latest demonstration showcasing
the power of 5G ultra-reliable low latency communication (URLLC) [49]. To avoid system
safety stops, 5G URLLC provides very low latency and strict latency bounds with required
guarantee levels. This is of great significance for the industrial automation industry,
as it opens the door for safe human-robot interaction and path planning for UAVs in
indoor manufacturing environments [50]. Based on the abovementioned, 5G can improve
existing Smart Manufacturing use cases, and enable future ones. In terms of the delivered
capabilities, the use cases that are being realized today will continue to evolve and expand.
This progression will necessitate not only a larger network footprint, but also higher
network performance, which future 5G IoT deployments may well be able to provide.
Furthermore, manufacturers are investigating several novel use cases that are currently
unattainable with the technology in place, as presented in Figure 10 [51].
Electronics 2022,
Electronics 10, x
2021, 11, 3175
FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of
17 of 33
30
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 1

Figure
Figure 10.
10. Existing and
and future
Figure
Existing 10. use
use cases
Existing
future and aligned
cases future
aligned to
use 5G
5G technical
to cases alignedcapabilities
technical [52].
to 5G technical
capabilities [52].capabilities [52].

3.2. Virtual
3.2. Virtual Reality
Reality and
3.2.and Augmented
Augmented
Virtual Reality andReality
Reality
Augmented Reality
A taxonomy for
A taxonomy forATI TI deployment
deployment
taxonomy in
for TI real-time
real-timeultra-reliable
indeployment in real-timelow
ultra-reliable low latency
latency(URLL)
ultra-reliable (URLL) applica-
appli-(URLL) a
low latency
tions such as Healthcare
cations such ascations 4.0,
such as
Healthcare Industry 4.0,
4.0,Healthcare virtual reality
Industry 4.0, Industry and augmented
4.0, virtual
virtual reality reality (VR/AR),
reality andreality
and augmented augmented re
and smartand
(VR/AR), education
smart is illustrated
(VR/AR), and smart
education ineducation
Figure 11.
is illustrated TIillustrated
is used
inisFigure 11.in all
TIin these in
isFigure
used applications
11.
allTIthese
is usedtoinimprove
all these applica
applications
communication,
to tominimize
improve communication, latency,
improve communication,
minimize increase bandwidth
minimize
latency, increase and
latency, reduce overall
increase
bandwidth and operational
bandwidth
reduce and
and reduce
overall op- overa
capital expenditures
erational and capital [53].
erational and capital[53].
expenditures expenditures [53].

Figure 11. Taxonomy of TI for URLL MFG applications (adapted from [8]).
Figure
Figure 11. Taxonomy
11. Taxonomy of TIoffor
TIURLL
for URLL
MFGMFG applications
applications (adapted
(adapted fromfrom
[8]). [8]).

The tactile The tactile

tactile internet
internet internet
will benefit
benefit will benefit
virtual virtual
reality (VR)
(VR) byreality (VR)‘shared
enabling by enabling ‘shared haptic vi
The will virtual reality by enabling ‘shared haptic virtual
environments’,
environments’,ininwhich whichseveral in which
severalusers
users several users are physically coupled via a VR simulation to
environments’, areare physically
physically coupled
coupled via via
a VRa simulation
VR simulation to per-to
perform form require
tasks that require fine motor as skills, as presented in Figure 12. High-fidelity int
form taskstasks
that that
require fine motorfine motor
skills,skills,
as presented presented
in Figure in Figure 12. High-fidelity
12. High-fidelity interac-
interaction tion requires haptic feedback, which allows the user to perceive objects in VR not
tion requiresrequires
haptic haptic
feedback,feedback,
which which
allows allows
the user thetouser to perceive
perceive objectsobjects
in VRinnot VRonly
not
only through through
audio-visual audio-visual means but also through touch. This enables delicate object man
through audio-visual meansmeans
but also but also through
through touch.
touch. This This delicate
enables enables object
delicate object
manipu-
manipulations, lations, such as those required in telesurgery, micro-assembly, or other application
lations, such as such
thoseasrequired
those required in telesurgery,
in telesurgery, micro-assembly,
micro-assembly, or other
or other applications
applications re-
requiring quiring
extreme extreme
sensitivity and sensitivity
precision. and
When precision.
two When
users two users
interact with interact
the samewith the same o
object,
quiring extreme sensitivity and precision. When two users interact with the same object,
the VR
VR creates the VR creates a direct force coupling, and the users can feel each other’s actions. H
the creates aa direct
directforce
forcecoupling,
coupling,and andthe users
the userscancan
feelfeel
each other’s
each other’s actions. However,
actions. How-
communication ever, communication
delaysdelays
in today’s delays
networked in today’s
VR systems networked VR
are too great systems
forgreat are
stable,for too
seamless great for st
ever, communication in today’s networked VR systems are too stable,
user coordination.seamless user coordination.
High-fidelity interaction High-fidelity
is only possibleinteraction
with ais few
onlymilliseconds
possible withofa few mil
seamless user coordination.
onds of High-fidelity
communication interaction
latency between is the
onlyusers
possible
and with
the a few
VR. millisec-
During these
communication
onds of communication latency between
latency the users and
between themust the
usersbe VR.
and During these
the VR. During few milliseconds,
these few millisec-the few mil
users’the
movements onds, the users’ movements
must be transmitted transmitted
to the VRtoserver, to the VR server, which compute
onds, users’ movements must be transmitted the VRwhich computes
server, the physical
which computes the
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 17 of 30
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 33

simulation and returns

physical simulation the results
and returns to the users
the results in theinform
to the users of object
the form status
of object updates
status updatesand
haptic feedback. Therefore, even wired communication may be insufficient
and haptic feedback. Therefore, even wired communication may be insufficient for remote for remote
users. Typical update
users. Typical updaterates
ratesforforphysical
physical simulation
simulation and and haptic
haptic information
information display
display are
are in
in
the 1000 Hertz range, corresponding to an ideal round-trip communication latency of 1of
the 1000 Hertz range, corresponding to an ideal round-trip communication latency
1millisecond.
millisecond.AAconsistent
consistentlocal
localview
viewofofthe
theVR
VRforforallallusers
usersis isthus
thus only
only possible
possible if if delays
delays
are
are kept
kept to
to aa minimum [53,54].
minimum [53,54].

Figure 12.
Figure 12. Physical
Physical coupling
coupling of
of several
severalusers
usersvia
viaVR
VRsimulation
simulationwith
withhaptic
hapticfeedback [13].
feedback [13].

Additionally, the
Additionally, theauthors
authorsinin [53] describe
[53] describe the the
statistical characteristics
statistical of control
characteristics and
of control
haptic
and feedback
haptic signals,
feedback as well
signals, asaswell
virtual reality-based
as virtual human-to-machine
reality-based human-to-machine(H2M) exper-(H2M)
imental setup.setup.
experimental Next, Next,
the volume of input
the volume ofand
input output data in data
and output any H2M
in any experimental setup
H2M experimental
is determined
setup by hardware
is determined design parameters
by hardware such as sampling
design parameters frequency,frequency,
such as sampling the number the
and typeand
number of sensors and
type of actuators
sensors and [55]. The slave
actuators haptic
[55]. The subsystem can be
slave haptic a physicalcan
subsystem devicebe a
that interacts
physical device with
thatainteracts
remote physical environment
with a remote physical orenvironment
a virtual pointeror a that operates
virtual pointer inthat
a
virtual environment, such as a virtual hand. Simulated virtual worlds
operates in a virtual environment, such as a virtual hand. Simulated virtual worlds can can connect multi-
ple usersmultiple
connect in a virtual space
users in aover a local
virtual network.
space over a Therefore,
local network. a VR-based
Therefore, H2M experimental
a VR-based H2M
setup, was developed to investigate the characteristics of control
experimental setup, was developed to investigate the characteristics of control signals signals from a masterfrom
adevice
master and the corresponding
device haptic signals
and the corresponding fromsignals
haptic a slavefrom
device. The master
a slave device.device con-
The master
sists of consists
device a pair of VR
of agloves,
pair ofeach
VR with twoeach
gloves, 9-degrees-of-freedom orientation sensors
with two 9-degrees-of-freedom on the
orientation
thumb and
sensors on wrist, as welland
the thumb as five flexible
wrist, sensors
as well on the
as five five fingers
flexible sensorsforon
tracking
the fivemovements
fingers for
and applied
tracking forces. and applied forces.
movements
To summarize,
To summarize, in inorder
ordertotoestablish
establisha atruly
trulyimmersive
immersiveVR VR user
user experience,
experience, there
there is
is still
still a lot of work to be done. The VR quality of experience is greatly reliant
a lot of work to be done. The VR quality of experience is greatly reliant on strict latency on strict latency
and reliability
and reliability standards.
standards. Motion
Motionsickness
sicknessisiscaused
causedby byhigh
highmessage
messagetransfer
transfer part
part(MPT)
(MPT)
delays of 20 milliseconds or more, as well as distortions caused by
delays of 20 milliseconds or more, as well as distortions caused by low data rates and low data rates and thethe
consequent quality of projected images. As a result, an immersive
consequent quality of projected images. As a result, an immersive VR experience requiresVR experience requires
end-to-end delay
end-to-end delay and
andreliability.
reliability.Figure
Figure13 13depicts
depictsthe theexpected
expectedrequirements
requirementsasaswell wellasasthe
key technological enablers for single and multiple user VR scenarios. Then, as twoas
the key technological enablers for single and multiple user VR scenarios. Then, two
primary
primaryofthrusts
thrusts of the
the future future interconnected
interconnected VR, the envisioned
VR, the envisioned roles of mmWave
roles of mmWave com-
communications
munications and mobile edge computing
and mobile edge computing (MEC) are also highlighted. (MEC) are also highlighted.

3.3. Education
During Industry 4.0, engineers have focused on the digitization and digitalization of
manufacturing and production systems, i.e., the machine-to-machine (M2M) interface. As
a result, modern equipment is already, or soon will be, a thing on the internet (Internet of
Things (IoT)). Consequently, machines/systems have become smarter, and are capable of
producing and utilizing data (see big data sets). On the other hand, in order to achieve a
harmonic coexistence between humans and machines, it is imperative to focus on improv-
ing the human-to-machine interface (HMI), which is the central concept of the adaptive,
cognitive, human-centered manufacturing initiatives around the world. Therefore, in order
to overcome the emerging challenges, education is a key driver for the next generation of
engineers. Further to this, new engineers require different skills that will enable them to
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 18 of 30

communicate/coexist
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW with machines more easily/intuitively. This is similar to the19skill
of 33
gap between the current generation and the previous generation which have been directly
impacted by the introduction of computers in our everyday lives.

Figure 13. Single and multiple user VR use cases: requirements and enablers [56].

The 5G-based TI will enable enhanced learning based on the educator and learner’s
3.3. Education
haptic overlay. Comprehension-based learning will increase learner interest and outper-
During Industry 4.0, engineers have focused on the digitization and digitalization of
form traditional learning methods by combining TI with VR and AR. Following that, the
manufacturing and production systems, i.e., the machine-to-machine (M2M) interface. As
learner will look for opportunities to adapt in general by exploring and discovering the
a result, modern equipment is already, or soon will be, a thing on the internet (Internet of
available content. Additionally, there will be less interference from the educator and no
Things (IoT)). Consequently, machines/systems have become smarter, and are capable of
educator pressure on the learner to study. The incorporation of VR-based study-related
producing and utilizing data (see big data sets). On the other hand, in order to achieve a
applications into the learner’s curriculum would immerse the learner in tactile learning by
harmonic coexistence between humans and machines, it is imperative to focus on improv-
allowing them to touch virtual objects that provide haptic feedback [57].
ing the human-to-machine interface (HMI), which is the central concept of the adaptive,
cognitive, human-centered manufacturing initiatives around the world. Therefore, in or-
3.4. Healthcare
der toAsovercome the emerging
regards healthcare, challenges,
it is education is athe
easier to comprehend keycontext
driver by fortaking
the next generation
into account
of
theengineers. Further toentitled
Japanese initiative this, new engineers
“Society 5.0”.require
In thisdifferent
initiative, skills that willapparent
it becomes enable themthat
to
thecommunicate/coexist
contribution of advanced with HMI
machines
and themore easily/intuitively.
progress made so far This is similar
during the lastto the skill
industrial
gap between(including
revolutions the current generation
Industry and the beyond
4.0) extends previousthe generation which have
limits of industry, been
up to thedirectly
society
impacted by the introduction of computers in our everyday lives.
we live in, and the companies operate in as well. Further to that, the ultimate goal of
The 5G-based
engineers TI willnew
is to discover enable
waysenhanced
to address learning
human based on the
issues. educator
Taking intoand learner’s
account the
haptic overlay.
previous Comprehension-based
statement, healthcare is a cruciallearning
part will increase5.0.
of Industry learner interest and
A distinctive outper-
example is
form traditional learning methods by combining TI with VR and
the remote operations (also known as tele-operations), which require the cooperation ofAR. Following that, the
learner
humanswill andlook for manipulators
robotic opportunities in to real-time.
adapt in general
Furtherby to exploring and discovering
that, ultra-fast, the
highly reliable,
available content. Additionally, there will be less interference
and with near-zero latency network connections are required in order to achieve thefrom the educator and no
educator pressure on the learner to study.
seamless cooperation between humans and machines. The incorporation of VR-based study-related
applications into thetele-surgery,
Tele-diagnosis, learner’s curriculum would immerse
and tele-rehabilitation the
are learner
just a fewinexamples
tactile learning
of the
by allowing
tactile them
internet’s to touchapplications
potential virtual objects that provide
in healthcare. haptic feedback
Medicinal [57]. be accessible
learning could
from anywhere and at any time, regardless of the doctor’s location, thanks to advanced
3.4. Healthcare
tele-demonstrative tools. The doctor will control a tele-robot at the patient’s location,
which Aswill provide
regards audio and/or
healthcare, visual
it is easier data as well the
to comprehend as haptic
contextfeedback.
by taking Tele-surgery
into account
applications
the Japanese are linkedentitled
initiative to the same specialized
“Society 5.0”. In guideline. Tele-rehabilitation
this initiative, it becomes apparent methodsthatcan
the
be used to help
contribution of patients
advanced guide
HMIand andcontrol their movements
the progress made so from a distance.
far during To enable
the last the
industrial
revolutions (including Industry 4.0) extends beyond the limits of industry, up to the soci-
ety we live in, and the companies operate in as well. Further to that, the ultimate goal of
engineers is to discover new ways to address human issues. Taking into account the pre-
vious statement, healthcare is a crucial part of Industry 5.0. A distinctive example is the
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 19 of 30

transmission of tele-medical innovation, high devotion and great precision are required in
all tactile internet-based healthcare advances [58].

4. A Generalized Framework for Tactile Internet in the beyond 5G Era

Based on the abovementioned literature research, the generalized architecture of a
TI system, consists primarily of a master domain, a network domain, and a controlled
domain. Concretely, the master domain typically consists of a human operator (tactile
user) and the human system interface (HSI), which oversees converting human input into
tactile data using appropriate tactile encoding techniques. The HSI generates tactile data,
which is sent to the controlled domain via the network domain. The controlled domain or
environment contains a remotely controlled robot or tele-operator, and the master domain
directly controls the controlled domain using various command signals (e.g., velocity,
position). The controlled domain then sends feedback signals to the master domain (e.g.,
force/position, surface texture). The master domain receives audio/visual feedback signals
from the controlled domain in addition to haptic feedback signals. As shown in the
Figure 13, this communication domain could be made up of an internet/core network, a
radio access network (RAN), and a tactile support engine. In addition, the underlying
communication channel must meet several requirements, including ultra-responsive and
ultra-reliable connectivity [59]. The main functions of a beyond 5G (B5G) core network to
support a TI system are the handling edge-cloud interactions and access, application-aware
quality of service (QoS) provisioning and security [60].

4.1. Master Section

The master section is located at the TI system’s front end. It includes a human operator
as well as a tactile human system interface (HSI). The human input is then converted into
tactile input by HSI. HSI refers to a master machine or robot that serves as a haptic device.
In the real world, a user is allowed to touch, feel, and manipulate. The operation of the
slave is controlled by the master section via command signals. It should be noted that
in most applications, multiple operators can work together to control the slave section’s
activities. The audio and visual feedback features are critical for haptic and non-haptic
slave section control. As a result, it is critical to improve perceptual performance because
the human brain typically coordinates diverse with tangible approaches [61].

4.2. Control/Slave Section

The slave section includes a tele-operator (slave robot) and is controlled by the master
section via various coding techniques and haptic input command signals. In the remote
environment, the tele-operator executes multiple actions as directed by the master section.
Furthermore, the slave section has no prior knowledge of the surrounding environment.
As such, a global control loop is formed when communication between the master and
slave sections is initiated via feedback and command signals. A characteristic example of
the 5G tactile internet slave section is the robotic tele-surgery [62].

4.3. Network Domain

This section is typically located between the master and control/slave domains and
serves as a two-way communication medium, connecting the operator to the tele-operator
(remote) environment. It is made up of routers and gateways, which provide a medium for
two-way communication. The master domain sends the haptic input command signals.
Thus, the input signals are routed through routers, switches, gateways, base stations, access
points, a database server, and an AI-enabled tactile support engine before reaching the
slave section [59,63].

5. Integrating 5G and Tactile Internet to Industrial Case Studies

Although the production floor is the most obvious location where 5G can benefit
manufacturing, there are other ways in which 5G can contribute to the manufacturing
 nals. Thus, the input signals are routed through routers, switches, gateways, base stations,
access points, a database server, and an AI-enabled tactile support engine before reaching
the slave section [59,63].

Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 5. Integrating 5G and Tactile Internet to Industrial Case Studies 20 of 30
Although the production floor is the most obvious location where 5G can benefit
manufacturing, there are other ways in which 5G can contribute to the manufacturing
environment in a non-direct way. The IIoT is used to integrate the equipment resources
environment in a non-direct way. The IIoT is used to integrate the equipment resources
in the implementation of smart factories. As a result, the manufacturing system has per-
in the implementation of smart factories. As a result, the manufacturing system has
ception, interconnection, and data integration capabilities. Further to that, the internet of
perception, interconnection, and data integration capabilities. Further to that, the internet
services consists of interconnection, collaboration, and execution. Consequently, to trans-
of services consists of interconnection, collaboration, and execution. Consequently, to
form a modern factory into a smart factory, key technologies in all layers must be thor-
transform a modern factory into a smart factory, key technologies in all layers must be
oughly investigated [64]. Next, Figure 14 depicts the smart factory as being divided into
thoroughly investigated [64]. Next, Figure 14 depicts the smart factory as being divided
several layers with different network choices at each layer; each network has different
into several layers with different network choices at each layer; each network has different
demands and values various properties differently. The level of integration that 5G can
demands and values various properties differently. The level of integration that 5G can
bring to manufacturing will be determined by decisions made at each of these levels. Net-
bring to manufacturing will be determined by decisions made at each of these levels.
work slicing,
Network a keyanew
slicing, keyconcept in 5G, in
new concept will5G,allow
willtenants to get different
allow tenants levels of levels
to get different connec-
of
tivity
connectivity from their service provider to accommodate different use cases. 5G willanbeall-
from their service provider to accommodate different use cases. 5G will be an
cloud architecture
all-cloud to achieve
architecture network
to achieve network slicing, which
slicing, which will
willnecessitate
necessitatethe
theuse
useof
ofsoftware
software
defined
defined networking (SDN) and network function virtualization (NFV) (see Figure 15).
networking (SDN) and network function virtualization (NFV) (see Figure 15).

Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 33

Figure 14. A generalized architecture of a wireless tactile internet system (adapted from [60]).
Figure 14. A generalized architecture of a wireless tactile internet system (adapted from [60]).

Figure15.
Figure 15.AAgeneralized
generalizedframework
frameworkfor
forTI
ΤΙin
inthe
thebeyond
beyond5G
5Gera
era(adapted
(adaptedfrom
from[65]).
[65]).

5.1.
5.1.Integrated
Integratedand
andAdaptive
AdaptiveAR ARMaintenance
Maintenanceand andShop-Floor
Shop-FloorRescheduling
ReschedulingFramework
Framework
Following
Following the generalized architecture of a wireless TI system thatbeen
the generalized architecture of a wireless TI system that has has presented
been pre-
in previous
sented sections,sections,
in previous the authors have used,
the authors haveas a reference
used, framework,
as a reference the published
framework, the pub-
research work inwork
lished research [66] in
in [66]
order
in to integrate
order the necessary
to integrate layerslayers
the necessary and ICT
and infrastructure
ICT infrastruc-
towards 5G enabled
ture towards tactile
5G enabled internet.
tactile TheThe
internet. added
addedlayers
layersand ICT
and ICTcomponents
componentshave
havebeen
been
highlighted
highlighted with the color green, as presented in the conceptual framework of Figure 16.
with the color green, as presented in the conceptual framework of Figure 16.
Based
Basedon onthis
thisarchitecture
architecturethe thefollowing
followingpoints
pointscan
canbebestressed:
stressed:
• There are different network choices at each layer of the smart factory
• The key new concept of network slicing in 5G will enable tenants to gain different
levels of connectivity from their service provider to accommodate various use cases
• To achieve this network slicing, 5G will be an all-cloud architecture and this will ul-
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 21 of 30

• There are different network choices at each layer of the smart factory
• The key new concept of network slicing in 5G will enable tenants to gain different
levels of connectivity from their service provider to accommodate various use cases
• To achieve this network slicing, 5G will be an all-cloud architecture and this will
Electronics 2022, 11, x ultimately require the use of software defined networking (SDN) and network function
FOR PEER REVIEW 23
virtualization (NFV)

Figure
Figure 16. Integrating 5G16. Integrating
and 5G andfor
TI applications TΙ integrated
applicationsand
for adaptive
integratedAR
andmaintenance
adaptive ARand
maintenance
shop-floor rescheduling (adapted from [67]).
shop-floor rescheduling (adapted from [67]).
5.2. Real-Time
5.2. Real-Time Remote Maintenance Remote Maintenance
Support Based onSupport Based Reality
Augmented on Augmented
(AR) Reality (AR)
Cutting-edge digitalCutting-edge digital in
technologies technologies in the
the field of field of reality
extended extended reality
(XR), (XR),
such as such as a
mented reality, have entered the mainstream (AR). Furthermore,
augmented reality, have entered the mainstream (AR). Furthermore, cloud computing, cloud computing,
and recently 5Grecently 5G technology,
technology, have made have made it possible
it possible to provide
to provide high-quality
high-quality services, part
services,
larly in the field of maintenance. However, as modern
particularly in the field of maintenance. However, as modern machines become more machines become more comp
maintenance must be performed by experienced and well-trained personnel, while o
complex, maintenance must be performed by experienced and well-trained personnel,
seas support is both timely and costly. Although augmented reality (AR) is a backb
while overseas support is both timely and costly. Although augmented reality (AR) is
technology that enables the development of robust maintenance support tools, it is lim
a backbone technology that enables the development of robust maintenance support
to the provision of predefined scenarios that cover a limited number of scenarios.
tools, it is limited to the provision of predefined scenarios that cover a limited number of
research work aims to address this emerging challenge by designing and developin
scenarios. This research work aims to address this emerging challenge by designing and
framework for the support of remote maintenance and repair operations based on AR
developing a framework for the support of remote maintenance and repair operations
establishing appropriate communication channels between shop-floor technicians and
based on AR, bypert establishing appropriate communication channels between shop-floor
engineers who use real-time feedback from the operator’s field of view. The app
technicians and bility
expertofengineers
the developedwhoframework
use real-time
has feedback
been tested from
in athe operator’s
lab-based fieldshop and
machine
of view. The applicability of the developed framework has been tested in a lab-based
real-life industrial scenario. As illustrated in Figure 17 we have elaborated the propo
machine shop and in a real-life
framework industrial
and the scenario.
added layers and As illustrated towards
infrastructure in Figure5G17enabled
we have tactile inte
elaborated the proposed framework
are highlighted and the added layers and infrastructure towards
in green.
5G enabled tactile internet are highlighted in green.
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 22 of 30
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 33

Figure 17. Integrating 5G and TI applications

Figure for integrated
17. Integrating 5G and TΙand adaptive AR
applications for maintenance andadaptive
integrated and shop-floor
ARrescheduling
maintenance and
(adapted from [59]). shop-floor rescheduling (adapted from [59]).

5.3. Integrating 5G and Tactile Internet to Educational Teaching

Teaching Factory
FactoryCase
CaseStudies
Studies
Over thethelast
lastfew
fewyears,
years, communication
communication latency
latency has has
beenbeen a significant
a significant barrier barrier
for manyfor
many applications
applications deployed deployed
in various in network
various domains.
network domains.
Until now,Until now, the
the Internet Internet
of Things of
(IoT)
allowed(IoT)
Things the interconnection of low-power, limited-transition
allowed the interconnection sensors, and latency-tolerant
of low-power, limited-transition sensors, and
smart devices. Despite
latency-tolerant the advancement
smart devices. Despite theofadvancement
communication protocols and standards,
of communication protocols andthe
latency problem
standards, persists,
the latency lowering
problem the quality
persists, lowering of services (QoS)
the quality and quality
of services (QoS) ofand
experience
quality
(QoE)
of in many
experience applications.
(QoE) As a result, the
in many applications. As atactile
result,internet’s
the tactilehigh availability,
internet’s security,
high availabil-
and ultra-fast reaction times will add a new dimension to human-machine
ity, security, and ultra-fast reaction times will add a new dimension to human-machine interaction by
enabling haptic
interaction and tactile
by enabling sensations.
haptic and tactile Furthermore, the tactile internet
sensations. Furthermore, can thus
the tactile be used
internet can
as a backbone
thus be used asfor delay mitigation
a backbone for delayinmitigation
collaboration with 5G networks,
in collaboration with 5Gparticularly
networks, par-for
ultra-reliable
ticularly low latency applications
for ultra-reliable such as smart
low latency applications suchhealthcare,
as smartvirtual and augmented
healthcare, virtual and
reality, and reality,
augmented smart education
and smart and e-Learning.
education To address
and e-Learning. Tothese challenges,
address the authors
these challenges, the
in [67] identified the challenges and opportunities highlighted by
authors in [67] identified the challenges and opportunities highlighted by the integration the integration of the
tactile
of internet
the tactile and emerging
internet and emerging5G systems in modern
5G systems education.
in modern A framework
education. A framework for the
for
the fusion of a virtual, simulated machine shop to its physical counterpart is presented in
fusion of a virtual, simulated machine shop to its physical counterpart is presented in
Figure 18
Figure 18 within
within thethe scope
scopeofofa ateaching
teaching factory
factory [68],
[68], highlighting
highlighting the the
key key aspects
aspects for
for suc-
successful
cessful human-machine
human-machine interface
interface (HMI)
(HMI) andand real-time
real-time communication
communication of physical
of the the physical
and
and digital machine
digital machine shop. shop.

5.4. Architecture of Smart Manufacturing Oriented 5G-Based IIoT

This section describes a 5G-based IIoT architecture based on the various Smart Manu-
facturing scenarios and the three communication modes of 5G wireless communication
networks. The implementation methods of seven related Smart Manufacturing application
scenarios are investigated in the context of 5G wireless communication technology, includ-
ing real-time data collection of heterogeneous factors on the manufacturing shop-floor,
identification and location of production factors, networked collaborative manufactur-
ing, man-machine interaction, automated guided vehicles (AGV) collaboration, digital
twin driven shop-floor convergence between physical and cyber space, product design,
manufacturing and maintenance based on virtual and augmented reality. Big data, cloud
computing, edge computing, digital twin, virtual reality/augmented reality, and service-
oriented manufacturing are all discussed in detail as ways to apply advanced technologies
based on 5G wireless communication technology in the architecture of 5G-based industrial
Internet of Things (IIoT) [69].
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 23 of 30
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2

Figure 18.
Figure 18. A generalized A generalized
architecture architecture
of a wireless of ainternet
tactile wirelesssystem
tactile in
internet system
a teaching in a teaching
factory [69]. factory

The IIoT is 5.4.

usedArchitecture of Smart Manufacturing
in the implementation Oriented to
of smart factories 5G-Based
integrateIIoTthe underlying
equipment resources. As a result, the manufacturing system has perception,
This section describes a 5G-based IIoT architecture based on the intercon-
various Smart M
nection, and data integration capabilities. In a smart factory, data analysis
ufacturing scenarios and the three communication modes of 5G wireless communic and scientific
decision-makingnetworks.
are used to achieve
The productionmethods
implementation scheduling, equipment
of seven relatedservice, and prod-
Smart Manufacturing app
uct quality control.
tionInscenarios
addition,aretheinvestigated
internet of services is usedofto5G
in the context virtualize
wirelessmanufacturing
communication techno
resources by moving themreal-time
including from a local
datadatabase
collectionto of
a cloud server. The
heterogeneous globaloncollaborative
factors the manufacturing s
process of intelligent
floor, manufacturing
identification and oriented
locationtoofthe order-driven
production market
factors, is builtcollaborative
networked through man
human-machineturing,
interaction. As a result,
man-machine the smart
interaction, factory isguided
automated an engineering system
vehicles (AGV) with
collaboration, d
three main components:
twin driven interconnection, collaboration,
shop-floor convergence and execution.
between physical and Thecyber
architecture of
space, product de
a smart factory [67,70] includesand
manufacturing fourmaintenance
layers, including
basedaon physical
virtual resource layer, a reality.
and augmented network Big data, c
layer, a data application
computing, layer, andcomputing,
edge a terminal digital
layer. In order
twin, to transform
virtual a modern factory
reality/augmented reality, and ser
into a smart factory,
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW orientedkeymanufacturing
technologies in areall
alllayers must
discussed in be thoroughly
detail as ways toinvestigated,
apply advanced as technol
26 of 33
shown in Figurebased
19. on 5G wireless communication technology in the architecture of 5G-based in
trial Internet of Things (IIoT) [69].
The IIoT is used in the implementation of smart factories to integrate the under
equipment resources. As a result, the manufacturing system has perception, intercon
tion, and data integration capabilities. In a smart factory, data analysis and scientifi
cision-making are used to achieve production scheduling, equipment service, and pro
quality control. In addition, the internet of services is used to virtualize manufactu
resources by moving them from a local database to a cloud server. The global collabor
process of intelligent manufacturing oriented to the order-driven market is built thr
human-machine interaction. As a result, the smart factory is an engineering system
three main components: interconnection, collaboration, and execution. The architectu
a smart factory [67,70] includes four layers, including a physical resource layer, a net
layer, a data application layer, and a terminal layer. In order to transform a modern
tory into a smart factory, key technologies in all layers must be thoroughly investig
as shown in Figure 19.

Figure 19. Hierarchical architecture of a smart factory (adapted from [71]).

Figure 19. Hierarchical architecture of a smart factory (adapted from [71]).

5.5.
5.5. New
New DevelopmentsininWi-Fi
Developments Wi-FiforforIIoT
IIoT
TheThe modernfactory
modern factoryisisa acomplex
complexenvironment.
environment.Advanced
Advanced machines
machines and
and robots
robots are
are
equipped
equipped with
with a wide
a wide of sensors
of sensors thatthat connect
connect to cloud-based
to cloud-based analytics
analytics engines
engines thatthat eval-
evaluate
uate performance, manage production schedules, maintain supplies, and orchestrate all
factory activities. 5G will give the high-speed manufacturing environment far more flexi-
bility by eliminating the need for wired connectivity. The 5G’s technology specifications
far surpass those of other wireless protocols, summarized in Table 6.
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 24 of 30

performance, manage production schedules, maintain supplies, and orchestrate all factory
activities. 5G will give the high-speed manufacturing environment far more flexibility by
eliminating the need for wired connectivity. The 5G’s technology specifications far surpass
those of other wireless protocols, summarized in Table 6.

Table 6. Real-time high-capacity, low latency 5G applications (adapted from [72]).

Feature Description Wi-Fi6 4G 5G

Delay between the sender and receiver of
Latency the data—the lower the latency, the more 20 milliseconds (ms) 30–50 ms 1–10 ms
‘real-time’ the experience of the event
How efficient the network is in
Reliability/ transporting data between the source and
99.99% 99.99% 99.99%
Availability destination
without packet loss
Theoretical maximum amount of data
300 Mbps–1
Throughput moved from one place to another in a 9.6 Gbps 10 Gbps
Gbps
given period
Expected practical speeds per user or
Speed 1 Gbps 20–50 Mbps Up to 1 Gbps
device
Number of connected devices per unit
Connection Density 8 per part 12 per part 100 per part
area
Energy Comparative power consumption levels Medium High Medium

6. Security Considerations within 5G

5G meets IoT requirements that have never been met before in terms of bitrate, latency,
reliability, and many other factors. However, because the general lack of security in IoT
systems has not been addressed, this section discusses how security considerations in 5G, in
relation to IoT scenarios, have been addressed in the literature. By the time 5G is a wireless
communication network, many of its security schemes and solutions will be derived from
other wireless technologies. However, because it uses licensed spectrum, the main security
concerns are inherited from legacy cellular networks, such as long-term evolution (LTE).
As a result, 5G is developed with a flexible security scheme and methods to deal with
new requirements arising from a large number of potential use cases where 5G will be
used. Moreover, it supports new trust models as well as new threat-handling models, and
finally, to handle MMTC (massive machine type communications) traffic and management
and a large number of different types of connected devices. As already discussed, the
control and user planes are separated in layers and therefore network mechanisms are
implemented in a different way than the cellular networks. 5G provides several advantages
for IoT and IIoT systems, including low latency, high speed, and many others, but it also
introduces the abovementioned concerns. 5G-enabled IoT is a state-of-the-art topic and lots
of proposed solutions are emerging, allowing 5G to be an optimal communication platform
for IoT. The greatest advantage of 5G in terms of IoT security is the flexibility of the system,
which allows for efficient, use-case-specific solutions. An effective way to improve security
is by using PLS solutions and lightweight cryptography techniques so as to improve
security on low-powered nodes, which are major drivers of IoT. The main security concerns
are identified as follows: (1) common attacks in communication networks, (2) attacks
towards control plane, (3) cloud-based SDN and VFN issues, (4) traditional IoT issues, and
(5) attacks towards low-powered nodes [73]. Consequently, the abovementioned issues
raise new security threats and challenges, as presented in Table 7.
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 25 of 30

Table 7. Security challenges in 5G technologies (adopted from [74]).

Technologies Prone to Attacks

Network Is Privacy
Security Threat Targeted Network Software-Defined Compro-
Description Element Functions
Networking Channels Cloud mized?
Virtualization
(SDN)
(NFV)
SDN (virtual)
Configuration attacks X X
switches, routers
Denial of service (DoS) Centralized control
X X X
attack elements
SDN controller,
Hijacking attacks X X
hypervisor
International mobile
subscriber identity Subscriber identity X X
(IMSI) catching attacks
Virtual resources,
Penetration attacks X
clouds
SDN controller and
Saturation attacks X
switches
5G core network
Signaling storms X X
elements
Man-in-the-middle
X X
attack SDN
controller-switch
Transmission control
communication
protocol (TCP) level X X
attack
Reset and IP spoofing Control channels X X
Scanning attacks Open air interfaces X X
Unencrypted
Security keys exposure X X
channels
Boundary attacks X X
Semantic information
Subscriber location X X
attacks
Timing attacks X
User information
User identity theft X X
data bases

Based on the abovementioned, critical security capabilities will be required at the

device and network levels to address complex applications such as smart cities, smart
networks, and so on. Security is extremely complicated in the diverse 5G-IoT systems. The
designer must consider not only remote software intrusion, but also local intrusion at the
device level focusing on avoiding the following security links [75]:
• Identity
• Authentication
• Assurance
• Key management
• Crypto algorithm
• Mobility
• Storage
• Backward compatibility
• Assurance
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 26 of 30

7. What beyond 5G Should Look Like

The exchange of data between physical space and cyberspace is expected to signifi-
cantly increase during this decade (2020–2030). Physical interactions in physical space will
be replicated in the form of digital data in cyberspace as the integration of cyberspace and
physical space (cyber-physical systems (CPS)) progresses. Using AI to analyze such vast
amounts of digital data will allow us to not only grasp the current state of physical space,
but also to make decisions about future actions in physical space based on that information.
CPS is expected to grow in line with the introduction of 5G, which offers a number of
benefits including low latency and a large number of simultaneous connections in addition
to high speeds. As a result, cyberspace will not only expand the functions of physical space,
but it will also create a society that is both robust and resilient, with daily lives and eco-
nomic activities fully maintained within cyberspace, even if there are unexpected crises in
the physical world. This is expected to enable not only further progress in resolving social
challenges and generating economic growth in Japan, but also to significantly contribute to
the realization of the principles outlined in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [76].
The three elements listed below can be viewed as specific goals for a vibrant and resilient
society (Society 5.0) in the 2030s.
• The first is an inclusive society in which everyone can participate actively by elim-
inating differences such as age and disability, as well as geographical barriers such
as urban and rural areas and national borders. The realization of such a society will
necessitate, for example, super tele-presence technologies that will allow people to
feel as if they are physically present anywhere in the world via an avatar, robot, or
other means without having to leave their own home.
• The second is a sustainable society in which society can achieve sustainable growth
while remaining convenient, with no social loss, by optimizing cyberspace with real-
world reproduction that can be fed back into the real world.
• The third is a dependable society, a human-centered society in which trust bonds are
unbreakable and everyone can work in peace by autonomously ensuring the safety
and stability of communications networks as a social infrastructure.
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 29 of 33
The progress of CPS towards a Society 5.0 era with a 5G-centered information and
communication technologies (ICT) infrastructure is presented in Figure 20.

Figure 20. Progress

Figure 20. Progress of
of cyber
cyber physical
physicalsystem
systemand
andsociety
societyin
inthe
the2030s
2030s(adapted
(adaptedfrom
from[77]).
[77]).

8. Conclusions
In the future, wireless networks beyond 5G are expected to support a wide range of
new TI applications with varying QoS requirements. Due to the need to communicate
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 27 of 30

8. Conclusions
In the future, wireless networks beyond 5G are expected to support a wide range of
new TI applications with varying QoS requirements. Due to the need to communicate
haptic information in addition to the traditional audio and visual traffics over wireless
media, several non-conventional challenges have arisen and have to be addressed. Ultra-
low latency, ultra-high reliability, very high data rate, energy efficiency, spectral efficiency,
and network throughput are the main technical requirements in this regard. To this
end, this paper has presented a comprehensive survey on various aspects of wireless
TI, beginning with TI’s vision and recent advances as well as a generalized framework
for wireless TI, which includes the main technical requirements, key application areas,
a TI architecture, and the main enabling technologies. Furthermore, key enablers for
supporting TI applications/users in B5G systems, as well as the main sub techniques, have
been identified and discussed. Finally, as it impacts the steps that are required by the
manufacturers side, it is necessary to learn about 5G, its benefits and drawbacks, as well as
how it will interact with other technologies that are already used. Next, the manufacturing
industry should contribute to the development of 5G standards and regulations so that the
technology meets their needs, and last but not least to collaborate with telecoms operators
to shape how they commercialize 5G in the market and ensure that they are an integral
part of this developing ecosystem.
Moving on, as it regards future work, future 5G networks will need to have signifi-
cantly more system capacity than current networks in order to avoid a spectrum shortage.
In order to successfully integrate a 5G network in modern manufacturing environments,
many infrastructure improvements will be required. The requirements will range from
upgrading the backbone infrastructure of the organization to developing a suitable strategy
for managing the use of the following: (1) spectrum adoption, (2) fiber rollout internally
(10 Gb minimally), (3) high-speed switches and routers, (4) on-site, and (5) deploying
edge-connecting devices. Future research will focus on the wireless AR/VR investiga-
tion and the suitable B5G network architecture that can deliver AR/VR capability and to
identify interfaces to connect AR/VR devices with wireless network. Additionally, one
more issue to be investigated is the advanced signal processing techniques in order to use
low-complexity machine learning techniques to extract the meaningful information from
raw data acquired by tactile sensors computing.

Author Contributions: All authors have participated in the modelling of the research project. More
specifically: supervisor, D.M.; research, conceptualization, and original draft preparation, J.A.;
research, conceptualization, and original draft preparation, N.P. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Rüßmann, M.; Lorenz, M.; Gerbert, P.; Waldner, M.; Justus, J.; Engel, P.; Harnisch, M. Industry 4.0: The future of Productivity
and Growth in Manufacturing Industries; Boston Consulting Group: Munich, Germany, 2015; Volume 9, pp. 54–89. Available
online: https://www.bcg.com/publications/2015/engineered_products_project_business_industry_4_future_productivity_
growth_manufacturing_industries (accessed on 10 November 2021).
2. Deloitte. Skills Gap in Manufacturing Study. Deloitte Insights. 2018. Available online: https://www2.deloitte.com/us/en/
pages/manufacturing/articles/future-of-manufacturing-skills-gap-study.html (accessed on 10 November 2021).
3. Ringrose-Voase, A.J.; Grealish, G.J.; Thomas, M.; Wong, M.T.F.; Glover, M.R.; Mercado, A.; Dowling, T.I. Four Pillars of digital
land resource mapping to address information and capacity shortages in developing countries. Geoderma 2019, 352, 299–313.
[CrossRef]
4. Curwen, P.; Whalley, J. 5G Literature Review. In Understanding 5G Mobile Networks; Emerald Publishing Limited: Bingley, UK,
2021; pp. 47–66. [CrossRef]
5. Qualcomm. Webinar: 5G Will Enable Massive IoT-How Will LTE IoT Fit into the 5G World? 2018. Available online: https://www.
qualcomm.com/videos/webinar-5g-will-enable-massive-iot-how-will-lte-iot-fit-5g-world (accessed on 7 November 2021).
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 28 of 30

6. 5G Americas Mobile Communications beyond 2020. The Evolution of 5G towards the Next G. Available online: https://www.
5gamericas.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Future-Networks-2020-InDesign-PDF.pdf (accessed on 6 November 2021).
7. Mourtzis, D. Simulation in the design and operation of manufacturing systems: State of the art and new trends. Int. J. Prod. Res.
2020, 58, 1927–1949. [CrossRef]
8. Gupta, R.; Tanwar, S.; Tyagi, S.; Kumar, N. Tactile internet and its applications in 5g era: A comprehensive review. Int. J. Commun.
Syst. 2019, 32, 3981. [CrossRef]
9. Gerhard, P.F. The Tactile Internet: Applications and Challenges. IEEE Veh. Technol. Mag. 2014, 9, 64–70. [CrossRef]
10. Dohler, M.; Fettweis, G. The tactile Internet-IoT, 5G and cloud on steroids. In Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on
Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services and Technologies, Cambridge, UK, 9–11 September 2015; pp. 1–16. [CrossRef]
11. Sergey, M.A.; Olga, G.; Alexander, P.; Mikhail, G.; Tuomas, T.; Johan, T.; Joachim, S.; Mischa, D.; Yevgeni, K. Understanding
the IoT Connectivity Landscape—A Contemporary M2M Radio Technology Roadmap. IEEE Commun. Mag. 2015, 53, 32–40.
[CrossRef]
12. IMT Vision–Framework and Overall Objectives of the Future Development of IMT for 2020 and beyond. 2015. Available online:
https://www.itu.int/dms_pubrec/itu-r/rec/m/R-REC-M.2083-0-201509-I!!PDF-E.pdf (accessed on 5 November 2021).
13. ITU-T Technology Watch Report. The Tactile Internet. 2014. Available online: https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itut/oth/23/01/
T23010000230001PDFE.pdf (accessed on 5 November 2021).
14. Mourtzis, D.; Vlachou, E.; Milas, N. Industrial big data as a result of IoT adoption in manufacturing. Procedia CIRP 2016, 55,
290–295. [CrossRef]
15. Brynjolfsson, E.; McAfee, A. The Second Machine Age: Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies; WW Norton &
Company: New York, NY, USA, 2014.
16. Fettweis, G.P. A 5G wireless communications vision. Microw. J. 2012, 55, 2–18.
17. Fanibhare, V.; Sarkar, N.I.; Al-Anbuky, A. A Survey of the Tactile Internet: Design Issues and Challenges, Applications, and
Future Directions. Electronics 2021, 10, 2171. [CrossRef]
18. Lu, S. 5G Standards Overview & 3GPP Tech Evolution Trends. 2018. Available online: https://www.cambridgewireless.co.uk/
media/uploads/files/RadioAI_18.9.18-Ublox-Sylvia-Lu.pdf (accessed on 5 November 2021).
19. Díaz, M.; Martín, C.; Rubio, B. State-of-the-art, challenges, and open issues in the integration of internet of things and cloud
computing. J. Netw. Comput. Appl. 2016, 67, 99–117. [CrossRef]
20. Alaa, M.; Zaidan, A.A.; Zaidan, B.B.; Talal, M.; Kiah, M.L.M. A review of smart home applications based on Internet of Things. J.
Netw. Comput. Appl. 2017, 97, 48–65. [CrossRef]
21. Reuver, D.; Ongena, G.; Bouwman, H. Should mobile internet services be an extension of the fixed internet? Context-of-use,
fixed-mobile reinforcement and personal innovativeness. In Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Mobile Business,
Como, Italy, 20–21 June 2011; pp. 6–15. [CrossRef]
22. Gubbi, J.; Buyya, R.; Marusic, S.; Palaniswami, M. Internet of Things (IoT): A vision, architectural elements, and future directions.
Futur. Gener. Comput. Syst. 2013, 297, 1645–1660. [CrossRef]
23. Holland, O.; Steinbach, E.; Prasad, R.V.; Liu, Q.; Dawy, Z.; Aijaz, A.; Pappas, N.; Chandra, K.; Rao, V.S.; Oteafy, S. The IEEE 1918.1
Tactile Internet Standards Working Group and its Standards. Proc. IEEE 2019, 107, 256–279. [CrossRef]
24. Aijaz, A.; Dawy, Z.; Pappas, N.; Simsek, M.; Oteafy, S.; Holland, O. Toward a Tactile Internet Reference Architecture: Vision and
Progress of the IEEE P1918.1 Standard. arXiv 2018, arXiv:1807.11915.
25. Szymanski, T.H. Securing the Industrial-tactile Internet of Things with Deterministic Silicon Photonics Switches. IEEE Access
2016, 4, 8236–8249. [CrossRef]
26. 5G PPP. 5G Empowering Vertical Industries. 2016. Available online: https://5g-ppp.eu/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/
BROCHURE_5PPP_BAT2_PL.pdf (accessed on 7 November 2021).
27. Oracle, What Is IoT. 2020. Available online: https://www.oracle.com/internet-of-things/what-is-iot/ (accessed on
5 November 2021).
28. Mundy, J.; Kavanagh, S. 5G.co.uk What is the Tactile Internet. 2021. Available online: https://5g.co.uk/guides/what-is-the-
tactile-internet/ (accessed on 4 November 2021).
29. Net-Informations.com 1G vs. 2G vs. 3G vs. 4G vs. 5G. 2021. Available online: http://net-informations.com/q/diff/generations.
html (accessed on 4 November 2021).
30. Dalia, A.; STL Partners. Executive Briefing 5G’S IMPACT ON MANUFACTURING: $740BN OF BENEFITS IN 2030. 2019.
Available online: https://carrier.huawei.com/~{}/media/CNBGV2/download/program/Industries-5G/5G-Impact-on-
Manufactureing.pdf (accessed on 6 November 2021).
31. GSMA 2020 5G TDD Synchronisation Guidelines and Recommendations for the Coexistence of TDD Networks in the 3.5 GHz
Range. Available online: https://www.gsma.com/spectrum/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/3.5-GHz-5G-TDD-Synchronisation.
pdf (accessed on 5 November 2021).
32. Jeff, M.; Liam, Q.S.; McGrath, E.O. Towards the Distributed Edge–An IoT Review. In Proceedings of the 2018 12th International
Conference on Sensing Technology (ICST), Limerick, Ireland, 4–6 December 2018; pp. 263–268. [CrossRef]
33. Samdanis, K.; Costa-Perez, X.; Sciancalepore, V. From network sharing to multi-tenancy: The 5G network slice broker. IEEE
Commun. Mag. 2016, 547, 32–39. [CrossRef]
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 29 of 30

34. Mourtzis, D.; Angelopoulos, J.; Panopoulos, N. Intelligent Predictive Maintenance and Remote Monitoring Framework for
Industrial Equipment Based on Mixed Reality. Front. Mech. Eng. 2020, 6, 99. [CrossRef]
35. Mourtzis, D. Machine Tool 4.0 in the Era of Digital Manufacturing. In Proceedings of the 32nd European Modeling & Simulation
Symposium EMSS 2020; pp. 416–429. Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dimitris-Mourtzis/publication/
347077906_Machine_Tool_40_in_the_Era_of_Digital_Manufacturing/links/602389fc299bf1cc26b596e5/Machine-Tool-40-in-
the-Era-of-Digital-Manufacturing.pdf (accessed on 26 October 2021). [CrossRef]
36. Soós, G.; Ficzere, D.; Seres, T.; Veress, S.; Németh, I. Business opportunities and evaluation of non-public 5G cellular networks—A
survey. Infocommun. J. 2020, 12, 31–38. [CrossRef]
37. Mourtzis, D.; Milas, N.; Vlachou, A. An internet of things-based monitoring system for shop-floor control. J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng.
2018, 182, 021005. [CrossRef]
38. Qualcomm. Augmented and Virtual Reality: The First Wave of 5G Killer Apps. Qualcomm. Available online: https:
//www.qualcomm.com/media/documents/files/augmented-and-virtual-reality-the-first-wave-of-5g-killer-apps.pdf (accessed
on 3 November 2021).
39. Little, A.D. For Vodafone Group Plc. Creating a Gigabit Society. Available online: https://www.vodafone.com/content/dam/
vodcom/files/public-policy/Creating_a_gigabit_society.pdf (accessed on 4 November 2021).
40. Mourtzis, D.; Siatras, V.; Angelopoulos, J. Real-time remote maintenance support based on Augmented Reality (AR). Appl. Sci.
2020, 105, 1855. [CrossRef]
41. Fitzek, F.H.; Li, S.C.; Speidel, S.; Strufe, T. Tactile Internet with Human-in-the-Loop: New frontiers of transdisciplinary research.
In Tactile Internet; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2021; pp. 1–19. [CrossRef]
42. Viswanathan, H.; Mogensen, P.E. Communications in the 6G Era. IEEE Access 2020, 8, 57063–57074. [CrossRef]
43. Jiang, W.; Han, B.; Habibi, M.A.; Schotten, H.D. The Road towards 6G: A Comprehensive Survey. IEEE Open J. Commun. Soc.
2021, 2, 334–366. [CrossRef]
44. Tataria, H.; Shafi, M.; Molisch, A.F.; Dohler, M.; Sjöland, H.; Tufvesson, F. 6G Wireless Systems: Vision, Requirements, Challenges,
Insights, and Opportunities. Proc. IEEE 2021, 1097, 1166–1199. [CrossRef]
45. Berardinelli, G.; Baracca, P.; Adeogun, R.O.; Khosravirad, S.R.; Schaich, F.; Upadhya, K.; Li, D.; Tao, T.; Viswanathan, H.;
Mogensen, P. Extreme Communication in 6G: Vision and Challenges for ‘in-X’ Subnetworks. IEEE Open J. Commun. Soc. 2021, 2,
2516–2535. [CrossRef]
46. You, X.; Wang, C.X.; Huang, J.; Gao, X.; Zhang, Z.; Wang, M.; Huang, Y.; Zhang, C.; Jiang, Y.; Wang, J.; et al. Towards 6G wireless
communication networks: Vision, enabling technologies, and new paradigm shifts. Sci. China Inf. Sci. 2021, 64, 1–74. [CrossRef]
47. Liu, Y.; Tong, K.; Mao, F.; Yang, J. Research on digital production technology for traditional manufacturing enterprises based on
industrial Internet of Things in 5G era. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2020, 1073, 1101–1114. [CrossRef]
48. Sachs, J.; Landernäs, K. Review of 5G capabilities for smart manufacturing. In Proceedings of the 2021 17th International
Symposium on Wireless Communication Systems (ISWCS), Berlin, Germany, 6–9 September 2021; pp. 1–6.
49. 5G URLLC-Achieving Industrial Automation. Available online: https://www.ericsson.com/en/cases/2020/accelerate-factory-
automation-with-5g-urllc (accessed on 8 November 2021).
50. Mourtzis, D.; Angelopoulos, J.; Panopoulos, N. UAVs for Industrial Applications: Identifying Challenges and Opportunities from
the Implementation Point of View. Procedia Manuf. 2021, 55, 183–190. [CrossRef]
51. GSMA. 5G for Smart Manufacturing Insights on How 5G And IoT Can Transform Industry. 2021. Available online:
https://www.gsma.com/iot/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/2020-04_GSMA_SmartManufacturing_Insights_On_How_5G_
IoT_Can_Transform_Industry.pdf (accessed on 3 November 2021).
52. Cerwal, P. Ericsson Mobility Report. Special Edition World Economic Forum 2019. Available online: https://recursos.bps.com.
es/files/914/28.pd (accessed on 7 November 2021).
53. Kumari, A.; Tanwar, S.; Tyagi, S.; Kumar, N.; Maasberg, M.; Choo, K.-K.R. Multimedia big data computing and internet of things
applications: A taxonomy and process model. J Netw. Comput. Appl. 2018, 124, 169–195. [CrossRef]
54. Dangxiao, W.; Yuan, G.; Shiyi, L.; Zhang, Y.; Weiliang, X.; Jing, X. Haptic display for virtual reality: Progress and challenges.
Virtual Real. Intell. Hardw. 2019, 12, 136–162. [CrossRef]
55. Biswas, S.; Visell, Y. Haptic Perception, Mechanics, and Material Technologies for Virtual Reality. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2021, 31,
2008186. [CrossRef]
56. Mondal, S.; Ruan, L.; Maier, M.; Larrabeiti, D.; Das, G.; Wong, E.l. Enabling Remote Human-to-Machine Applications With
AI-Enhanced Servers Over Access Networks. IEEE Open J. Commun. Soc. 2020, 1, 889–899. [CrossRef]
57. Kappassov, Z.; Corrales, J.-A.; Perdereau, V. Tactile sensing in dexterous robot hands—Review. Robot. Auton. Syst. 2015, 74,
195–220. [CrossRef]
58. Elbamby, M.S.; Perfecto, C.; Bennis, M.; Doppler, K. Toward low-latency and ultra-reliable virtual reality. IEEE Netw. 2018, 322,
78–84. [CrossRef]
59. Mourtzis, D.; Angelopoulos, J.; Panopoulos, N. Development of a Teaching Factory Framework Fusing a Virtual Simulated
Machine Shop With The Physical Counterpart For Upscaling Human Machine Interface. SSRN Electron. J. 2021. [CrossRef]
60. Haddadin, S.; Johannsmeier, L.; Ledezma, F.D. Tactile Robots as a Central Embodiment of the Tactile Internet. Proc. IEEE 2018,
107, 471–487. [CrossRef]
Electronics 2021, 10, 3175 30 of 30

61. Wdowik, R.; Ratnayake, R. Collaborative Technological Process Planning with 5G Mobile Networks and Digital Tools: Manu-
facturing Environments’ Perspective. In Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Engineering and
Engineering Management (IEEM), Macao, China, 15–18 December 2019; pp. 349–353. [CrossRef]
62. Antonakoglou, K.; Xu, X.; Steinbach, E.; Mahmoodi, T.; Dohler, M. Toward haptic communications over the 5G tactile Internet.
IEEE Commun. Surv. Tuts. 2018, 204, 3034–3059. [CrossRef]
63. Maier, M.; Chowdhury, M.; Prasad, R.; Dung, P.V. The Tactile Internet: Vision, Recent Progress, and Open Challenges. IEEE
Commun. Mag. 2016, 54, 138–145. [CrossRef]
64. Ernst, M.O.; Banks, M.S. Humans Integrate Visual and Haptic Information in a Statistically Optimal Fashion. Nature 2002, 415,
415–429. [CrossRef]
65. Miao, Y.; Jiang, Y.; Peng, L.; Peng, L.; Hossain, M.S.; Muhammad, G. Telesurgery Robot Based on 5G Tactile Internet. Mobile Netw.
Appl. 2018, 23, 1645–1654. [CrossRef]
66. Sharma, S.; Woungang, I.; Anpalagan, A.; Chatzinotas, S. Toward tactile internet in beyond 5G era: Recent advances, current
issues, and future directions. IEEE Access 2020, 8, 56948–56991. [CrossRef]
67. Zhang, D.; Wan, J.; Hsu, C.H.; Rayes, A. Industrial technologies and applications for the Internet of Things. Comput. Netw. 2016,
101, 1–4. [CrossRef]
68. Mourtzis, D.; Angelopoulos, J.; Zogopoulos, V. Integrated and adaptive AR maintenance and shop-floor rescheduling. Comput.
Ind. 2021, 125, 103383. [CrossRef]
69. Mourtzis, D.; Panopoulos, N.; Angelopoulos, J.; Zygomalas, S.; Dimitrakopoulos, G.; Stavropoulos, P. A Hybrid Teaching Factory
Model for Supporting the Educational Process in COVID-19 era. Procedia CIRP 2021, 104, 1626–1631. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
70. Cheng, J.; Chen, W.; Tao, F.; Lin, C.L. Industrial IoT in 5G environment towards smart manufacturing. J. Ind. Inf. Integr. 2018, 10,
10–19. [CrossRef]
71. Shu, Z.; Wan, J.; Zhang, D.; Li, D. Cloud-integrated cyber-physical systems for complex industrial applications. Mobile Netw. Appl.
2016, 215, 865–878. [CrossRef]
72. Smart Manufacturing Powered by 5G. Available online: https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/industries/tmt/5g-in-manufacturing.
html (accessed on 6 November 2021).
73. Varga, P.; Peto, J.; Franko, A.; Balla, D.; Haja, D.; Janky, F.; Toka, L. 5G support for Industrial IoT Applications—Challenges,
Solutions, and Research gaps. Sensors 2020, 20, 828. [CrossRef]
74. Ahmad, I.; Kumar, T.; Liyanage, M.; Okwuibe, J.; Ylianttila, M.; Gurtov, A. 5G security: Analysis of threats and solutions. In
Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Conference on Standards for Communications and Networking (CSCN), Helsinki, Finland, 18–20
September 2017; pp. 193–199. [CrossRef]
75. Li, S.; Da Xu, L.; Zhao, S. 5G Internet of Things: A survey. J. Ind. Inf. Integr. 2018, 110, 1–9. [CrossRef]
76. Onday, O. Japan’s society 5.0: Going beyond Industry 4.0. Bus. Econ. J. 2019, 102, 1–6. [CrossRef]
77. Mizuno, T. G20 Osaka Summit: Progress in “Digital Economy” and “Society 5.0”. Discuss Japan–Japan Foreign Policy Forum. 2019.
Available online: https://www.japanpolicyforum.jp/diplomacy/pt201908261500309728.html (accessed on 10 November 2021).